FOOTNOTES:

[1] Nothing adduced by Lightfoot (_Comm. on Gal._ Exc. "The faith of

Abraham") justifies the unsupported and improbable assertion that the

quotation James ii. 21 seq. "was probably in common use among the

Jews to prove that orthodoxy of doctrine sufficed for salvation"

(Mayor, s.v. "James, Epistle of" in Hasting's _Dict. Bible_, p. 546).

[2] On the contacts in general see Moffat, _Hist. N.T._^2 p. 578, on

relation to Clem. R. see Bacon, "Doctrine of Faith in Hebrews, James

and Clement of Rome," in _Jour. of Bib. Lit._, 1900, pp. 12-21.

[3] _Das Urchristenthum_, 868, quoted by Cone, _loc. cit._

[4] The logical relation of v. 12 to the context is problematical.

Perhaps it may be accounted for by the order of the compend of

Christian ethics the writer was following. Cf. Matt. v. 34-37 in

relation to Matt. v. 12 (cf. ver. 10) and vi. 19 sqq. (cf. ver. 2,

and iv. 13 seq.). The non-charismatic conception of healing, no

longer the "gift" of some layman in the community (1 Cor. xii. 9

seq.) but a function of "the elders" (1 Tim. iv. 14), is another

indication of comparatively late date.

JAMESON, ANNA BROWNELL (1794-1860), British writer, was born in Dublin

on the 17th of May 1794. Her father, Denis Brownell Murphy (d. 1842), a

miniature and enamel painter, removed to England in 1798 with his

family, and eventually settled at Hanwell, near London. At sixteen years

of age Anna became governess in the family of the marquis of Winchester.

In 1821 she was engaged to Robert Jameson. The engagement was broken

off, and Anna Murphy accompanied a young pupil to Italy, writing in a

fictitious character a narrative of what she saw and did. This diary she

gave to a bookseller on condition of receiving a guitar if he secured

any profits. Colburn ultimately published it as _The Diary of an

Ennuyée_ (1826), which attracted much attention. The author was

governess to the children of Mr Littleton, afterwards Lord Hatherton,

from 1821 to 1825, when she married Robert Jameson. The marriage proved

unhappy; when, in 1829, Jameson was appointed puisne judge in the island

of Dominica the couple separated without regret, and Mrs Jameson visited

the Continent again with her father.

The first work which displayed her powers of original thought was her

_Characteristics of Women_ (1832). These analyses of Shakespeare's

heroines are remarkable for delicacy of critical insight and fineness of

literary touch. They are the result of a penetrating but essentially

feminine mind, applied to the study of individuals of its own sex,

detecting characteristics and defining differences not perceived by the

ordinary critic and entirely overlooked by the general reader. German

literature and art had aroused much interest in England, and Mrs Jameson

paid her first visit to Germany in 1833. The conglomerations of hard

lines, cold colours and pedantic subjects which decorated Munich under

the patronage of King Louis of Bavaria, were new to the world, and Mrs

Jameson's enthusiasm first gave them an English reputation.

In 1836 Mrs Jameson was summoned to Canada by her husband, who had been

appointed chancellor of the province of Toronto. He failed to meet her

at New York, and she was left to make her way alone at the worst season

of the year to Toronto. After six months' experiment she felt it useless

to prolong a life far from all ties of family happiness and

opportunities of usefulness. Before leaving, she undertook a journey to

the depths of the Indian settlements in Canada; she explored Lake Huron,

and saw much of emigrant and Indian life unknown to travellers, which

she afterwards embodied in her _Winter Studies and Summer Rambles_. She

returned to England in 1838. At this period Mrs Jameson began making

careful notes of the chief private art collections in and near London.

The result appeared in her _Companion to the Private Galleries_ (1842),

followed in the same year by the _Handbook to the Public Galleries_. She

edited the _Memoirs of the Early Italian Painters_ in 1845. In the same

year she visited her friend Ottilie von Goethe. Her friendship with Lady

Byron dates from about this time and lasted for some seven years; it was

brought to an end apparently through Lady Byron's unreasonable temper. A

volume of essays published in 1846 contains one of Mrs Jameson's best

pieces of work, _The House of Titian_. In 1847 she went to Italy with

her niece and subsequent biographer (_Memoirs_, 1878), Geraldine Bate

(Mrs Macpherson), to collect materials for the work on which her

reputation rests--her series of _Sacred and Legendary Art_. The time was

ripe for such contributions to the traveller's library. The _Acta

Sanctorum_ and the _Book of the Golden Legend_ had had their readers,

but no one had ever pointed out the connexion between these tales and

the works of Christian art. The way to these studies had been pointed

out in the preface to Kugler's _Handbook of Italian Painting_ by Sir

Charles Eastlake, who had intended pursuing the subject himself.

Eventually he made over to Mrs Jameson the materials and references he

had collected. She recognized the extent of the ground before her as a

mingled sphere of poetry, history, devotion and art. She infected her

readers with her own enthusiastic admiration; and, in spite of her

slight technical and historical equipment, Mrs. Jameson produced a book

which thoroughly deserved its great success.

She also took a keen interest in questions affecting the education,

occupations and maintenance of her own sex. Her early essay on _The

Relative Social Position of Mothers and Governesses_ was the work of one

who knew both sides; and in no respect does she more clearly prove the

falseness of the position she describes than in the certainty with which

she predicts its eventual reform. To her we owe the first popular

enunciation of the principle of male and female co-operation in works of

mercy and education. In her later years she took up a succession of

subjects all bearing on the same principles of active benevolence and

the best ways of carrying them into practice. Sisters of charity,

hospitals, penitentiaries, prisons and workhouses all claimed her

interest--all more or less included under those definitions of "the

communion of love and communion of labour" which are inseparably

connected with her memory. To the clear and temperate forms in which she

brought the results of her convictions before her friends in the shape

of private lectures--published as _Sisters of Charity_ (1855) and _The

Communion of Labour_ (1856)--may be traced the source whence later

reformers and philanthropists took counsel and courage.

Mrs Jameson died on the 17th of March 1860. She left the last of her

_Sacred and Legendary Art_ series in preparation. It was completed,

under the title of _The History of Our Lord in Art_, by Lady Eastlake.

JAMESON (or JAMESONE), GEORGE (c. 1587-1644), Scottish portrait-painter,

was born at Aberdeen, where his father was architect and a member of the

guild. After studying painting under Rubens at Antwerp, with Vandyck as

a fellow pupil, he returned in 1620 to Aberdeen, where he was married in

1624 and remained at least until 1630, after which he took up his

residence in Edinburgh. He was employed by the magistrates of Edinburgh

to copy several portraits of the Scottish kings for presentation to

Charles I. on his first visit to Scotland in 1633, and the king rewarded

him with a diamond ring from his own finger. This circumstance at once

established Jameson's fame, and he soon found constant employment in

painting the portraits of the Scottish nobility and gentry. He also

painted a portrait of Charles, which he declined to sell to the

magistrates of Aberdeen for the price they offered. He died at Edinburgh

in 1644.

JAMESON, LEANDER STARR (1853- ), British colonial statesman, son of R.

W. Jameson, a writer to the signet in Edinburgh, was born at Edinburgh

in 1853, and was educated for the medical profession at University

College Hospital, London (M.R.C.S. 1875; M.D. 1877). After acting as

house physician, house surgeon and demonstrator of anatomy, and showing

promise of a successful professional career in London, his health broke

down from overwork in 1878, and he went out to South Africa and settled

down in practice at Kimberley. There he rapidly acquired a great

reputation as a medical man, and, besides numbering President Kruger and

the Matabele chief Lobengula among his patients, came much into contact

with Cecil Rhodes. In 1888 his influence with Lobengula was successfully

exerted to induce that chieftain to grant the concessions to the agents

of Rhodes which led to the formation of the British South Africa

Company; and when the company proceeded to open up Mashonaland, Jameson

abandoned his medical practice and joined the pioneer expedition of

1890. From this time his fortunes were bound up with Rhodes's schemes in

the north. Immediately after the pioneer column had occupied

Mashonaland, Jameson, with F. C. Selous and A. R. Colquhoun, went east

to Manicaland and was instrumental in securing the greater part of that

country, to which Portugal was laying claim, for the Chartered Company.

In 1891 Jameson succeeded Colquhoun as administrator of Rhodesia. The

events connected with his vigorous administration and the wars with the

Matabele are narrated under RHODESIA. At the end of 1894 "Dr Jim" (as he

was familiarly called) came to England and was fêted on all sides; he

was made a C.B., and returned to Africa in the spring of 1895 with

enhanced prestige. On the last day of that year the world was startled

to learn that Jameson, with a force of 600 men, had made a raid into the

Transvaal from Mafeking in support of a projected rising in

Johannesburg, which had been connived at by Rhodes at the Cape (see

RHODES and TRANSVAAL). Jameson's force was compelled to surrender at

Doornkop, receiving a guarantee that the lives of all would be spared;

he and his officers were sent to Pretoria, and, after a short delay,

during which time sections of the Boer populace clamoured for the

execution of Jameson, President Kruger on the surrender of Johannesburg

(January 7) handed them over to the British government for punishment.

They were tried in London under the Foreign Enlistment Act in May 1896,

and Dr Jameson was sentenced to fifteen months' imprisonment at

Holloway. He served a year in prison, and was then released on account

of ill health. He still retained the affections of the white population

of Rhodesia, and subsequently returned there in an unofficial capacity.

