JACOBITES JAMES III.
JACOBS, CHRISTIAN WILHELM JAMES IV.
JACOBS CAVERN JAMES V.
JACOBSEN, JENS PETER JAMES I. (king of Aragon)
JACOB'S WELL JAMES II.
JACOBUS DE VORAGINE JAMES II. (king of Majorca)
JACOTOT, JOSEPH JAMES III. (king of Majorca)
JACQUARD, JOSEPH MARIE JAMES (prince of Wales)
JACQUERIE, THE JAMES, DAVID
JACTITATION JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFORD
JADE (estuary of the North Sea) JAMES, HENRY
JADE (ornamental stones) JAMES, JOHN ANGELL
JAEN (province of Spain) JAMES, THOMAS
JAEN (city of Spain) JAMES, WILLIAM (English historian)
JAFARABAD JAMES, WILLIAM (American philosopher)
JAFFNA JAMES OF HEREFORD, HENRY JAMES
JÄGER, GUSTAV JAMES, EPISTLE OF
JÄGERNDORF JAMESON, ANNA BROWNELL
JAGERSFONTEIN JAMESON, GEORGE
JAGO, RICHARD JAMESON, LEANDER STARR
JAGUAR JAMESON, ROBERT
JAGUARONDI JAMESTOWN (North Dakota, U.S.A.)
JAHANABAD JAMESTOWN (New York, U.S.A.)
JAHANGIR JAMESTOWN (Virginia, U.S.A.)
JAHIZ JAMI
JAHN, FRIEDRICH LUDWIG JAMIESON, JOHN
JAHN, JOHANN JAMIESON, ROBERT
JAHN, OTTO JAMKHANDI
JAHRUM JAMMU
JAINS JAMNIA
JAIPUR JAMRUD
JAISALMER JAMS AND JELLIES
JAJCE JANESVILLE
JAJPUR JANET, PAUL
JAKOB, LUDWIG HEINRICH VON JANGIPUR
JAKOVA JANIN, JULES GABRIEL
JAKUNS JANISSARIES
JALALABAD JANIUAY
JALAP JANJIRA
JALAPA JAN MAYEN
JALAUN JANSEN, CORNELIUS
JALISCO JANSENISM
JALNA JANSSEN, CORNELIUS
JALPAIGURI JANSSEN, JOHANNES
JAMAICA (island) JANSSEN, PIERRE JULES CÉSAR
JAMAICA (New York, U.S.A.) JANSSENS, VICTOR HONORIUS
JAMB JANSSENS VAN NUYSSEN, ABRAHAM
JAMES (name) JANUARIUS, ST
JAMES (New Testament) JANUARY
JAMES I. (king of Great Britain) JANUS
JAMES II. JAORA
JAMES I. (king of Scotland) JAPAN (part)
JAMES II.
JACOBITES (from Lat. _Jacobus_, James), the name given after the
revolution of 1688 to the adherents, first of the exiled English king
James II., then of his descendants, and after the extinction of the
latter in 1807, of the descendants of Charles I., i.e. of the exiled
house of Stuart.
The history of the Jacobites, culminating in the risings of 1715 and
1745, is part of the general history of England (q.v.), and especially
of Scotland (q.v.), in which country they were comparatively more
numerous and more active, while there was also a large number of
Jacobites in Ireland. They were recruited largely, but not solely, from
among the Roman Catholics, and the Protestants among them were often
identical with the Non-Jurors. Owing to a variety of causes Jacobitism
began to lose ground after the accession of George I. and the
suppression of the revolt of 1715; and the total failure of the rising
of 1745 may be said to mark its end as a serious political force. In
1765 Horace Walpole said that "Jacobitism, the concealed mother of the
latter (i.e. Toryism), was extinct," but as a sentiment it remained for
some time longer, and may even be said to exist to-day. In 1750, during
a strike of coal workers at Elswick, James III. was proclaimed king; in
1780 certain persons walked out of the Roman Catholic Church at Hexham
when George III. was prayed for; and as late as 1784 a Jacobite rising
was talked about. Northumberland was thus a Jacobite stronghold; and in
Manchester, where in 1777 according to an American observer Jacobitism
"is openly professed," a Jacobite rendezvous known as "John Shaw's Club"
lasted from 1733 to 1892. North Wales was another Jacobite centre. The
"Cycle of the White Rose"--the white rose being the badge of the
Stuarts--composed of members of the principal Welsh families around
Wrexham, including the Williams-Wynns of Wynnstay, lasted from 1710
until some time between 1850 and 1860. Jacobite traditions also lingered
among the great families of the Scottish Highlands; the last person to
suffer death as a Jacobite was Archibald Cameron, a son of Cameron of
Lochiel, who was executed in 1753. Dr Johnson's Jacobite sympathies are
well known, and on the death of Victor Emmanuel I., the ex-king of
Sardinia, in 1824, Lord Liverpool wrote to Canning saying "there are
those who think that the ex-king was the lawful king of Great Britain."
Until the accession of King Edward VII. finger-bowls were not placed
upon the royal dinner-table, because in former times those who secretly
sympathized with the Jacobites were in the habit of drinking to the king
_over the water_. The romantic side of Jacobitism was stimulated by Sir
Walter Scott's _Waverley_, and many Jacobite poems were written during
the 19th century.
