LEO XIII.
When Leo XIII. mounted the Pontifical throne, the Papacy had had three
quarters of a century of disastrous experience of the reactionary
policy. The Restoration of 1815 had seemed to inaugurate for Rome a
new period of prosperity. The touching experiences of Pius VII. and
the widely recognized need of combating by religious influence the new
spirit of revolt disposed the monarchs of Europe, and a large part of
their subjects, to regard the successor of Peter with respect. He had
been their ally in resisting Napoleon: he was their ally in restoring
feudalism. England moderated its rude tradition of "the Scarlet Woman."
The Tsar of the Russias felt that Romanism was a large element in the
spiritual renaissance he contemplated. Louis XVIII. remembered how
altar and throne had fallen together. Ferdinand of Spain drowned the
revolt in blood. Austria reconsidered its Febronianism. Italy seemed
incapable of rebellion.
But the revolutionary wave had retired only to come back with greater
effect, and from 1830 to 1850 the face of Europe was transformed. The
Popes almost alone defied the spirit to which monarchs bowed, and they
stood almost alone amid their ruins. England returned to its disdain:
Russia and Switzerland angrily broke off relations with the Vatican:
Germany was engaged in what the Vatican regarded as a formidable
effort to crush Catholicism in the new Empire. Austria was sullen and
weakened. France was rapidly passing into its third and final revolt
against Catholicism. Spain was forced into an alliance with the growing
Liberals against the Carlists. Italy was overwhelmingly opposed to the
Papacy on what the Papacy declared to be a sacred and vital issue, and
was honeycombed with Rationalism. Belgium was almost dominated by a
Liberal middle class. The South American republics were falling away
in succession. The two most profoundly Catholic peoples, Ireland and
Poland, were ruined, and their children were scattered and seduced.
Thus would any penetrating cardinal have interpreted the situation
of the Church in 1878; yet, if his penetration were great enough, he
would see that there was a tendency among this Liberal middle class,
which now dominated Europe, to seek once more an alliance with religion
against the deeper social heresies which were appearing. Would the new
Pope prove subtle enough to grasp that opportunity and save the Church?
His "infallibility" would avail little: he would be unwise to emphasize
it. He must be a diplomatist and a rhetorician.
The new Pope, Leo XIII., was nearly sixty-eight years old, and had
had a better education in the history of the nineteenth century than
most of the Italian cardinals had. Gioacchino Vincenzo Raffaele Luigi
Pecci was born on March 2, 1810, at Carpineto. His first lesson, in
the country mansion, would be to hear his father. Colonel Pecci, and
his very pious mother, a Tertiary of the Franciscan Order, talk of the
Napoleonic nightmare that had just passed away. From the age of eight
to fourteen he was under the care of the Jesuits at Viterbo, and, as
it was represented to him that the younger sons in so large a family
had to look to the Church for their income, after some hesitation, he
allowed them to tonsure him, at the age of eleven.[358] In 1824 his
mother died, and he went to study, still under the Jesuits, at the
Collegio Romano at Rome. He had conspicuous ability and high character,
and besides improving his Latin--he already wrote Latin poems--he
studied philosophy, mathematics, chemistry, and astronomy. He attracted
attention, as clever boys attract the attention of the clergy, and
was directed toward the clerical career. He must enter the "Academy
for Noble Ecclesiastics," said one prelate; and, with the aid of his
brothers, he drew up a genealogical tree to prove that his father, the
easy-going colonel of Carpineto, was descended from the mediæval Pecci
of Siena. The Academy did not pronounce his proof valid--the connexion
is probable enough--but, on his merits, and in view of his important
patrons, admitted him among the nobles of Anagni (1831).
Joachim--he had called himself Vincenzo until 1832--took a degree in
theology, and told his brothers that he was going to illumine their
ancient family. He still loved to take a flintlock musket over the
hills during his holidays, but he indulged in no dissipations and
became pale and thin over the books which were to help his ambition.
His father died in 1836, and it is in his naïve letters to his
brothers that we discover the human elements ignored by his eloquent
biographers.[359] He begins to follow politics, in the most ardent
Papal spirit. Cardinal Pacca, the intransigeant, recommended the
pale, slim young cleric to Gregory XVI., and in 1837 he was appointed
domestic prelate. Cardinal Sala also befriended the young Monsignore,
and he went from one small office to another. Sala pointed out that for
further advancement he must become a priest, and he became a priest
(December 31, 1837); but his letters make it clear that he entered the
priesthood in a mood of such exalted piety that Sala feared he was
about to quit the world and become a Jesuit.
About a month after his ordination (February 2, 1838) he was appointed
Apostolic Delegate (Civil Governor) of Benevento, where the brigandage
which disgraced the Papal States was particularly rabid. In three
years, with the aid of a skilful chief of police, he almost suppressed
brigandage and smuggling, and did much for the province. His progress
was not so heroically triumphant as the biographers represent. In his
letters to his brothers he complains that his predecessor has robbed
the treasury and they must help him: that his ninety-seven ducats
a month do not enable him to have the fine horses and carriage he
needs: and, later (in 1839), that the clerics at Rome are plotting
to cheat him of the higher promotion which he deserves. In 1841 the
Pope transferred him to Perugia, and he did good work in reforming
education, founding a bank for small traders, and so on.