He was the constant companion of Rhodes on his journeys up to the end of

his life, and when Rhodes died in May 1902 Jameson was left one of the

executors of his will. In 1903 Jameson came forward as the leader of the

Progressive (British) party in Cape Colony; and that party being

victorious at the general election in January-February 1904, Jameson

formed an administration in which he took the post of prime minister. He

had to face a serious economic crisis and strenuously promoted the

development of the agricultural and pastoral resources of the colony. He

also passed a much needed Redistribution Act, and in the session of 1906

passed an Amnesty Act restoring the rebel voters to the franchise.

Jameson, as prime minister of Cape Colony, attended the Colonial

conference held in London in 1907. In September of that year the Cape

parliament was dissolved, and as the elections for the legislative

council went in favour of the Bond, Jameson resigned office, 31st of

January 1908 (see CAPE COLONY: _History_). In 1908 he was chosen one of

the delegates from Cape Colony to the intercolonial convention for the

closer union of the South African states, and he took a prominent part

in settling the terms on which union was effected in 1909. It was at

Jameson's suggestion that the Orange River Colony was renamed Orange

Free State Province.

JAMESON, ROBERT (1774-1854), Scottish naturalist and mineralogist, was

born at Leith on the 11th of July 1774. He became assistant to a surgeon

in his native town; but, having studied natural history under Dr John

Walker in 1792 and 1793, he felt that his true province lay in that

science. He went in 1800 to Freiberg to study for nearly two years under

Werner, and spent two more in continental travel. In 1804 he succeeded

Dr Walker as regius professor of natural history in Edinburgh

university, and became perhaps the first eminent exponent in Great

Britain of the Wernerian geological system; but when he found that

theory untenable, he frankly announced his conversion to the views of

Hutton. As a teacher, Jameson was remarkable for his power of imparting

enthusiasm to his students, and from his class-room there radiated an

influence which gave a marked impetus to the study of geology in

Britain. His energy also, by means of government aid, private donation

and personal outlay, amassed a great part of the splendid collection

which now occupies the natural history department of the Royal Scottish

Museum in Edinburgh. In 1819 Jameson, with Sir David Brewster, started

the _Edinburgh Philosophical Journal_, which after the tenth volume

remained under his sole conduct till his death, which took place in

Edinburgh on the 19th of April 1854. His bust now stands in the hall of

the Edinburgh University library.

Jameson was the author of _Outline of the Mineralogy of the Shetland

Islands and of the Island of Arran_ (1798), incorporated with

_Mineralogy of the Scottish Isles_ (1800); _Mineralogical Description

of Scotland_, vol. i. pt. 1. (Dumfries, 1805); this was to have been

the first of a series embracing all Scotland; _System of Mineralogy_

(3 vols., 1804-1808; 3rd ed., 1820); _Elements of Geognosy_ (1809);

_Mineralogical Travels through the Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland

Islands_ (2 vols., 1813); and _Manual of Mineralogy_ (1821); besides a

number of occasional papers, of which a list will be found in the

_Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal_ for July 1854, along with a

portrait and biographical sketch of the author.

JAMESTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Stutsman county, North Dakota,

U.S.A., on the James River, about 93 m. W. of Fargo. Pop. (1900), 2853,

of whom 587 were foreign-born; (1905) 5093; (1910) 4358. Jamestown is

served by the Northern Pacific railway, of which it is a division

headquarters. At Jamestown is St John's Academy, a school for girls,

conducted by the Sisters of St Joseph. The state hospital for the insane

is just beyond the city limits. The city is the commercial centre of a

prosperous farming and stock-raising region in the James River valley,

and has grain-elevators and flour-mills. Jamestown was first settled in

1873, near Fort Seward, a U.S. military post established in 1872 and

abandoned in 1877, and was chartered as a city in 1883.

JAMESTOWN, a city of Chautauqua county, New York, U.S.A., at the S.

outlet of Chautauqua Lake, 68 m. S. by W. of Buffalo. Pop. (1900),

22,892, of whom 7270 were foreign-born, mostly Swedish; (1910 census)

31,297. It is served by the Erie and the Jamestown, Chautauqua & Lake

Erie railways, by electric lines extending along Lake Chautauqua to Lake

Erie on the N. and to Warren, Pennsylvania, on the S., and by summer

steamboat lines on Lake Chautauqua. Jamestown is situated among the

hills of Chautauqua county, and is a popular summer resort. There is a

free public library. A supply of natural gas (from Pennsylvania) and a

fine water-power combine to render Jamestown a manufacturing centre of

considerable importance. In 1905 the value of its factory products was

$10,349,752, an increase of 33.9% since 1900. The city owns and operates

its electric-lighting plant and its water-supply system, the water, of

exceptional purity, being obtained from artesian wells 4 m. distant.

Jamestown was settled in 1810, was incorporated in 1827, and was

chartered as a city in 1886. The city was named in honour of James

Prendergast, an early settler.

JAMESTOWN, a former village in what is now James City county, Virginia,

U.S.A., on Jamestown Island, in the James River, about 40 m. above

Norfolk. It was here that the first permanent English settlement in

America was founded on the 13th of May 1607, that representative

government was inaugurated on the American Continent in 1619, and that

negro servitude was introduced into the original thirteen colonies, also

in 1619. In Jamestown was the first Anglican church built in America.

The settlement was in a low marshy district which proved to be

unhealthy; it was accidentally burned in January 1608, was almost

completely destroyed by Nathaniel Bacon in September 1676, the state

house and other buildings were again burned in 1698, and after the

removal of the seat of government of Virginia from Jamestown to the

Middle Plantations (now Williamsburg) in 1699 the village fell rapidly

into decay. Its population had never been large: it was about 490 in

1609, and 183 in 1623; the mortality was always very heavy. By the

middle of the 19th century the peninsula on which Jamestown had been

situated had become an island, and by 1900 the James River had worn away

the shore but had hardly touched the territory of the "New Towne"

(1619), immediately E. of the first settlement; almost the only visible

remains, however, were the tower of the brick church and a few

gravestones. In 1900 the association for the preservation of Virginia

antiquities, to which the site was deeded in 1893, induced the United

States government to build a wall to prevent the further encroachment of

the river; the foundations of several of the old buildings have since

been uncovered, many interesting relics have been found, and in 1907

there were erected a brick church (which is as far as possible a

reproduction of the fourth one built in 1639-1647), a marble shaft

marking the site of the first settlement, another shaft commemorating

the first house of burgesses, a bronze monument to the memory of Captain

John Smith, and another monument to the memory of Pocahontas. At the

head of Jamestown peninsula Cornwallis, in July 1781, attempted to

trick the Americans under Lafayette and General Anthony Wayne by

displaying a few men on the peninsula and concealing the principal part

of his army on the mainland; but when Wayne discovered the trap he made

first a vigorous charge, and then a retreat to Lafayette's line. Early

in the Civil War the Confederates regarded the site (then an island) as

of such strategic importance that (near the brick church tower and

probably near the site of the first fortifications by the original

settlers) they erected heavy earthworks upon it for defence. (For

additional details concerning the early history of Jamestown, see

VIRGINIA: _History_.)

The founding at Jamestown of the first permanent English-speaking

settlement in America was celebrated in 1907 by the Jamestown

tercentennial exposition, held on grounds at Sewell's Point on the shore

of Hampton Roads. About twenty foreign nations, the federal government,

and most of the states of the union took part in the exposition.

See L. G. Tyler, _The Cradle of the Republic: Jamestown and James

River_ (Richmond, 2nd ed., 1906); Mrs R. A. Pryor, _The Birth of the

Nation: Jamestown, 1607_ (New York, 1907); and particularly S. H.

Yonge, _The Site of Old "James Towne," 1607-1698_ (Richmond, 1904),

embodying the results of the topographical investigations of the

engineer in charge of the river-wall built in 1900-1901.

JAMI (NUR-ED-DIN 'ABD-UR-RAHMAN IBN AHMAD) (1414-1492), Persian poet and

mystic, was born at Jam in Khorasan, whence the name by which he is

usually known. In his poems he mystically utilizes the connexion of the

name with the same word meaning "wine-cup." He was the last great

classic poet of Persia, and a pronounced mystic of the Sufic philosophy.

His three _diwans_ (1479-1401) contain his lyrical poems and odes; among

his prose writings the chief is his _Baharistan_ ("Spring-garden")

(1487); and his collection of romantic poems, _Haft Aurang_ ("Seven

Thrones"), contains the _Salaman wa Absal_ and his _Yusuf wa Zalikha_

(Joseph and Potiphar's wife).

On Jami's life and works see V. von Rosenzweig, _Biographische Notizen

über Mewlana Abdurrahman Dschami_ (Vienna, 1840); Gore Ouseley,

_Biographical Notices of Persian Poets_ (1846); W. N. Lees, _A

Biographical Sketch of the Mystic Philosopher and Poet Jami_

(Calcutta, 1859); E. Beauvois _s.v._ Djami in _Nouvelle Biographie

générale_; and H. Ethé in Geiger and Kuhn's _Grundriss der iranischen

Philologie_, ii. There are English translations of the _Baharistan_ by

E. Rehatsek (Benares, 1887) and Sorabji Fardunji (Bombay, 1899); of

_Salaman wa Absal_ by Edward FitzGerald (1856, with a notice of Jami's

life); of _Yusuf wa Zalikha_ by R. T. H. Griffith (1882) and A. Rogers

(1892); also selections in English by F. Hadland Davis, _The Persian

Mystics: Jami_ (1908). (See also PERSIA: _Literature_.)

JAMIESON, JOHN (1759-1838), Scottish lexicographer, son of a minister,

was born in Glasgow, on the 3rd of March 1759. He was educated at

Glasgow University, and subsequently attended classes in Edinburgh.