The chief collections of Jacobite poems are: Charles Mackay's
_Jacobite Songs and Ballads of Scotland, 1688-1746, with Appendix of
Modern Jacobite Songs_ (1861); G. S. Macquoid's _Jacobite Songs and
Ballads_ (1888); and _English Jacobite Ballads_, edited by A. B.
Grosart from the Towneley manuscripts (1877).
Upon the death of Henry Stuart, Cardinal York, the last of James II.'s
descendants, in 1807, the rightful occupant of the British throne
according to legitimist principles was to be found among the descendants
of Henrietta, daughter of Charles I., who married Philip I., duke of
Orleans. Henrietta's daughter, Anne Marie (1669-1728), became the wife
of Victor Amadeus II., duke of Savoy, afterwards king of Sardinia; her
son was King Charles Emmanuel III., and her grandson Victor Amadeus III.
The latter's son, King Victor Emmanuel I., left no sons, and his eldest
daughter, Marie Beatrice, married Francis IV., duke of Modena, whose
son Ferdinand (d. 1849) left an only daughter, Marie Thérèse (b. 1849).
This lady, the wife of Prince Louis of Bavaria, was in 1910 the senior
member of the Stuart family, and according to the legitimists the
rightful sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland.
_Table showing the succession to the crown of Great Britain and
Ireland according to Jacobite principles._
Charles I. (1600-1649)
|
Henrietta (1644-1670) =
Philip I., duke of Orleans (1640-1701)
|
Anne Marie (1669-1728) =
Victor Amadeus II, king of Sardinia (1666-1732)
|
Charles Emmanuel III.
king of Sardinia (1701-1773)
|
Victor Amadeus III.
king of Sardinia (1726-1796)
|
Victor Emmanuel I.
king of Sardinia (1759-1824)
|
Marie Beatrice (c. 1780-1840) =
Francis IV., duke of Modena (1779-1846)
|
Ferdinand (1821-1849)
|
Marie Thérèse (b. 1849) =
Louis, prince of Bavaria (b. 1845)
|
+--------------------+------------+------------+
| | |
Rupert, prince Charles Francis
of Bavaria (b. 1869) (b. 1874) (b. 1875)
+---------------+--------------+
| | |
Luitpold Albert Rudolph
(b. 1901) (b. 1905) (b. 1909)
Among the modern Jacobite, or legitimist, societies perhaps the most
important is the "Order of the White Rose," which has a branch in
Canada and the United States. The order holds that sovereign authority
is of divine sanction, and that the execution of Charles I. and the
revolution of 1688 were national crimes; it exists to study the
history of the Stuarts, to oppose all democratic tendencies, and in
general to maintain the theory that kingship is independent of all
parliamentary authority and popular approval. The order, which was
instituted in 1886, was responsible for the Stuart exhibition of 1889,
and has a newspaper, the _Royalist_. Among other societies with
similar objects in view are the "Thames Valley Legitimist Club" and
the "Legitimist Jacobite League of Great Britain and Ireland."
See _Historical Papers relating to the Jacobite Period_, edited by J.
Allardyce (Aberdeen, 1895-1896); James Hogg, _The Jacobite Relics of
Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1819-1821); and F. W. Head, _The Fallen Stuarts_
(Cambridge, 1901). The marquis de Ruvigny has compiled _The Jacobite
Peerage_ (Edinburgh, 1904), a work which purports to give a list of
all the titles and honours conferred by the kings of the exiled House
of Stuart. (A. W. H.*)
JACOBS, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1764-1847), German classical
scholar, was born at Gotha on the 6th of October 1764. After studying
philology and theology at Jena and Göttingen, in 1785 he became teacher
in the gymnasium of his native town, and in 1802 was appointed to an
office in the public library. In 1807 he became classical tutor in the
lyceum of Munich, but, disgusted at the attacks made upon him by the old
Bavarian Catholic party, who resented the introduction of "north German"
teachers, he returned to Gotha in 1810 to take charge of the library and
the numismatic cabinet. He remained in Gotha till his death on the 30th
of March 1847. Jacobs was an extremely successful teacher; he took great
interest in the affairs of his country, and was a publicist of no mean
order. But his great work was an edition of the Greek Anthology, with
copious notes, in 13 volumes (1798-1814), supplemented by a revised text
from the Codex Palatinus (1814-1817). He published also notes on Horace,
Stobaeus, Euripides, Athenaeus and the _Iliaca_ of Tzetzes; translations
of Aelian (_History of Animals_); many of the Greek romances;
Philostratus; poetical versions of much of the Greek Anthology;
miscellaneous essays on classical subjects; and some very successful
school books. His translation of the political speeches of Demosthenes
was undertaken with the express purpose of rousing his country against
Napoleon, whom he regarded as a second Philip of Macedon.
See E. F. Wüstemann, _Friderici Jacobsii laudatio_ (Gotha, 1848); C.
Bursian, _Geschichte der classischen Philologie in Deutschland_; and
the appreciative article by C. Regel in _Allgemeine deutsche
Biographie_.