After six years' theological study, Jamieson was licensed to preach in

1789 and became pastor of an Anti-burgher congregation in Forfar; and in

1797 he was called to the Anti-burgher church in Nicolson Street,

Edinburgh. The union of the Burgher and Anti-burgher sections of the

Secession Church in 1820 was largely due to his exertions. He retired

from the ministry in 1830 and died in Edinburgh on the 12th of July

1838.

Jamieson's name stands at the head of a tolerably long list of works

in the _Bibliotheca britannica_; but by far his most important book is

the laborious and erudite compilation, best described by its own

title-page: _An Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language;

illustrating the words in their different significations by examples

from Ancient and Modern Writers; shewing their Affinity to those of

other Languages, and especially the Northern; explaining many terms

which though now obsolete in England were formerly common to both

countries; and elucidating National Rites, Customs and Institutions in

their Analogy to those of other nations; to which is prefixed a

Dissertation on the Origin of the Scottish Language_. This appeared in

2 vols., 4to, at Edinburgh in 1808, followed in 1825 by a

_Supplement_, in 2 vols., 4to, in which he was assisted by scholars in

all parts of the country. A revised edition by Longmuir and Donaldson

was issued in 1879-1887.

JAMIESON, ROBERT (c. 1780-1844), Scottish antiquary, was born in

Morayshire. In 1806 he published a collection of _Popular Ballads and

Songs from Tradition, Manuscript and Scarce Editions_. Two pleasing

lyrics of his own were included. Scott, through whose assistance he

received a government post at Edinburgh, held Jamieson in high esteem

and pointed out his skill in discovering the connexion between

Scandinavian and Scottish legends. Jamieson's work preserved much oral

tradition which might otherwise have been lost. He was associated with

Henry Weber and Scott in _Illustrations of Northern Antiquities_ (1814).

He died on the 24th of September 1844.

JAMKHANDI, a native state of India, in the Deccan division of Bombay,

ranking as one of the southern Mahratta Jagirs. Area, 524 sq. m. Pop.

(1901), 105,357; estimated revenue, £37,000; tribute, £1300. The chief

is a Brahman of the Patwardhan family. Cotton, wheat and millet are

produced, and cotton and silk cloth are manufactured, though not

exported. The town of JAMKHANDI, the capital, is situated 68 m. E. of

Kolhapur. Pop. (1901), 13,029.

JAMMU, or JUMMOO, the capital of the state of Jammu and Kashmir in

Northern India, on the river Tavi (Ta-wi), a tributary of the Chenab.

Pop. (1901), 36,130. The town and palace stand upon the right bank of

the river; the fort overhangs the left bank at an elevation of 150 ft.

above the stream. The lofty whitened walls of the palace and citadel

present a striking appearance from the surrounding country. Extensive

pleasure grounds and ruins of great size attest the former prosperity of

the city when it was the seat of a Rajput dynasty whose dominions

extended into the plains and included the modern district of Sialkot. It

was afterwards conquered by the Sikhs, and formed part of Ranjit Singh's

dominions. After his death it was acquired by Gulab Singh as the nucleus

of his dominions, to which the British added Kashmir in 1846. It is

connected with Sialkot in the Punjab by a railway 16 m. long. In 1898

the town was devastated by a fire, which destroyed most of the public

offices.

The state of Jammu proper, as opposed to Kashmir, consists of a

submontane tract, forming the upper basin of the Chenab. Pop. (1901),

1,521,307, showing an increase of 5% in the decade. A land settlement

has recently been introduced under British supervision.

JAMNIA ([Greek: Iamnia] or [Greek: Iamneia]), the Greek form of the

Hebrew name Jabneel--i.e. "God causeth to build" (Josh. xv. 11)--or

Jabneh (2 Chron. xxvi. 6), the modern Arabic YEBNA, a town of Palestine,

on the border between Dan and Judah, situated 13 m. S. of Jaffa, and 4

m. E. of the seashore. The modern village stands on an isolated sandy

hillock, surrounded by gardens with olives to the north and sand-dunes

to the west. It contains a small crusaders' church, now a mosque. Jamnia

belonged to the Philistines, and Uzziah of Judah is said to have taken

it (2 Chron. xxvi. 6). In Maccabean times Joseph and Azarias attacked it

unsuccessfully (1 Macc. v. 55-62; 2 Macc. xii. 8 seq. is untrustworthy).

Alexander Jannaeus subdued it, and under Pompey it became Roman. It

changed hands several times, is mentioned by Strabo (xvi. 2) as being

once very populous, and in the Jewish war was taken by Vespasian. The

population was mainly Jewish (Philo, _Leg. ad Gaium_, § 30), and the

town is principally famous as having been the seat of the Sanhedrin and

the religious centre of Judaism from A.D. 70 to 135. It sent a bishop to

Nicaea in 325. In 1144 a crusaders' fortress was built on the hill,

which is often mentioned under the name Ibelin. There was also a Jabneel

in Lower Galilee (Josh. xix. 33), called later Caphar Yama, the present

village Yemma, 8 m. S. of Tiberias; and another fortress in Upper

Galilee was named Jamnia (Josephus, _Vita_, 37). Attempts have been made

to unify these two Galilean sites, but without success.

JAMRUD, a fort and cantonment in India, just beyond the border of

Peshawar district, North-West Frontier Province, situated at the mouth

of the Khyber Pass, 10½ m. W. of Peshawar city, with which it is

connected by a branch railway. It was occupied by Hari Singh, Ranjit

Singh's commander in 1836; but in April 1837 Dost Mahommed sent a body

of Afghans to attack it. The Sikhs gained a doubtful victory, with the

loss of their general. During the military operations of 1878-79 Jamrud

became a place of considerable importance as the frontier outpost on

British territory towards Afghanistan, and it was also the base of

operations for a portion of the Tirah campaign in 1897-1898. It is the

headquarters of the Khyber Rifles, and the collecting station for the

Khyber tolls. Pop. (1901), 1848.

JAMS AND JELLIES. In the article FOOD PRESERVATION it is pointed out

that concentrated sugar solution inhibits the growth of organisms and

has, therefore, a preservative action. The preparation of jams and

jellies is based upon that fact. All fresh and succulent fruit contains

a large percentage of water, amounting to at least four-fifths of the

whole, and a comparatively small proportion of sugar, not exceeding as a

rule from 10 to 15%. Such fruit is naturally liable to decomposition

unless the greater proportion of the water is removed or the percentage

of sugar is greatly increased. The jams and jellies of commerce are

fruit preserves containing so much added sugar that the total amount of

sugar forms about two-thirds of the weight of the articles. All ordinary

edible fruit can be and is made into jam. The fruit is sometimes pulped

and stoned, sometimes used whole and unbroken; oranges are sliced or

shredded. For the preparation of jellies only certain fruit is suitable,

namely such as contains a peculiar material which on boiling becomes

dissolved and on cooling solidifies with the formation of a gelatinous

mass. This material, often called pectin, occurs mainly in comparatively

acid fruit like gooseberries, currants and apples, and is almost absent

from strawberries and raspberries. It is chemically a member of the

group of carbohydrates, is closely allied with vegetable gums abundantly

formed by certain sea-weeds and mosses (agar-agar and Iceland moss), and

is probably a mixture of various pentoses. Pentoses are devoid of

food-value, but, like animal gelatine, with which they are in no way

related, can form vehicles for food material. Some degree of

gelatinization is aimed at also in jams; hence to such fruits as have no

gelatinizing power an addition of apple or gooseberry juice, or even of

Iceland moss or agar-agar, is made. Animal gelatin is very rarely used.

The art of jam and jelly making was formerly domestic, but has become a

very large branch of manufacture. For the production of a thoroughly

satisfactory conserve the boiling-down must be carried out very rapidly,

so that the natural colour of the fruit shall be little affected.

Considerable experience is required to stop at the right point; too

short boiling leaves an excess of water, leading to fermentation, while

over-concentration promotes crystallization of the sugar. The

manufactured product is on that account, as a rule, more uniform and

bright than the domestic article. The finish of the boiling is mostly

judged by rule of thumb, but in some scientifically conducted factories

careful thermometric observation is employed. Formerly jams and jellies

consisted of nothing but fruit and sugar; now starch-glucose is

frequently used by manufacturers as an ingredient. This permits of the

production of a slightly more aqueous and gelatinous product, alleged

also to be devoid of crystallizing power, as compared with the homemade

article. The addition of starch-glucose is not held to be an

adulteration. Aniline colours are very frequently used by manufacturers

to enhance the colour, and the effect of an excess of water is sought to

be counteracted by the addition of some salicylic acid or other

preservative. There has long been, and still exists to some extent, a

popular prejudice in favour of sugar obtained from the sugar-cane as

compared with that of the sugar-beet. This prejudice is absolutely

baseless, and enormous quantities of beet-sugar are used in the boiling

of jam. Adulteration in the gross sense, such as a substantial addition

of coarse pulp, like that of turnips or mangolds, very rarely occurs;

but the pulp of apple and other cheap fruit is often admixed without

notice to the purchaser. The use of colouring matters and preservatives

is discussed at length in the article ADULTERATION. (O. H.*)

JANESVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Rock County, Wisconsin,

U.S.A., situated on both sides of the Rock river, 70 m. S.W. of

Milwaukee and 90 m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1900), 13,185, of whom 2409

were foreign-born; (1910 census), 13,894. It is served by the Chicago &

North-Western and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by

electric lines connecting with Madison and Beloit, Wis., and Rockford,

Illinois. The Rock river is not commercially navigable at this point,

but furnishes valuable water-power for manufacturing purposes. The city

is picturesquely situated on bluffs above the river. Janesville is the

centre of the tobacco trade of the state, and has various manufactures.

The total value of the city's factory product in 1905 was $3,846,038, an

increase of 20.8% since 1900. Its public buildings include a city hall,

court house, post office, city hospital and a public library. It is the

seat of a school for the blind, opened as a private institution in 1849

and taken over by the state in 1850, the first charitable institution

controlled by the state, ranking as one of the most successful of its

kind in the United States. The first settlement was made here about

1834. Janesville was named in honour of Henry F. Janes, an early

settler, and was chartered as a city in 1853.

JANET, PAUL (1823-1899), French philosophical writer, was born in Paris

on the 30th of April 1823. He was professor of moral philosophy at

Bourges (1845-1848) and Strassburg (1848-1857), and of logic at the

lycée Louis-le-Grand, Paris (1857-1864). In 1864 he was appointed to the

chair of philosophy at the Sorbonne, and elected a member of the academy

of the moral and political sciences. He wrote a large number of books

and articles upon philosophy, politics and ethics, on idealistic lines:

_La Famille, Histoire de la philosophie dans l'antiquité et dans le

temps moderne, Histoire de la science politique, Philosophie de la

Révolution Française_, &c. They are not characterized by much

originality of thought. In philosophy he was a follower of Victor

Cousin, and through him of Hegel. His principal work in this line,

_Théorie de la morale_, is little more than a somewhat patronizing

reproduction of Kant. He died in October 1899.

JANGIPUR, or JAHANGIRPUR, a town of British India, in Murshidabad

district, Bengal, situated on the Bhagirathi. Pop. (1901), 10,921. The

town is said to have been founded by the Mogul emperor Jahangir. During

the early years of British rule it was an important centre of the silk

trade, and the site of one of the East India Company's commercial

residencies. Jangipur is now best known as the toll station for

registering all the traffic on the Bhagirathi. The number of boats

registered annually is about 10,000.

JANIN, JULES GABRIEL (1804-1874), French critic, was born at St Étienne

(Loire) on the 16th of February 1804, and died near Paris on the 19th of

June 1874. His father was a lawyer, and he was well educated, first at

St Étienne, and then at the lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris. He betook

himself to journalism very early, and worked on the _Figaro_, the

_Quotidienne_, &c., until in 1830 he became dramatic critic of the

_Journal des Débats_. Long before this, however, he had made a

considerable literary reputation, for which indeed his strange novel

_L'Âne mort et la femme guillotinée_ (1829) would have sufficed. _La

Confession_ (1830), which followed, was less remarkable in substance but

even more so in style; and in _Barnave_ (1831) he attacked the Orleans

family. From the day, however, when Janin became the theatrical critic

of the _Débats_, though he continued to write books indefatigably, he

was to most Frenchmen a dramatic critic and nothing more. He was

outrageously inconsistent, and judged things from no general point of

view whatsoever, though his judgment was usually good-natured. Few

journalists have ever been masters of a more attractive fashion of

saying the first thing that came into their heads. After many years of

_feuilleton_ writing he collected some of his articles in the work

called _Histoire de la littérature dramatique en France_ (1853-1858),

which by no means deserves its title. In 1865 he made his first attempt

upon the Academy, but was not successful till five years later.

Meanwhile he had not been content with his _feuilletons_, written

persistently about all manner of things. No one was more in request with

the Paris publishers for prefaces, letterpress to illustrated books and

such trifles. He travelled (picking up in one of his journeys a curious

windfall, a country house at Lucca, in a lottery), and wrote accounts of

his travels; he wrote numerous tales and novels, and composed many other

works, of which by far the best is the _Fin d'un monde et du neveu de

Rameau_ (1861), in which, under the guise of a sequel to Diderot's

masterpiece, he showed his great familiarity with the late 18th century.

He married in 1841; his wife had money, and he was always in easy

circumstances. In the early part of his career he had many quarrels,

notably one with Félix Pyat (1810-1889), whom he prosecuted successfully

for defamation of character. For the most part his work is mere

improvisation, and has few elements of vitality except a light and vivid

style. His _Oeuvres choisies_ (12 vols., 1875-1878) were edited by A. de

la Fitzelière.

A study on Janin with a bibliography was published by A. Piédagnel in

1874. See also Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, ii. and v., and

Gustave Planche, _Portraits littéraires_.

JANISSARIES (corrupted from Turkish _yeni chéri_, new troops), an

organized military force constituting until 1826 the standing army of

the Ottoman empire. At the outset of her history Turkey possessed no

standing army. All Moslems capable of bearing arms served as a kind of

volunteer yeomanry known as _akinjis_; they were summoned by public

criers, or, if the occasion required it, by secret messengers. It was

under Orkhan that a regular paid army was first organized: the soldiers

were known as _yaya_ or _piyadé_. The result was unsatisfactory, as the

Turcomans, from whom these troops were recruited, were unaccustomed to

fight on foot or to submit to military discipline. Accordingly in 1330,

on the advice of Chendéréli Kara Khalil, the system known as _devshurmé_

or forced levy, was adopted, whereby a certain number of Christian

youths (at first 1000) were every year taken from their parents and,

after undergoing a period of apprenticeship, were enrolled as _yeni

chéri_ or new troops. The venerable saint Haji Bektash, founder of the

Bektashi dervishes, blessed the corps and promised them victory; he

remained ever after the patron saint of the janissaries.

At first the corps was exclusively recruited by the forced levy of

Christian children, for which purpose the officer known as

_tournaji-bashi_, or head-keeper of the cranes, made periodical tours in

the provinces. The fixed organization of the corps dates only from

Mahommed II., and its regulations were subsequently modified by Suleiman

I. In early days all Christians were enrolled indiscriminately; later

those from Albania, Bosnia and Bulgaria were preferred. The recruits

while serving their apprenticeship were instructed in the principles of

the faith by _khojas_, but according to D'Ohsson (vii. 327) they were

not obliged to become Moslems.

The entire corps, commanded by the aga of the janissaries, was known as

the _ojak_ (hearth); it was divided into _ortas_ or units of varying

numbers; the _oda_ (room) was the name given to the barracks in which

the janissaries were lodged. There were, after the reorganization of

Suleiman I., 196 ortas of three classes, viz. the _jemaat_, comprising

101 ortas, the _beuluk_, 61 ortas, and the _sekban_, or _seimen_, 34

ortas; to these must be added 34 ortas of _ajami_ or apprentices. The

strength of the orta varied greatly, sometimes being as low as 100,

sometimes rising considerably beyond its nominal war strength of 500.

The distinction between the different classes seems to have been

principally in name; in theory the jemaat, or _yaya beiler_, were

specially charged with the duty of frontier-guards; the _beuluks_ had

the privilege of serving as the sultan's guards and of keeping the

sacred banner in their custody.

Until the accession of Murad III. (1574) the total effective of the

janissaries, including the ajami or apprentices, did not exceed 20,000.

In 1582 irregularities in the mode of admission to the ranks began. Soon

parents themselves begged to have their children enrolled, so great were

the privileges attaching to the corps; later the privilege of enlistment

was restricted to the children or relatives of former janissaries;

eventually the regulations were much relaxed, and any person was

admitted, only negroes being excluded. In 1591 the ojak numbered 48,688

men. Under Ibrahim (1640-1648) it was reduced by Kara Mustafa to 17,000;

but it soon rose again, and at the accession of Mahommed IV. (1648),

the accession-bakshish was distributed to 50,000 janissaries. During the

war of 1683-1698 the rules for admission were suspended, 30,000 recruits

being received at one time, and the effective of the corps rising to

70,000; about 1805 it numbered more than 112,000; it went on increasing

until the destruction of the janissaries, when it reached 135,000. It

would perhaps be more correct to say that these are the numbers figuring

on the pay-sheets, and that they doubtless largely exceed the total of

the men actually serving in the ranks.

Promotion to the rank of warrant officer was obtained by long or

distinguished service; it was by seniority up to the rank of _odabashi_,

but odabashis were promoted to the rank of _chorbaji_ (commander of an

orta) solely by selection. Janissaries advanced in their own orta, which

they left only to assume the command of another. Ortas remained

permanently stationed in the fortress towns in which they were in

garrison, being displaced in time of peace only when some violent

animosity broke out between two companies. There were usually 12 in

garrison at Belgrade, 14 at Khotin, 16 at Widdin, 20 at Bagdad, &c. The

commander was frequently changed. A new chorbaji was usually appointed

to the command of an orta stationed at a frontier post; he was then

transferred elsewhere, so that in course of time he passed through

different provinces.

In time of peace the janissary received no pay. At first his war pay was

limited to one aspre per diem, but it was eventually raised to a minimum

of three aspres, while veterans received as much as 29 aspres, and

retired officers from 30 to 120. The aga received 24,000 piastres per

annum; the ordinary pay of a commander was 120 aspres per diem. The aga

and several of his subordinates received a percentage of the pay and

allowance of the troops; they also inherited the property of deceased

janissaries. Moreover, the officers profited largely by retaining the

names of dead or fictitious janissaries on the pay-rolls. Rations of

mutton, bread and candles were furnished by the government, the supply

of rice, butter and vegetables being at the charge of the commandant.

The rations would have been entirely inadequate if the janissaries had

not been allowed, contrary to the regulations, to pursue different

callings, such as those of baker, butcher, glazier, boatman, &c. At

first the janissaries bore no other distinctive mark save the white felt

cap. Soon the red cap with gold embroidery was substituted. Later a

uniform was introduced, of which the distinctive mark was less the

colour than the cut of the coat and the shape of the head-dress and

turban. The only distinction in the costume of commanding officers was

in the colour of their boots, those of the beuluks being red while the

others were yellow; subordinate officers wore black boots.