JACOBS CAVERN, a cavern in latitude 36° 35´ N., 2 m. E. of Pineville,
McDonald county, Missouri, named after its discoverer, E. H. Jacobs, of
Bentonville, Arkansas. It was scientifically explored by him, in company
with Professors Charles Peabody and Warren K. Moorehead, in 1903. The
results were published in that year by Jacobs in the _Benton County
Sun_; by C. N. Gould in _Science_, July 31, 1903; by Peabody in the _Am.
Anthropologist_, Sept. 1903; and in the _Am. Journ. Archaeology_, 1904;
and by Peabody and Moorehead, 1904, as _Bulletin I._ of the Dept. of
Archaeology in Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., in the museum of which
are exhibits, maps and photographs.
Jacobs Cavern is one of the smaller caves, hardly more than a
rock-shelter, and is entirely in the "St Joe Limestone" of the
sub-carboniferous age. Its roof is a single flat stratum of limestone;
its walls are well marked by lines of stratification; dripstone also
partly covers the walls, fills a deep fissure at the end of the cave,
and spreads over the floor, where it mingles with an ancient bed of
ashes, forming an ash-breccia (mostly firm and solid) that encloses
fragments of sandstone, flint spalls, flint implements, charcoal and
bones. Underneath is the true floor of the cave, a mass of homogeneous
yellow clay, one metre in thickness. It holds scattered fragments of
limestone, and is itself the result of limestone degeneration. The
length of the opening is over 21 metres; its depth 14 metres, and the
height of roof above the undisturbed ash deposit varied from 1 m. 20 cm.
to 2 m. 60 cm. The bone recess at the end was from 50 cm. to 80 cm. in
height. The stratum of ashes was from 50 cm. to 1 m. 50 cm. thick.
The ash surface was staked off into square metres, and the substance
carefully removed in order. Each stalactite, stalagmite and pilaster was
measured, numbered, and removed in sections. Six human skeletons were
found buried in the ashes. Seven-tenths of a cubic metre of animal bones
were found: deer, bear, wolf, raccoon, opossum, beaver, buffalo, elk,
turkey, woodchuck, tortoise and hog; all contemporary with man's
occupancy. Three stone metates, one stone axe, one celt and fifteen
hammer-stones were found. Jacobs Cavern was peculiarly rich in flint
knives and projectile points. The sum total amounts to 419 objects,
besides hundreds of fragments, cores, spalls and rejects, retained for
study and comparison. Considerable numbers of bone or horn awls were
found in the ashes, as well as fragments of pottery, but no "ceremonial"
objects.
The rude type of the implements, the absence of fine pottery, and the
peculiarities of the human remains, indicate a race of occupants more
ancient than the "mound-builders." The deepest implement observed was
buried 50 cm. under the stalagmitic surface. Dr. Hovey has proved that
the rate of stalagmitic growth in Wyandotte Cave, Indiana, is .0254 cm.
annually; and if that was the rate in Jacobs Cavern, 1968 years would
have been needed for the embedding of that implement. Polished rocks
outside the cavern and pictographs in the vicinity indicate the work of
a prehistoric race earlier than the Osage Indians, who were the historic
owners previous to the advent of the white man. (H. C. H.)
JACOBSEN, JENS PETER (1847-1885), Danish imaginative writer, was born at
Thisted in Jutland, on the 7th of April 1847; he was the eldest of the
five children of a prosperous merchant. He became a student at the
university of Copenhagen in 1868. As a boy he showed a remarkable turn
for science, particularly for botany. In 1870, although he was secretly
writing verses already, Jacobsen definitely adopted botany as a
profession. He was sent by a scientific body in Copenhagen to report on
the flora of the islands of Anholt and Læsö. About this time the
discoveries of Darwin began to exercise a fascination over him, and
finding them little understood in Denmark, he translated into Danish
_The Origin of Species_ and _The Descent of Man_. In the autumn of
1872, while collecting plants in a morass near Ordrup, he contracted
pulmonary disease. His illness, which cut him off from scientific
investigation, drove him to literature. He met the famous critic, Dr
Georg Brandes, who was struck by his powers of expression, and under his
influence, in the spring of 1873, Jacobsen began his great historical
romance of _Marie Grubbe_. His method of composition was painful and
elaborate, and his work was not ready for publication until the close of
1876. In 1879 he was too ill to write at all; but in 1880 an improvement
came, and he finished his second novel, _Niels Lyhne_. In 1882 he
published a volume of six short stories, most of them written a few
years earlier, called, from the first of them, _Mogens_. After this he
wrote no more, but lingered on in his mother's house at Thisted until
the 30th of April 1885. In 1886 his posthumous fragments were collected.
It was early recognized that Jacobsen was the greatest artist in prose
that Denmark has produced. He has been compared with Flaubert, with De
Quincey, with Pater; but these parallelisms merely express a sense of
the intense individuality of his style, and of his untiring pursuit of
beauty in colour, form and melody. Although he wrote so little, and
crossed the living stage so hurriedly, his influence in the North has
been far-reaching. It may be said that no one in Denmark or Norway has
tried to write prose carefully since 1880 whose efforts have not been in
some degree modified by the example of Jacobsen's laborious art.
His _Samlede Skrifter_ appeared in two volumes in 1888; in 1899 his
letters (_Breve_) were edited by Edvard Brandes. In 1896 an English
translation of part of the former was published under the title of
_Siren Voices: Niels Lyhne_, by Miss E. F. L. Robertson. (E. G.)