The fundamental laws of the janissaries, which were very early

infringed, were as follows: implicit obedience to their officers;

perfect accord and union among themselves; abstinence from luxury,

extravagance and practices unseemly for a soldier and a brave man;

observance of the rules of Haji Bektash and of the religious law;

exclusion from the ranks of all save those properly levied; special

rules for the infliction of the death-penalty; promotion to be by

seniority; janissaries to be admonished or punished by their own

officers only; the infirm and unfit to be pensioned; janissaries were

not to let their beards grow, not to marry, nor to leave their barracks,

nor to engage in trade; but were to spend their time in drill and in

practising the arts of war.

In time of peace the state supplied no arms, and the janissaries on

service in the capital were armed only with clubs; they were forbidden

to carry any arm save a cutlass, the only exception being at the

frontier-posts. In time of war the janissaries provided their own arms,

and these might be any which took their fancy. However, they were

induced by rivalry to procure the best obtainable and to keep them in

perfect order. The banner of the janissaries was of white silk on which

verses from the Koran were embroidered in gold. This banner was planted

beside the aga's tent in camp, with four other flags in red cases, and

his three horse-tails. Each orta had its flag, half-red and

half-yellow, placed before the tent of its commander. Each orta had two

or three great caldrons used for boiling the soup and pilaw; these were

under the guard of subordinate officers. A particular superstition

attached to them: if they were lost in battle all the officers were

disgraced, and the orta was no longer allowed to parade with its

caldrons in public ceremonies. The janissaries were stationed in most of

the guard-houses of Constantinople and other large towns. No sentries

were on duty, but rounds were sent out two or three times a day. It was

customary for the sultan or the grand vizier to bestow largess on an

orta which they might visit.

The janissaries conducted themselves with extreme violence and brutality

towards civilians. They extorted money from them on every possible

pretext: thus, it was their duty to sweep the streets in the immediate

vicinity of their barracks, but they forced the civilians, especially if

rayas, to perform this task or to pay a bribe. They were themselves

subject to severe corporal punishments; if these were to take place

publicly the ojak was first asked for its consent.

At first a source of strength to Turkey as being the only well-organized

and disciplined force in the country, the janissaries soon became its

bane, thanks to their lawlessness and exactions. One frequent means of

exhibiting their discontent was to set fire to Constantinople; 140 such

fires are said to have been caused during the 28 years of Ahmed III.'s

reign. The janissaries were at all times distinguished for their want of

respect towards the sultans; their outbreaks were never due to a real

desire for reforms of abuses or of misgovernment, but were solely caused

to obtain the downfall of some obnoxious minister.

The first recorded revolt of the janissaries is in 1443, on the occasion

of the second accession of Mahommed II., when they broke into rebellion

at Adrianople. A similar revolt happened at his death, when Bayazid II.

was forced to yield to their demands and thus the custom of the

accession-bakshish was established; at the end of his reign it was the

janissaries who forced Bayazid to summon Prince Selim and to hand over

the reins of power to him. During the Persian campaign of Selim I. they

mutinied more than once. Under Osman II. their disorders reached their

greatest height and led to the dethronement and murder of the sultan. It

would be tedious to recall all their acts of insubordination. Throughout

Turkish history they were made use of as instruments by unscrupulous and

ambitious statesmen, and in the 17th century they had become a

praetorian guard in the worst sense of the word. Sultan Selim III. in

despair endeavoured to organize a properly drilled and disciplined

force, under the name of _nizam-i-jedid_, to take their place; for some

time the janissaries regarded this attempt in sullen silence; a curious

detail is that Napoleon's ambassador Sebastiani strongly dissuaded the

sultan from taking this step. Again serving as tools, the janissaries

dethroned Selim III. and obtained the abolition of the nizam-i-jedid.

But after the successful revolution of Bairakdar Pasha of Widdin the new

troops were re-established and drilled: the resentment of the

janissaries rose to such a height that they attacked the grand vizier's

house, and after destroying it marched against the sultan's palace. They

were repulsed by cannon, losing 600 men in the affair (1806). But such

was the excitement and alarm caused at Constantinople that the

nizam-i-jedid, or _sekbans_ as they were now called, had to be

suppressed. During the next 20 years the misdeeds and turbulence of the

janissaries knew no bounds. Sultan Mahmud II., powerfully impressed by

their violence and lawlessness at his accession, and with the example of

Mehemet Ali's method of suppressing the Mamlukes before his eyes,

determined to rid the state of this scourge; long biding his time, in

1825 he decided to form a corps of regular drilled troops known as

_eshkenjis_. A _fetva_ was obtained from the Sheikh-ul-Islam to the

effect that it was the duty of Moslems to acquire military science. The

imperial decree announcing the formation of the new troops was

promulgated at a grand council, and the high dignitaries present

(including certain of the principal officers of the janissaries who

concurred) undertook to comply with its provisions. But the janissaries

rose in revolt, and on the 10th of June 1826, began to collect on the

Et Meidan square at Constantinople; at midnight they attacked the house

of the aga of janissaries, and, finding he had made good his escape,

proceeded to overturn the caldrons of as many ortas as they could find,

thus forcing the troops of those ortas to join the insurrection. Then

they pillaged and robbed throughout the town. Meanwhile the government

was collecting its forces; the ulema, consulted by the sultan, gave the

following fetva: "If unjust and violent men attack their brethren, fight

against the aggressors and send them before their natural judge!" On

this the sacred standard of the prophet was unfurled, and war was

formally declared against these disturbers of order. Cannon were brought

against the Et Meidan, which was surrounded by troops. Ibrahim Aga,

known as Kara Jehennum, the commander of the artillery, made a last

appeal to the janissaries to surrender; they refused, and fire was

opened upon them. Such as escaped were shot down as they fled; the

barracks where many found refuge were burnt; those who were taken

prisoner were brought before the grand vizier and hanged. Before many

days were over the corps had ceased to exist, and the janissaries, the

glory of Turkey's early days and the scourge of the country for the last

two centuries, had passed for ever from the page of her history.

See M. d'Ohsson, _Tableaux de l'empire ottoman_ (Paris, 1787-1820);

Ahmed Vefyk, _Lehjé-i-osmanié_ (Constantinople, 1290-1874); A. Djévad

Bey, _État militaire ottoman_ (Constantinople, 1885).

JANIUAY, a town of the province of Iloilo, Panay, Philippine Islands, on

the Suague river, about 20 m. W.N.W. of Iloilo, the capital. Pop.

(1903), 27,399, including Lambúnao (6661) annexed to Janiuay in 1903.

The town commands delightful views of mountain and valley scenery. An

excellent road connects it with Pototan, about 10 m. E. The surrounding

country is hilly but fertile and well cultivated, producing rice, sugar,

tobacco, vegetables (for the Iloilo market), hemp and Indian corn. The

women weave and sell beautiful fabrics of pina, silk, cotton and abaca.

The language is Panay-Visayan. Janiuay was founded in 1578; it was first

established in the mountains and was subsequently removed to its present

site.

JANJIRA, a native state of India, in the Konkan division of Bombay,

situated along the coast among the spurs of the Western Ghats, 40 m. S.

of Bombay city. Area, 324 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 85,414, showing an

increase of 4% in the decade. The estimated revenue is about £37,000;

there is no tribute. The chief, whose title is Nawab Sahib, is by

descent a Sidi or Abyssinian Mahommedan; and his ancestors were for many

generations admirals of the Mahommedan rulers of the Deccan. The state,

popularly known as Habsan (= Abyssinian), did not come under direct

subordination to the British until 1870. It supplies sailors and

fishermen, and also fire-wood, to Bombay, with which it is in regular

communication by steamer.

The Nawab of Janjira is also chief of the state of JAFARABAD (q.v.).

JAN MAYEN, an arctic island between Greenland and the north of Norway,

about 71° N. 8° W. It is 34 m. long and 9 in greatest breadth, and is

divided into two parts by a narrow isthmus. The island is of volcanic

formation and mountainous, the highest summit being Beerenberg in the

north (8350 ft.). Volcanic eruptions have been observed. Glaciers are

fully developed. Henry Hudson discovered the island in 1607 and called

it Hudson's Tutches or Touches. Thereafter it was several times observed

by navigators who successively claimed its discovery and renamed it.

Thus, in 1611 or the following year whalers from Hull named it Trinity

Island; in 1612 Jean Vrolicq, a French whaler, called it Île de

Richelieu; and in 1614 Joris Carolus named one of its promontories Jan

Meys Hoek after the captain of one of his ships. The present name of the

island is derived from this, the claim of its discovery by a Dutch

navigator, Jan Mayen, in 1611, being unsupportable. The island is not

permanently inhabited, but has been frequently visited by explorers,

sealers and whalers; and an Austrian station for scientific observations

was maintained here for a year in 1882-1883. During this period a mean

temperature of 27.8° F. was recorded.

JANSEN, CORNELIUS (1585-1638), bishop of Ypres, and father of the

religious revival known as Jansenism, was born of humble Catholic

parentage at Accoy in the province of Utrecht on the 28th of October

1585. In 1602 he entered the university of Louvain, then in the throes

of a violent conflict between the Jesuit, or scholastic, party and the

followers of Michael Baius, who swore by St Augustine. Jansen ended by

attaching himself strongly to the latter party, and presently made a

momentous friendship with a like-minded fellow-student, Du Vergier de

Hauranne, afterwards abbot of Saint Cyran. After taking his degree he

went to Paris, partly to recruit his health by a change of scene, partly

to study Greek. Eventually he joined Du Vergier at his country home near

Bayonne, and spent some years teaching at the bishop's college. All his

spare time was spent in studying the early Fathers with Du Vergier, and

laying plans for a reformation of the Church. In 1616 he returned to

Louvain, to take charge of the college of St Pulcheria, a hostel for

Dutch students of theology. Pupils found him a somewhat choleric and

exacting master and academic society a great recluse. However, he took

an active part in the university's resistance to the Jesuits; for these

had established a theological school of their own in Louvain, which was

proving a formidable rival to the official faculty of divinity. In the

hope of repressing their encroachments, Jansen was sent twice to Madrid,

in 1624 and 1626; the second time he narrowly escaped the Inquisition.