JACOB'S WELL, the scene of the conversation between Jesus and the "woman
of Samaria" narrated in the Fourth Gospel, is described as being in the
neighbourhood of an otherwise unmentioned "city called Sychar." From the
time of Eusebius this city has been identified with Sychem or Shechem
(modern Nablus), and the well is still in existence 1½ m. E. of the
town, at the foot of Mt Gerizim. It is beneath one of the ruined arches
of a church mentioned by Jerome, and is reached by a few rough steps.
When Robinson visited it in 1838 it was 105 ft. deep, but it is now much
shallower and often dry.
For a discussion of Sychar as distinct from Shechem see T. K. Cheyne,
art. "Sychar," in _Ency. Bibl._, col. 4830. It is possible that Sychar
should be placed at Tulul Balata, a mound about ½ m. W. of the well
(_Palestine Exploration Fund Statement_, 1907, p. 92 seq.); when that
village fell into ruin the name may have migrated to 'Askar, a village
on the lower slopes of Mt Ebal about 1¾ m. E.N.E. from Nablus and ½ m.
N. from Jacob's Well. It may be noted that the difficulty is not with
the location of the well, but with the identification of Sychar.
JACOBUS DE VORAGINE (c. 1230-c. 1298), Italian chronicler, archbishop of
Genoa, was born at the little village of Varazze, near Genoa, about the
year 1230. He entered the order of the friars preachers of St Dominic in
1244, and besides preaching with success in many parts of Italy, taught
in the schools of his own fraternity. He was provincial of Lombardy from
1267 till 1286, when he was removed at the meeting of the order in
Paris. He also represented his own province at the councils of Lucca
(1288) and Ferrara (1290). On the last occasion he was one of the four
delegates charged with signifying Nicholas IV.'s desire for the
deposition of Munio de Zamora, who had been master of the order from
1285, and was deprived of his office by a papal bull dated the 12th of
April 1291. In 1288 Nicholas empowered him to absolve the people of
Genoa for their offence in aiding the Sicilians against Charles II.
Early in 1292 the same pope, himself a Franciscan, summoned Jacobus to
Rome, intending to consecrate him archbishop of Genoa with his own
hands. He reached Rome on Palm Sunday (March 30), only to find his
patron ill of a deadly sickness, from which he died on Good Friday
(April 4). The cardinals, however, "propter honorem Communis Januae,"
determined to carry out this consecration on the Sunday after Easter. He
was a good bishop, and especially distinguished himself by his' efforts
to appease the civil discords of Genoa. He died in 1298 or 1299, and was
buried in the Dominican church at Genoa. A story, mentioned by the
chronicler Echard as unworthy of credit, makes Boniface VIII., on the
first day of Lent, cast the ashes in the archbishop's eyes instead of on
his head, with the words, "Remember that thou art a Ghibelline, and with
thy fellow Ghibellines wilt return to naught."
Jacobus de Voragine left a list of his own works. Speaking of himself
in his _Chronicon januense_, he says, "While he was in his order, and
after he had been made archbishop, he wrote many works. For he
compiled the legends of the saints (_Legendae sanctorum_) in one
volume, adding many things from the _Historia tripartita et
scholastica_, and from the chronicles of many writers." The other
writings he claims are two anonymous volumes of "Sermons concerning
all the Saints" whose yearly feasts the church celebrates. Of these
volumes, he adds, one is very diffuse, but the other short and
concise. Then follow _Sermones de omnibus evangeliis dominicalibus_
for every Sunday in the year; _Sermones de omnibus evangeliis_, i.e. a
book of discourses on all the Gospels, from Ash Wednesday to the
Tuesday after Easter; and a treatise called "_Marialis_, qui totus est
de B. Maria compositus," consisting of about 160 discourses on the
attributes, titles, &c., of the Virgin Mary. In the same work the
archbishop claims to have written his _Chronicon januense_ in the
second year of his pontificate (1293), but it extends to 1296 or 1297.
To this list Echard adds several other works, such as a defence of the
Dominicans, printed at Venice in 1504, and a _Summa virtutum et
vitiorum Guillelmi Peraldi_, a Dominican who died about 1250. Jacobus
is also said by Sixtus of Siena (_Biblioth. Sacra_, lib. ix.) to have
translated the Old and New Testaments into his own tongue. "But," adds
Echard, "if he did so, the version lies so closely hid that there is
no recollection of it," and it may be added that it is highly
improbable that the man who compiled the Golden Legend ever conceived
the necessity of having the Scriptures in the vernacular.
His two chief works are the _Chronicon januense_ and the _Golden
Legend_ or _Lombardica hystoria_. The former is partly printed in
Muratori (_Scriptores Rer. Ital._ ix. 6). It is divided into twelve
parts. The first four deal with the mythical history of Genoa from the
time of its founder, Janus, the first king of Italy, and its enlarger,
a second Janus "citizen of Troy", till its conversion to Christianity
"about twenty-five years after the passion of Christ." Part v.
professes to treat of the beginning, the growth and the perfection of
the city; but of the first period the writer candidly confesses he
knows nothing except by hearsay. The second period includes the
Genoese crusading exploits in the East, and extends to their victory
over the Pisans (c. 1130), while the third reaches down to the days of
the author's archbishopric. The sixth part deals with the constitution
of the city, the seventh and eighth with the duties of rulers and
citizens, the ninth with those of domestic life. The tenth gives the
ecclesiastical history of Genoa from the time of its first known
bishop, St Valentine, "whom we believe to have lived about 530 A.D.,"
till 1133, when the city was raised to archiepiscopal rank. The
eleventh contains the lives of all the bishops in order, and includes
the chief events during their pontificates; the twelfth deals in the
same way with the archbishops, not forgetting the writer himself.