He warmly supported the Catholic missionary bishop of Holland, Rovenius,

in his contests with the Jesuits, who were trying to evangelize that

country without regard to the bishop's wishes. He also crossed swords

more than once with the Dutch Presbyterian champion, Voetius, still

remembered for his attacks on Descartes. Antipathy to the Jesuits

brought Jansen no nearer Protestantism; on the contrary, he yearned to

beat these by their own weapons, chiefly by showing them that Catholics

could interpret the Bible in a manner quite as mystical and pietistic as

theirs. This became the great object of his lectures, when he was

appointed regius professor of scriptural interpretation at Louvain in

1630. Still more was it the object of his _Augustinus_, a bulky treatise

on the theology of St Augustine, barely finished at the time of his

death. Preparing it had been his chief occupation ever since he went

back to Louvain. But Jansen, as he said, did not mean to be a

school-pedant all his life; and there were moments when he dreamed

political dreams. He looked forward to a time when Belgium should throw

off the Spanish yoke and become an independent Catholic republic on the

model of Protestant Holland. These ideas became known to his Spanish

rulers, and to assuage them he wrote a philippic called the _Mars

gallicus_ (1635), a violent attack on French ambitions generally, and on

Richelieu's indifference to international Catholic interests in

particular. The _Mars gallicus_ did not do much to help Jansen's friends

in France, but it more than appeased the wrath of Madrid with Jansen

himself; in 1636 he was appointed bishop of Ypres. Within two years he

was cut off by a sudden illness on the 6th of May 1638; the

_Augustinus_, the book of his life, was published posthumously in 1640.

Full details as to Jansen's career will be found in Reuchlin's

_Geschichte von Port Royal_ (Hamburg, 1839), vol. i. See also

_Jansénius_ by the Abbés Callawaert and Nols (Louvain, 1893).

(St C.)

JANSENISM, the religious principles laid down by Cornelius Jansen in his

_Augustinus_. This was simply a digest of the teaching of St Augustine,

drawn up with a special eye to the needs of the 17th century. In

Jansen's opinion the church was suffering from three evils. The official

scholastic theology was anything but evangelical. Having set out to

embody the mysteries of faith in human language, it had fallen a victim

to the excellence of its own methods; language proved too strong for

mystery. Theology sank into a branch of dialectic; whatever would not

fit in with a logical formula was cast aside as useless. But average

human nature does not take kindly to a syllogism, and theology had

ceased to have any appreciable influence on popular religion. Simple

souls found their spiritual pasture in little mincing "devotions"; while

robuster minds built up for themselves a natural moralistic religion,

quite as close to Epictetus as to Christianity. All these three evils

were attacked by Jansen. As against the theologians, he urged that in a

spiritual religion experience, not reason, must be our guide. As against

the stoical self-sufficiency of the moralists, he dwelt on the

helplessness of man and his dependence on his maker. As against the

ceremonialists, he maintained that no amount of church-going will save a

man, unless the love of God is in him. But this capacity for love no one

can give himself. If he is born without the religious instinct, he can

only receive it by going through a process of "conversion." And whether

God converts this man or that depends on his good pleasure. Thus

Jansen's theories of conversion melt into predestination; although, in

doing so, they somewhat modify its grimness. Even for the worst

miscreant there is hope--for who can say but that God may yet think fit

to convert him? Jansen's thoughts went back every moment to his two

spiritual heroes, St Augustine and St Paul, each of whom had been "the

chief of sinners."

Such doctrines have a marked analogy to those of Calvin; but in many

ways Jansen differed widely from the Protestants. He vehemently rejected

their doctrine of justification by faith; conversion might be

instantaneous, but it was only the beginning of a long and gradual

process of justification. Secondly, although the one thing necessary in

religion was a personal relation of the human soul to its maker, Jansen

held that that relation was only possible in and through the Roman

Church. Herein he was following Augustine, who had managed to couple

together a high theory of church authority and sacramental grace with a

strongly personal religion. But the circumstances of the 17th century

were not those of the 5th; and Jansen landed his followers in an

inextricable confusion. What were they to do, when the outward church

said one thing, and the inward voice said another? Some time went by,

however, before the two authorities came into open conflict. Jansen's

ideas were popularized in France by his friend Du Vergier, abbot of St

Cyran; and he dwelt mainly on the practical side of the matter--on the

necessity of conversion and love of God, as the basis of the religious

life. This brought him into conflict with the Jesuits, whom he accused

of giving absolution much too easily, without any serious inquiry into

the dispositions of their penitent. His views are expounded at length by

his disciple, Antoine Arnauld, in a book on _Frequent Communion_ (1643).

This book was the first manifestation of Jansenism to the general public

in France, and raised a violent storm. But many divines supported

Arnauld; and no official action was taken against his party till 1649.

In that year the Paris University condemned five propositions from

Jansen's _Augustinus_, all relative to predestination. This censure,

backed by the signatures of eighty-five bishops, was sent up to Rome for

endorsement; and in 1653 Pope Innocent X. declared all five propositions

heretical.

This decree placed the Jansenists between two fires; for although the

five propositions only represented one side of Jansen's teaching, it was

recognized by both parties that the whole question was to be fought out

on this issue. Under the leadership of Arnauld, who came of a great

family of lawyers, the Jansenists accordingly took refuge in a series of

legal tactics. Firstly, they denied that Jansen had meant the

propositions in the sense condemned. Alexander VII. replied (1656) that

his predecessor had condemned them in the sense intended by their

author. Arnauld retorted that the church might be infallible in abstract

questions of theology; but as to what was passing through an author's

mind it knew no more than any one else. However, the French government

supported the pope. In 1656 Arnauld was deprived of his degree, in spite

of Pascal's _Provincial Letters_ (1656-1657), begun in an attempt to

save him (see PASCAL; CASUISTRY). In 1661 a formulary, or solemn

renunciation of Jansen, was imposed on all his suspected followers;

those who would not sign it went into hiding, or to the Bastille. Peace

was only restored under Clement IX. in 1669.

This peace was treated by Jansenist writers as a triumph; really it was

the beginning of their downfall. They had set out to reform the Church

of Rome; they ended by having to fight hard for a doubtful foothold

within it. Even that foothold soon gave way. Louis XIV. was a fanatic

for uniformity, civil and religious; the last thing he was likely to

tolerate was a handful of eccentric recluses, who believed themselves to

be in special touch with Heaven, and therefore might at any moment set

their conscience up against the law. During the lifetime of his cousin,

Madame de Longueville, the great protectress of the Jansenists, Louis

stayed his hand; on her death (1679) the reign of severity began. That

summer Arnauld, who had spent the greater part of his life in hiding,

was forced to leave France for good.

Six years later he was joined in exile by Pasquier Quesnel who succeeded

him as leader of the party. Long before his flight from France Quesnel

had published a devotional commentary--_Réflexions morales sur le

Nouveau Testament_--which had gone through many editions without

exciting official suspicion. But in 1695 Louis Antoine de Noailles,

bishop of Châlons, was made archbishop of Paris. He was known to be very

hostile to the Jesuits, and at Châlons had more than once expressed

official approval of Quesnel's _Réflexions_. So the Jesuit party

determined to wreck archbishop and book at the same time. The Jansenists

played into their hands by suddenly raising (1701) in the Paris divinity

school the question whether it was necessary to accept the condemnation

of Jansen with interior assent, or whether a "respectful silence" was

enough. Very soon ecclesiastical France was in a blaze. In 1703 Louis

XIV. wrote to Pope Clement XI., proposing that they should take joint

action to make an end of Jansenism for ever. Clement replied in 1705

with a bull condemning respectful silence. This measure only whetted

Louis's appetite. He was growing old and increasingly superstitious; the

affairs of his realm were going from bad to worse; he became frenziedly

anxious to propitiate the wrath of his maker by making war on the

enemies of the Church. In 1711 he asked the pope for a second, and still

stronger bull, that would tear up Jansenism by the roots. The pope's

choice of a book to condemn fell on Quesnel's _Réflexions_; in 1713

appeared the bull _Unigenitus_, anathematizing no less than

one-hundred-and-one of its propositions. Indeed, in his zeal against the

Jansenists the pope condemned various practices in no way peculiar to

their party; thus, for instance, many orthodox Catholics were

exasperated at the heavy blow he dealt at popular Bible reading. Hence

the bull met with much opposition from Archbishop de Noailles and others

who did not call themselves Jansenists. In the midst of the conflict

Louis XIV. died (September 1715); but the freethinking duke of Orleans,

who succeeded him as regent, continued after some wavering to support

the bull. Thereupon four bishops appealed against it to a general

council; and the country became divided into "appellants" and

"acceptants" (1717). The regent's disreputable minister, Cardinal

Dubois, patched up an abortive truce in 1720, but the appellants

promptly "re-appealed" against it. During the next ten years, however,

they were slowly crushed, and in 1730 the _Unigenitus_ was proclaimed

part and parcel of the law of France. This led to a great quarrel with

the judges, who were intensely Gallican in spirit (see GALLICANISM), and

had always regarded the _Unigenitus_ as a triumph of ultramontanism. The

quarrel dragged indefinitely on through the 18th century, though the

questions at issue were really constitutional and political rather than

religious.

Meanwhile the most ardent Jansenists had followed Quesnel to Holland.

Here they met with a warm welcome from the Dutch Catholic body, which

had always been in close sympathy with Jansenism, although without

regarding itself as formally pledged to the _Augustinus_. But it had

broken loose from Rome in 1702, and was now organizing itself into an

independent church (see UTRECHT). The Jansenists who remained in France

had meanwhile fallen on evil days. Persecution usually begets hysteria

in its victims; and the more extravagant members of the party were far

advanced on the road which leads to apocalyptic prophecy and "speaking

with tongues." About 1728 the "miracles of St Médard" became the talk of

Paris. This was the cemetery where was buried François de Pâris, a

young Jansenist deacon of singularly holy life, and a perfervid

opponent of the _Unigenitus_. All sorts of miraculous cures were

believed to have been worked at his tomb, until the government closed

the cemetery in 1732. This gave rise to the famous epigram:

_De par le roi, défense à Dieu

De faire miracle en ce lieu._

On the miracles soon followed the rise of the so-called Convulsionaries.

These worked themselves up, mainly by the use of frightful

self-tortures, into a state of frenzy, in which they prophesied and

cured diseases. They were eventually disowned by the more reputable

Jansenists, and were severely repressed by the police. But in 1772 they

were still important enough for Diderot to enter the field against them.

Meanwhile genuine Jansenism survived in many country parsonages and

convents, and led to frequent quarrels with the authorities. Only one of

its latter-day disciples, however, rose to real eminence; this was the

Abbé Henri Grégoire, who played a considerable part in the French

Revolution. A few small Jansenist congregations still survive in France;

and others have been started in connexion with the Old Catholic Church

in Holland.

LITERATURE.--For the 17th century see the _Port Royal_ of Sainte-Beuve

(5th ed., Paris, 1888) in six volumes. See also H. Reuchlin,

_Geschichte von Port Royal_ (2 vols., Hamburg, 1839-1844), and C.

Beard, _Port Royal_ (2 vols., London, 1861). No satisfactory Roman

Catholic history of the subject exists, though reference may be made

to Count Joseph de Maistre's _De l'église gallicane_ (last ed., Lyons,

1881). On the Jansenism of the 18th century no single work exists,

though much information will be found in the _Gallican Church_ of

Canon Jervis (2 vols., London, 1872). For a series of excellent

sketches see also Seche, _Les Derniers Jansénistes_ (3 vols., Paris,

1891). A more detailed list of books bearing on the subject will be

found in the 5th volume of the _Cambridge Modern History_; and J.

Paquier's _Le Jansénisme_ (Paris, 1909) may also be consulted.

(St C.)

JANSSEN, or JANSEN (sometimes JOHNSON), CORNELIUS (1593-1664), Flemish

painter, was apparently born in London, and baptized on the 14th of

October 1593. There seems no reason to suppose, as was formerly stated,

that he was born at Amsterdam. He worked in England from 1618 to 1643,

and afterwards retired to Holland, working at Middelburg, Amsterdam, The

Hague and Utrecht, and dying at one of the last two places about 1664.

In England he was patronized by James I. and the court, and under

Charles I. he continued to paint the numerous portraits which adorn many

English mansions and collections. Janssen's pictures, chiefly portraits,

are distinguished by clear colouring, delicate touch, good taste and

careful finish. He generally painted upon panel, and often worked on a

small scale, sometimes producing replicas of his larger works. A

characteristic of his style is the very dark background, which throws

the carnations of his portraits into rounded relief. In all probability

his earliest portrait (1618) was that of John Milton as a boy of ten.

JANSSEN, JOHANNES (1820-1891), German historian, was born at Xanten on

the 10th of April 1829, and was educated as a Roman Catholic at Münster,

Louvain, Bonn and Berlin, afterwards becoming a teacher of history at

Frankfort-on-the-Main. He was ordained priest in 1860; became a member

of the Prussian Chamber of Deputies in 1875; and in 1880 was made

domestic prelate to the pope and apostolic pronotary. He died at

Frankfort on the 24th of December 1891. Janssen was a stout champion of

the Ultramontane party in the Roman Catholic Church. His great work is

his _Geschichte des deutschen Volkes seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters_

(8 vols., Freiburg, 1878-1894). In this book he shows himself very

hostile to the Reformation, and attempts to prove that the Protestants

were responsible for the general unrest in Germany during the 16th and

17th centuries. The author's partisanship led to some controversy, and

Janssen wrote _An meine Kritiker_ (Freiburg, 1882) and _Ein zweites Wort

an meine Kritiker_ (Freiburg, 1883) in reply to the _Janssens Geschichte

des deutschen Volkes_ (Munich, 1883) of M. Lenz, and other criticisms.

The _Geschichte_, which has passed through numerous editions, has been

continued and improved by Ludwig Pastor, and the greater part of it

has been translated into English by M. A. Mitchell and A. M. Christie

(London, 1896, fol.). Of his other works perhaps the most important

are: the editing of _Frankfurts Reichskorrespondenz, 1376-1519_

(Freiburg, 1863-1872); and of the _Leben, Briefe und kleinere

Schriften_ of his friend J. F. Böhmer (Leipzig, 1868); a monograph,

_Schiller als Historiker_ (Freiburg, 1863); and _Zeit- und

Lebensbilder_ (Freiburg, 1875).

See L. Pastor, _Johannes Janssen_ (Freiburg, 1893); F. Meister,

_Erinnerung an Johannes Janssen_ (Frankfort, 1896); Schwann, _Johannes

Janssen und die Geschichte der deutschen Reformation_ (Munich, 1892).

JANSSEN, PIERRE JULES CÉSAR (1824-1907), French astronomer, was born in

Paris on the 22nd of February 1824, and studied mathematics and physics

at the faculty of sciences. He taught at the lycée Charlemagne in 1853,

and in the school of architecture 1865-1871, but his energies were

mainly devoted to various scientific missions entrusted to him. Thus in

1857 he went to Peru in order to determine the magnetic equator; in

1861-1862 and 1864, he studied telluric absorption in the solar spectrum

in Italy and Switzerland; in 1867 he carried out optical and magnetic

experiments at the Azores; he successfully observed both transits of

Venus, that of 1874 in Japan, that of 1882 at Oran in Algeria; and he

took part in a long series of solar eclipse-expeditions, e.g. to Trani

(1867), Guntoor (1868), Algiers (1870), Siam (1875), the Caroline

Islands (1883), and to Alcosebre in Spain (1905). To see the eclipse of

1870 he escaped from besieged Paris in a balloon. At the great Indian

eclipse of 1868 he demonstrated the gaseous nature of the red

prominences, and devised a method of observing them under ordinary

daylight conditions. One main purpose of his spectroscopic inquiries was

to answer the question whether the sun contains oxygen or not. An

indispensable preliminary was the virtual elimination of

oxygen-absorption in the earth's atmosphere, and his bold project of

establishing an observatory on the top of Mont Blanc was prompted by a

perception of the advantages to be gained by reducing the thickness of

air through which observations have to be made. This observatory, the

foundations of which were fixed in the snow that appears to cover the

summit to a depth of ten metres, was built in September 1893, and

Janssen, in spite of his sixty-nine years, made the ascent and spent

four days taking observations. In 1875 he was appointed director of the

new astrophysical observatory established by the French government at

Meudon, and set on foot there in 1876 the remarkable series of solar

photographs collected in his great _Atlas de photographies solaires_

(1904). The first volume of the _Annales de l'observatoire de Meudon_

was published by him in 1896. He died at Paris on the 23rd of December

1907.

See A. M. Clerke, _Hist. of Astr. during the 19th Century_ (1903); H.

Macpherson, _Astronomers of To-Day_ (1905).

JANSSENS (or JANSENS), VICTOR HONORIUS (1664-1739), Flemish painter, was

born at Brussels. After seven years in the studio of an obscure painter

named Volders, he spent four years in the household of the duke of

Holstein. The next eleven years Janssens passed in Rome, where he took

eager advantage of all the aids to artistic study, and formed an

intimacy with Tempesta, in whose landscapes he frequently inserted

figures. Rising into popularity, he painted a large number of cabinet

historical scenes; but, on his return to Brussels, the claims of his

increasing family restricted him almost entirely to the larger and more

lucrative size of picture, of which very many of the churches and

palaces of the Netherlands contain examples. In 1718 Janssens was

invited to Vienna, where he stayed three years, and was made painter to

the emperor. The statement that he visited England is based only upon

the fact that certain fashionable interiors of the time in that country

have been attributed to him. Janssen's colouring was good, his touch

delicate and his taste refined.

JANSSENS (or JANSENS) VAN NUYSSEN, ABRAHAM (1567-1632), Flemish painter,

was born at Antwerp in 1567. He studied under Jan Snellinck, was a

"master" in 1602, and in 1607 was dean of the master-painters. Till the

appearance of Rubens he was considered perhaps the best historical

painter of his time. The styles of the two artists are not unlike. In

correctness of drawing Janssens excelled his great contemporary; in

bold composition and in treatment of the nude he equalled him; but in

faculty of colour and in general freedom of disposition and touch he

fell far short. A master of chiaroscuro, he gratified his taste for

strong contrasts of light and shade in his torchlights and similar

effects. Good examples of this master are to be seen in the Antwerp

museum and the Vienna gallery. The stories of his jealousy of Rubens and

of his dissolute life are quite unfounded. He died at Antwerp in 1632.