The _Golden Legend_, one of the most popular religious works of the
middle ages, is a collection of the legendary lives of the greater
saints of the medieval church. The preface divides the ecclesiastical
year into four periods corresponding to the various epochs of the
world's history, a time of deviation, of renovation, of reconciliation
and of pilgrimage. The book itself, however, falls into five
sections:--(a) from Advent to Christmas (_cc._ 1-5); (b) from
Christmas to Septuagesima (6-30); (c) from Septuagesima to Easter
(31-53); (d) from Easter Day to the octave of Pentecost (54-76); (e)
from the octave of Pentecost to Advent (77-180). The saints' lives are
full of puerile legend, and in not a few cases contain accounts of
13th-century miracles wrought at special places, particularly with
reference to the Dominicans. The last chapter but one (181), "De
Sancto Pelagio Papa," contains a kind of history of the world from the
middle of the 6th century; while the last (182) is a somewhat
allegorical disquisition, "De Dedicatione Ecclesiae."
The _Golden Legend_ was translated into French by Jean Belet de Vigny
in the 14th century. It was also one of the earliest books to issue
from the press. A Latin edition is assigned to about 1469; and a dated
one was published at Lyons in 1473. Many other Latin editions were
printed before the end of the century. A French translation by Master
John Bataillier is dated 1476; Jean de Vigny's appeared at Paris,
1488; an Italian one by Nic. Manerbi (? Venice, 1475); a Bohemian one
at Pilsen, 1475-1479, and at Prague, 1495; Caxton's English versions,
1483, 1487 and 1493; and a German one in 1489. Several 15th-century
editions of the _Sermons_ are also known, and the Mariale was printed
at Venice in 1497 and at Paris in 1503.
For bibliography see Potthast, _Bibliotheca hist. med. aev._ (Berlin,
1896), p. 634; U. Chevalier, _Répertoire des sources hist. Bio.-bibl._
(Paris, 1905), s.v. "Jacques de Voragine."
JACOTOT, JOSEPH (1770-1840), French educationist, author of the method
of "emancipation intellectuelle," was born at Dijon on the 4th of March
1770. He was educated at the university of Dijon, where in his
nineteenth year he was chosen professor of Latin, after which he studied
law, became advocate, and at the same time devoted a large amount of his
attention to mathematics. In 1788 he organized a federation of the youth
of Dijon for the defence of the principles of the Revolution; and in
1792, with the rank of captain, he set out to take part in the campaign
of Belgium, where he conducted himself with bravery and distinction.
After for some time filling the office of secretary of the "commission
d'organisation du mouvement des armées," he in 1794 became deputy of the
director of the Polytechnic school, and on the institution of the
central schools at Dijon he was appointed to the chair of the "method of
sciences," where he made his first experiments in that mode of tuition
which he afterwards developed more fully. On the central schools being
replaced by other educational institutions, Jacotot occupied
successively the chairs of mathematics and of Roman law until the
overthrow of the empire. In 1815 he was elected a representative to the
chamber of deputies; but after the second restoration he found it
necessary to quit his native land, and, having taken up his residence at
Brussels, he was in 1818 nominated by the Government teacher of the
French language at the university of Louvain, where he perfected into a
system the educational principles which he had already practised with
success in France. His method was not only adopted in several
institutions in Belgium, but also met with some approval in France,
England, Germany and Russia. It was based on three principles: (1) all
men have equal intelligence; (2) every man has received from God the
faculty of being able to instruct himself; (3) everything is in
everything. As regards (1) he maintained that it is only in the will to
use their intelligence that men differ; and his own process, depending
on (3), was to give any one learning a language for the first time a
short passage of a few lines, and to encourage the pupil to study, first
the words, then the letters, then the grammar, then the meaning, until a
single paragraph became the occasion for learning an entire literature.
After the revolution of 1830 Jacotot returned to France, and he died at
Paris on the 30th of July 1840.
His system was described by him in _Enseignement universel, langue
maternelle_, Louvain and Dijon, 1823--which passed through several
editions--and in various other works; and he also advocated his views
in the _Journal de l'émancipation intellectuelle_. For a complete list
of his works and fuller details regarding his career, see _Biographie
de J. Jacotot_, by Achille Guillard (Paris, 1860).
JACQUARD, JOSEPH MARIE (1752-1834), French inventor, was born at Lyons
on the 7th of July 1752. On the death of his father, who was a working
weaver, he inherited two looms, with which he started business on his
own account. He did not, however, prosper, and was at last forced to
become a lime-burner at Bresse, while his wife supported herself at
Lyons by plaiting straw. In 1793 he took part in the unsuccessful
defence of Lyons against the troops of the Convention; but afterwards
served in their ranks on the Rhône and Loire. After seeing some active
service, in which his young son was shot down at his side, he again
returned to Lyons. There he obtained a situation in a factory, and
employed his spare time in constructing his improved loom, of which he
had conceived the idea several years previously. In 1801 he exhibited
his invention at the industrial exhibition at Paris; and in 1803 he was
summoned to Paris and attached to the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers.
A loom by Jacques de Vaucanson (1700-1782), deposited there, suggested
various improvements in his own, which he gradually perfected to its
final state. Although his invention was fiercely opposed by the
silk-weavers, who feared that its introduction, owing to the saving of
labour, would deprive them of their livelihood, its advantages secured
its general adoption, and by 1812 there were 11,000 Jacquard looms in
use in France. The loom was declared public property in 1806, and
Jacquard was rewarded with a pension and a royalty on each machine. He
died at Oullins (Rhône) on the 7th of August 1834, and six years later a
statue was erected to him at Lyons (see WEAVING).
JACQUERIE, THE, an insurrection of the French peasantry which broke out
in the Île de France and about Beauvais at the end of May 1358. The
hardships endured by the peasants in the Hundred Years' War and their
hatred for the nobles who oppressed them were the principal causes which
led to the rising, though the immediate occasion was an affray which
took place on the 28th of May at the village of Saint-Leu between
"brigands" (militia infantry armoured in brigandines) and countryfolk.
The latter having got the upper hand united with the inhabitants of the
neighbouring villages and placed Guillaume Karle at their head. They
destroyed numerous châteaux in the valleys of the Oise, the Brèche and
the Thérain, where they subjected the whole countryside to fire and
sword, committing the most terrible atrocities. Charles the Bad, king of
Navarre, crushed the rebellion at the battle of Mello on the 10th of
June, and the nobles then took violent reprisals upon the peasants,
massacring them in great numbers.
See Simeon Luce, _Histoire de la Jacquerie_ (Paris, 1859 and 1895).
(J. V.*)
JACTITATION (from Lat. _jactitare_, to throw out publicly), in English
law, the maliciously boasting or giving out by one party that he or she
is married to the other. In such a case, in order to prevent the common
reputation of their marriage that might ensue, the procedure is by suit
of jactitation of marriage, in which the petitioner alleges that the
respondent boasts that he or she is married to the petitioner, and prays
a declaration of nullity and a decree putting the respondent to
perpetual silence thereafter. Previously to 1857 such a proceeding took
place only in the ecclesiastical courts, but by express terms of the
Matrimonial Causes Act of that year it can now be brought in the
probate, divorce and admiralty division of the High Court. To the suit
there are three defences: (1) denial of the boasting; (2) the truth of
the representations; (3) allegation (by way of estoppel) that the
petitioner acquiesced in the boasting of the respondent. In _Thompson_
v. _Rourke_, 1893, Prob. 70, the court of appeal laid down that the
court will not make a decree in a jactitation suit in favour of a
petitioner who has at any time acquiesced in the assertion of the
respondent that they were actually married. Jactitation of marriage is a
suit that is very rare.
JADE, or JAHDE, a deep bay and estuary of the North Sea, belonging to
the grand-duchy of Oldenburg, Germany. The bay, which was for the most
part made by storm-floods in the 13th and 16th centuries, measures 70
sq. m., and has communication with the open sea by a fairway, a mile and
a half wide, which never freezes, and with the tide gives access to the
largest vessels. On the west side of the entrance to the bay is the
Prussian naval port of Wilhelmshaven. A tiny stream, about 14 m. long,
also known as the Jade, enters the head of the bay.
JADE, a name commonly applied to certain ornamental stones, mostly of a
green colour, belonging to at least two distinct species, one termed
nephrite and the other jadeite. Whilst the term jade is popularly used
in this sense, it is now usually restricted by mineralogists to
nephrite. The word jade[1] is derived (through Fr. _le jade_ for
_l'ejade_) from Span. _ijada_ (Lat. _ilia_), the loins, this mineral
having been known to the Spanish conquerors of Mexico and Peru under the
name of _piedra de ijada_ or _yjada_ (colic stone). The reputed value of
the stone in renal diseases is also suggested by the term nephrite (so
named by A. G. Werner from Gr. [Greek: nephros], kidney), and by its old
name _lapis nephriticus_.
Jade, in its wide and popular sense, has always been highly prized by
the Chinese, who not only believe in its medicinal value but regard it
as the symbol of virtue. It is known, with other ornamental stones,
under the name of _yu_ or _yu-chi_ (yu-stone). According to Professor H.
A. Giles, it occupies in China the highest place as a jewel, and is
revered as "the quintessence of heaven and earth." Notwithstanding its
toughness or tenacity, due to a dense fibrous structure, it is wrought
into complicated forms and elaborately carved. On many prehistoric
sites in Europe, as in the Swiss lake-dwellings, celts and other carved
objects both in nephrite and in jadeite have not infrequently been
found; and as no kind of jade had until recent years been discovered _in
situ_ in any European locality it was held, especially by Professor L.
H. Fischer, of Freiburg im Breisgau, Baden, that either the raw material
or the worked objects must have been brought by some of the early
inhabitants from a jade locality probably in the East, or were obtained
by barter, thus suggesting a very early trade-route to the Orient.