JANUARIUS, ST, or SAN GENNARO, the patron saint of Naples. According to

the legend, he was bishop of Benevento, and flourished towards the close

of the 3rd century. On the outbreak of the persecution by Diocletian and

Maximian, he was taken to Nola and brought before Timotheus, governor of

Campania, on account of his profession of the Christian religion. After

various assaults upon his constancy, he was sentenced to be cast into

the fiery furnace, through which he passed wholly unharmed. On the

following day, along with a number of fellow martyrs, he was exposed to

the fury of wild beasts, which, however, laid themselves down in tame

submission at his feet. Timotheus, again pronouncing sentence of death,

was struck with blindness, but immediately healed by the powerful

intercession of the saint, a miracle which converted nearly five

thousand men on the spot. The ungrateful judge, only roused to further

fury by these occurrences, caused the execution of Januarius by the

sword to be forthwith carried out. The body was ultimately removed by

the inhabitants of Naples to that city, where the relic became very

famous for its miracles, especially in counteracting the more dangerous

eruptions of Vesuvius. Whatever the difficulties raised by his _Acta_,

the cult of St Januarius, bishop and martyr, is attested historically at

Naples as early as the 5th century (_Biblioth. hagiog. latina_, No.

6558). Two phials preserved in the cathedral are believed to contain the

blood of the martyr. The relic is shown twice a year--in May and

September. On these occasions the substance contained in the phial

liquefies, and the Neapolitans see in this phenomenon a supernatural

manifestation. The "miracle of St Januarius" did not occur before the

middle of the 15th century.

A great number of saints of the name of Januarius are mentioned in the

martyrologies. The best-known are the Roman martyr (festival, the 10th

of July), whose epitaph was written by Pope Damasus (De Rossi,

_Bullettino_, p. 17, 1863), and the martyr of Cordova, who forms along

with Faustus and Martialis the group designated by Prudentius

(_Peristephanon_, iv. 20) by the name of _tres coronae_. The festival of

these martyrs is celebrated on the 13th of October.

See _Acta sanctorum_, September, vi. 761-891; G. Scherillo, _Esame di

un codice greco pubblicato nel tomo secondo della bibliotheca

casinensis_ (Naples, 1876); G. Taglialatela, _Memorie storico-critiche

del culto del sangue di S. Gennaro_ (Naples, 1893), which contains

many facts, but little criticism; G. Albini, _Sulla mobilità dei

liquidi viscosi non omogenei_ (_Società reale di Napoli, Rendiconti_,

2nd series, vol. iv., 1890); _Acta sanctorum_, October, vi. 187-193.

(H. De.)

JANUARY, the first month in the modern calendar, consisting of

thirty-one days. The name (Lat. _Januarius_) is derived from the

two-faced Roman god Janus, to whom the month was dedicated. As

doorkeeper of heaven, as looking both into the past and the future, and

as being essentially the deity who busied himself with the beginnings of

all enterprises, he was appropriately made guardian of the fortunes of

the new year. The consecration of the month took place by an offering of

meal, salt, frankincense and wine, each of which was new. The

Anglo-Saxons called January _Wulfmonath_, in allusion to the fact that

hunger then made the wolves bold enough to come into the villages. The

principal festivals of the month are: New Year's Day; Feast of the

Circumcision; Epiphany; Twelfth-Day; and Conversion of St Paul (see

CALENDAR).

JANUS, in Roman mythology one of the principal Italian deities. The name

is generally explained as the masculine form of Diana (Jana), and Janus

as originally a god of light and day, who gradually became the god of

the beginning and origin of all things. According to some, however, he

is simply the god of doorways (_januae_) and in this connexion is the

patron of all entrances and beginnings. According to Mommsen, he was

"the spirit of opening," and the double-head was connected with the gate

that opened both ways. Others, attributing to him an Etruscan origin,

regard him as the god of the vault of heaven, which the Etruscan arch is

supposed to resemble. The rationalists explained him as an old king of

Latium, who built a citadel for himself on the Janiculum. It was

believed that his worship, which was said to have existed as a local

cult before the foundation of Rome, was introduced there by Romulus, and

that a temple was dedicated to him by Numa. This temple, in reality only

an arch or gateway (_Janus geminus_) facing east and west, stood at the

north-east end of the forum. It was open during war and closed during

peace (Livy i. 19); it was shut only four times before the Christian

era. A possible explanation is, that it was considered a bad omen to

shut the city gates while the citizens were outside fighting for the

state; it was necessary that they should have free access to the city,

whether they returned victorious or defeated. Similarly, the door of a

private house was kept open while the members of the family were away,

but when all were at home it was closed to keep out intruders. There was

also a temple of Janus near the theatre of Marcellus, in the forum

olitorium, erected by Gaius Duilius (Tacitus, _Ann._ ii. 49), if not

earlier.

The beginning of the day (hence his epithet Matutinus), of the month,

and of the year (January) was sacred to Janus; on the 9th of January the

festival called Agonia was celebrated in his honour. He was invoked

before any other god at the beginning of any important undertaking; his

priest was the Rex Sacrorum, the representative of the ancient king in

his capacity as religious head of the state. All gateways, housedoors

and entrances generally, were under his protection; he was the inventor

of agriculture (hence Consivius, "he who sows or plants"), of civil

laws, of the coining of money and of religious worship. He was

worshipped on the Janiculum as the protector of trade and shipping; his

head is found on the as, together with the prow of a ship. He is usually

represented on the earliest coins with two bearded faces, looking in

opposite directions; in the time of Hadrian the number of faces is

increased to four. In his capacity as porter or doorkeeper he holds a

staff in his right hand, and a key (or keys) in his left; as such he is

called Patulcius (opener) and Clusius (closer). His titles Curiatius,

Patricius, Quirinus originate in his worship in the gentes, the curiae

and the state, and have no reference to any special functions or

characteristics. In late times, he is both bearded and unbearded; in

place of the staff and keys, the fingers of his right hand show the

number 300 (CCC.), those of his left the number of the remaining days of

the year (LXV.). According to A. B. Cook (_Classical Review_, xviii.

367), Janus is only another form of Jupiter, the name under which he was

worshipped by the pre-Latin (aboriginal) inhabitants of Rome; after

their conquest by the Italians, Janus and Jana took their place as

independent divinities by the side of the Italian Jupiter and Juno. He

considers it probable that the three-headed Janus was a triple oak-god

worshipped in the form of two vertical beams and a cross-bar (such as

the _tigillum sororium_, for which see HORATII); hence also the door,

consisting of two lintels and side-posts, was sacred to Janus. The

three-headed type may have been the original, from which the two-headed

and four-headed types were developed. J. G. Frazer (_The Early History

of the Kingship_, pp. 214, 285), who also identifies Janus with Jupiter,

is of opinion that Janus was not originally a doorkeeper, but that the

door was called after him, not vice versa. _Janua_ may be an adjective,

_janua foris_ meaning a door with a symbol of Janus close by the chief

entrance, to serve as a protection for the house; then _janua_ alone

came to mean a door generally, with or without the symbol of Janus. The

double head may have been due to the desire to make the god look both

ways for greater protection. By J. Rhys (_Hibbert Lectures_, 1886, pp.

82, 94) Janus is identified with the three-faced (sometimes

three-headed) Celtic god Cernunnus, a chthonian divinity, compared by

Rhys with the Teutonic Heimdal, the warder of the gods of the

under-world; like Janus, Cernunnus and Heimdal were considered to be the

fons et origo of all things.

See S. Linde, _De Jano summo romanorum deo_ (Lund, 1891); J. S.

Speÿer, "Le Dieu romain Janus," in _Revue de l'histoire des religions_

(xxvi., 1892); G. Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der Römer_ (1902); W.

Deecke, _Etruskische Forschungen_, vol. ii.; W. Warde Fowler, _The

Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic_ (1899), pp. 282-290;

articles in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_ and Daremberg and

Saglio's _Dictionnaire des Antiquités_; J. Toutain, _Études de

Mythologie_ (1909). On other jani (arched passages) in Rome,

frequented by business men and money changers, see O. Richter,

_Topographie der Stadt Rom_ (1901). (J. H. F.)

JAORA, a native state of Central India, in the Malwa agency. It consists

of two isolated tracts, between Ratlam and Neemuch Area, with the

dependencies of Piplauda and Pant Piplauda, 568 sq. m. Pop. (1901),

84,202. The estimated revenue is £57,000; tribute, £9000. The chief,

whose title is nawab, is a Mahommedan of Afghan descent. The state was

confirmed by the British government in 1818 by the Treaty of Mandsaur.

Nawab Mahommed Ismail, who died in 1895, was an honorary major in the

British army. His son, Iftikhar Ali Khan, a minor at his accession, was

educated in the Daly College at Indore, with a British officer for his

tutor, and received powers of administration in 1906. The chief crops

are millets, cotton, maize and poppy. The last supplies a large part of

the Malwa opium of commerce. The town of JAORA is on the Rajputana-Malwa

railway, 20 m. N. of Ratlam. Pop. (1901), 23,854. It is well laid out,

with many good modern buildings, and has a high school and dispensary.

To celebrate Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee, the Victoria Institute

and a zenana dispensary were opened in 1898.

JAPAN, an empire of eastern Asia, and one of the great powers of the

world. The following article is divided for convenience into ten

sections:--I. GEOGRAPHY; II. THE PEOPLE; III. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE;

IV. ART; V. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS; VI. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION; VII.

RELIGION; VIII. FOREIGN INTERCOURSE; IX. DOMESTIC HISTORY; X. THE CLAIM

OF JAPAN.