Exceptional interest, therefore, attached to the discovery of jade in
Europe, nephrite having been found in Silesia, and jadeite or a similar
rock in the Alps, whilst pebbles of jade have been obtained from many
localities in Austria and north Germany, in the latter case probably
derived from Sweden. It is, therefore, no longer necessary to assign the
old jade implements to an exotic origin. Dr A. B. Meyer, of Dresden,
always maintained that the European jade objects were indigenous, and
his views have become generally accepted. Now that the mineral
characters of jade are better understood, and its identification less
uncertain, it may possibly be found with altered peridotites, or with
amphibolites, among the old crystalline schists of many localities.
Nephrite, or true jade, may be regarded as a finely fibrous or compact
variety of amphibole, referred either to actinolite or to tremolite,
according as its colour inclines to green or white. Chemically it is a
calcium-magnesium silicate, CaMg3(SiO3)4. The fibres are either more
or less parallel or irregularly felted together, rendering the stone
excessively tough; yet its hardness is not great, being only about 6
or 6.5. The mineral sometimes tends to become schistose, breaking with
a splintery fracture, or its structure may be horny. The specific
gravity varies from 2.9 to 3.18, and is of determinative value, since
jadeite is much denser. The colour of jade presents various shades of
green, yellow and grey, and the mineral when polished has a rather
greasy lustre. Professor F. W. Clarke found the colours due to
compounds of iron, manganese and chromium. One of the most famous
localities for nephrite is on the west side of the South Island of New
Zealand, where it occurs as nodules and veins in serpentine and
talcose rocks, but is generally found as boulders. It was known to the
Maoris as _pounamu_, or "green stone," and was highly prized, being
worked with great labour into various objects, especially the
club-like implement known as the _mere_, or _pattoo-pattoo_, and the
breast ornament called _hei-tiki_. The New Zealand jade, called by old
writers "green talc of the Maoris," is now worked in Europe as an
ornamental stone. The green jade-like stone known in New Zealand as
_tangiwai_ is bowenite, a translucent serpentine with enclosures of
magnesite. The mode of occurrence of the nephrite and bowenite of New
Zealand has been described by A. M. Finlayson (_Quart. Jour. Geol.
Soc._, 1909, p. 351). It appears that the Maoris distinguished six
varieties of jade. Difference of colour seems due to variations in the
proportion of ferrous silicate in the mineral. According to Finlayson,
the New Zealand nephrite results from the chemical alteration of
serpentine, olivine or pyroxene, whereby a fibrous amphibole is
formed, which becomes converted by intense pressure and movement into
the dense nephrite.
Nephrite occurs also in New Caledonia, and perhaps in some of the
other Pacific islands, but many of the New Caledonian implements
reputed to be of jade are really made of serpentine. From its use as a
material for axe-heads, jade is often known in Germany as _Beilstein_
("axe-stone"). A fibrous variety, of specific gravity 3.18, found in
New Caledonia, and perhaps in the Marquesas, was distinguished by A.
Damour under the name of "oceanic jade."
Much of the nephrite used by the Chinese has been obtained from
quarries in the Kuen-lun mountains, on the sides of the Kara-kash
valley, in Turkestan. The mineral, generally of pale colour, occurs in
nests and veins running through hornblende-schists and gneissose
rocks, and it is notable that when first quarried it is comparatively
soft. It appears to have a wide distribution in the mountains, and has
been worked from very ancient times in Khotan. Nephrite is said to
occur also in the Pamir region, and pebbles are found in the beds of
many streams. In Turkestan, jade is known as _yashm_ or _yeshm_, a
word which appears in Arabic as _yeshb_, perhaps cognate with [Greek:
iaspis] or jasper. The "jasper" of the ancients may have included
jade. Nephrite is said to have been discovered in 1891 in the Nan-shan
mountains in the Chinese province of Kan-suh, where it is worked. The
great centre of Chinese jade-working is at Peking, and formerly the
industry was active at Su-chow Fu. Siberia has yielded very fine
specimens of dark green nephrite, notably from the neighbourhood of
the Alibert graphite mine, near Batugol, Lake Baikal. The jade seems
to occur as a rock in part of the Sajan mountain system. New deposits
in Siberia were opened up to supply material for the tomb of the tsar
Alexander III. A gigantic monolith exists at the tomb of Tamerlane at
Samarkand. The occurrence of the Siberian jade has been described by
Professor L. von Jaczewski.
Jade implements are widely distributed in Alaska and British Columbia,
being found in Indian graves, in old shell-heaps and on the sites of
deserted villages. Dr G. M. Dawson, arguing from the discovery of some
boulders of jade in the Fraser river valley, held that they were not
obtained by barter from Siberia, but were of native origin; and the
locality was afterwards discovered by Lieut. G. M. Stoney. It is known
as the Jade Mountains, and is situated north of Kowak river, about 150
miles from its mouth. The study of a large collection of jade
implements by Professor F. W. Clarke and Dr G. P. Merrill proved that
the Alaskan jade is true nephrite, not to be distinguished from that
of New Zealand.
Jadeite is a mineral species established by A. Damour in 1863,
differing markedly from nephrite in that its relation lies with the
pyroxenes rather than with the amphiboles. It is an aluminium sodium
silicate, NaAl(SiO3)2, related to spodumene. S. L. Penfield showed, by
measurement, that jadeite is monoclinic. Its colour is commonly very
pale, and white jadeite, which is the purest variety, is known as
"camphor jade." In many cases the mineral shows bright patches of
apple-green or emerald-green, due to the presence of chromium. Jadeite
is much more fusible than nephrite, and is rather harder (6.5 to 7),
but its most readily determined character is found in its higher
specific gravity, which ranges from 3.20 to 3.41. Some jadeite seems
to be a metamorphosed igneous rock.
The Burmese jade, discovered by a Yunnan trader in the 13th century,
is mostly jadeite. The quarries, described by Dr F. Noetling, are
situated on the Uru river, about 120 m. from Mogaung, where the
jadeite occurs in serpentine, and is partly extracted by fire-setting.
It is also found as boulders in alluvium, and when these occur in a
bed of laterite they acquire a red colour, which imparts to them
peculiar value. According to Dr W. G. Bleeck, who visited the jade
country of Upper Burma after Noetling, jadeite occurs at three
localities in the Kachin Hills--Tawmaw, Hweka and Mamon. The jadeite
is known as _chauk-sen_, and is sent either to China or to Mandalay,
by way of Bhamo, whence Bhamo has come erroneously to be regarded as a
locality for jade. Jadeite occurs in association with the nephrite of
Turkestan, and possibly in some other Asiatic localities. In certain
cases nephrite is formed by the alteration of jadeite, as shown by
Professor J. P. Iddings. The Chinese _feits'ui_, sometimes called
"imperial jade," is a beautiful green stone, which seems generally to
be jadeite, but it is said that in some cases it may be chrysoprase.
It is named from its resemblance in colour to the plumage of the
kingfisher. The resonant character of jade has led to its occasional
use as a musical stone.
In Mexico, in Central America and in the northern part of South
America, objects of jadeite are common. The Kunz votive adze from
Oaxaca, in Mexico, is now in the American Museum of Natural History,
New York. At the time of the Spanish conquest of Mexico amulets of
green stone were highly venerated, and it is believed that jadeite was
one of the stones prized under the name of _chalchihuitl_. Probably
turquoise was another stone included under this name, and indeed any
green stone capable of being polished, such as the Amazon stone, now
recognized as a green feldspar, may have been numbered among the Aztec
amulets. Dr Kunz suggests that the chalchihuitl was jadeite in
southern Mexico and Central America, and turquoise in northern Mexico
and New Mexico. He thinks that Mexican jadeite may yet be discovered
in places (_Gems and Precious Stones of Mexico_, by G. F. Kunz:
Mexico, 1907).
Chloromelanite is Damour's name for a dense, dark mineral which has
been regarded as a kind of jade, and was used for the manufacture of
celts found in the dolmens of France and in certain Swiss
lake-dwellings. It is a mineral of spinach-green or dark-green colour,
having a specific gravity of 3.4, or even as high as 3.65, and may be
regarded as a variety of jadeite rich in iron. Chloromelanite occurs
in the Cyclops Mountains in New Guinea, and is used for hatchets or
agricultural implements, whilst the sago-clubs of the island are
usually of serpentine. Sillimanite, or fibrolite, is a mineral which,
like chloromelanite, was used by the Neolithic occupants of western
Europe, and is sometimes mistaken for a pale kind of jade. It is an
aluminium silicate, of specific gravity about 3.2, distinguished by
its infusibility. The _jade tenace_ of J. R. Haüy, discovered by H. B.
de Saussure in the Swiss Alps, is now known as saussurite. Among other
substances sometimes taken for jade may be mentioned prehnite, a
hydrous calcium-aluminium silicate, which when polished much resembles
certain kinds of jade. Pectolite has been used, like jade, in Alaska.
A variety of vesuvianite (idocrase) from California, described by Dr.
G. F. Kunz as californite, was at first mistaken for jade. The name
jadeolite has been given by Kunz to a green chromiferous syenite from
the jadeite mines of Burma. The mineral called bowenite, at one time
supposed to be jade, is a hard and tough variety of serpentine. Some
of the common Chinese ornaments imitating jade are carved in steatite
or serpentine, while others are merely glass. The _pâte de riz_ is a
fine white glass. The so-called "pink jade" is mostly quartz,
artificially coloured, and "black jade," though sometimes mentioned,
has no existence.
An exhaustive description of jade will be found in a sumptuous work,
entitled _Investigations and Studies in Jade_ (New York, 1906). This
work, edited by Dr G. F. Kunz, was prepared in illustration of the
famous jade collection made by Heber Reginald Bishop, and presented
by him to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. The work, which is
in two folio volumes, superbly illustrated, was printed privately, and
after 100 copies had been struck off on American hand-made paper, the
type was distributed and the material used for the illustrations was
destroyed. The second volume is a catalogue of the collection, which
comprises 900 specimens arranged in three classes: mineralogical,
archaeological and artistic. The important section on Chinese jade was
contributed by Dr S. W. Bushell, who also translated for the work a
discourse on jade--_Yü-shuo_ by T'ang Jung-tso, of Peking. Reference
should also be made to Heinrich Fischer's _Nephrit und Jadeit_ (2nd
ed., Stuttgart, 1880), a work which at the date of its publication was
almost exhaustive. (F. W. R.*)