In January, 1843, his real education began. He was appointed Nuncio at
Brussels and was made titular Archbishop of Damietta. Able as he was,
the promotion to so important an office was premature. Of French (or
any languages but Latin and Italian) he knew not a syllable until he
set out, and with the modern thought which was then current in Brussels
he was acquainted only by means of the version of it given by Pius IX.
in the Syllabus, of which he fully approved. His handsome presence and
amiable ways carried him far. There is an almost boyish expression on
his face at this period: on the long, thin, smiling face and bright
eyes and soft sensuous mouth. King Leopold, a Protestant, liked him,
and allowed the young archbishop to attract him to religious functions
and persuade him of the importance of religion in appeasing social
ambitions. Pecci, in turn, could not contemplate the gas-lit streets,
the railways, the postal system, etc., of Belgium, without realizing
that the Papal States would have to admit _something_ of this modern
thought. But he was for a safe modernism, consistent with the _Quanta
Cura_ and the Syllabus. He was suave to all: even to the rebellious
Gioberti, who was then giving Italian lessons in Brussels. To this
period of his career belongs the good story of a naughty Liberal
marquis, who ventured to offer him a pinch of snuff from a box which
was adorned with a nude Venus, and the Archbishop is said to have taken
it and asked: "Madame la marquise?" Secretly, however, he urged the
Catholics to organize a struggle against the Liberals. The Liberals
wanted a compromise on the school-question, and, when the Nuncio
assisted in defeating it, the Premier Deschamps wrote contemptuously
to Rome that they would like a Nuncio who was a "statesman." As,
about the same time, the bishopric of Perugia fell vacant and the
Perugians asked for their former Delegate, Gregory recalled Pecci. His
disappointment--which he plainly expresses in his letters--was softened
only by the Pope's assurance that the transfer would be regarded as
"equal to promotion to a nunciature of the first class"; in other
words, he remained on the path to the cardinalate, as he desired.[360]
From Brussels he brought a warm testimonial written by King Leopold,
and he spent a month in London (where he had an interview with the
Queen) and some weeks in Paris. He reached Rome in May (1846), to
find Gregory dying, and he witnessed the election of Pius IX., and,
at Perugia, applauded the early "liberalism" of the Pope. Perugia had
a large share of the advanced thinkers who now overran Italy, and
the Bishop would assuredly become more closely acquainted with their
ideas. From his later encyclicals, however, one must suppose that he
never made a profound study of their claims, either on the intellectual
or the social side. Of philosophy he had only the mediæval version
given him in the Collegio Romano and the Sapienza, and of economics
or sociology he knew nothing. Such science as he knew--the elements
of chemistry and astronomy--was easily reconcilable with religion,
and this gave him an apparently liberal attitude toward science. On
the other hand, he had genuine sympathies and he felt that the new
aspirations of the working class were not to be met with a sheer
rebuff.[361] The ideas of Gioberti and Ventura appealed to him. Even
when Gioberti had fallen out of favour at the Quirinal, Archbishop
Pecci, when he passed through Perugia in 1848, gave him hospitality in
his palace. Henri des Houx affirms that he heard on good authority that
for this Pius IX. suspended the Archbishop from pontifical duties for
several weeks. Later, he incurred suspicion by permitting a memorial
service at the death of Cavour. It is admitted by the leading Catholic
biographers that he was in bad odour at the Quirinal. The promised
cardinal's hat was withheld for eight years[362] and his great ability
was wasted on a provincial bishopric. The slight is ascribed to the
jealousy of Cardinal Antonelli, and his advance after the Secretary's
death confirms the suspicion.
It is, however, plain that Pecci was a most excellent Bishop, and that
he was no more "Liberal" than Pius IX. in his first year. He strictly
organized the work and education of the clergy, restored the seminary
and built a College of St. Thomas, founded many schools, churches, and
hospitals, brought Brothers of Mercy and nuns from Belgium, and opened
a branch of the St. Vincent de Paul Society. He left a fine record of
religious-social work, and the orthodox poor loved him. Yet we must
set aside the exaggerations of biographers. Pecci cherished the purely
Papal ideal and was out of touch with the majority of his people. In
1859, when a group of rebels set up a "Provisional Government" at
Perugia, he nervously shut himself in his palace for two days and,
without a protest, allowed the ferocious Swiss Guard sent by Antonelli
to wear themselves out in an orgy of slaughter and pillage. A few
months later Sardinia expelled the Papal troops, and, when a plebiscite
was taken, 97,000 voted for incorporation in the kingdom of Sardinia,
and only 386 voted against. The Archbishop protested emphatically
and consistently against the seizure of the Pope's temporal power,
and, when the hated laws of Sardinia were successively applied to
Perugia (on civil marriage, the suppression of the religious orders,
military service for clerics, etc.), he continued to protest in the
warmest language. In 1862 he suspended three priests who adopted the
Italian cause, and was cited before the civil tribunal; but the case
was allowed to lapse. We know that he was carefully watched from the
Quirinal, and that he had an informant of his own at the Curia,[363]
but his pronouncements and letters make it abundantly clear that he
never swerved from the strict Papal conception of contemporary thought
and politics.
Antonelli died in December, 1876, and (as is ignored by most of his
biographers) Pecci very shortly went to live at Rome--long before he
was appointed Chamberlain. He had an able coadjutor in the bishopric,
and he pleaded his age and increasing weakness. He lived in the modest
Falconieri Palace, and trusted to get a suburbicarian bishopric. To
his annoyance, two which fell vacant in the next few weeks were given
by Pius to others, but at length, in August, the Pope appointed him
Camerlengo (Chamberlain). In that capacity he had, the following
February, to tap the dead Pope on the forehead with a hammer and to
arrange the Conclave. He was not widely known at Rome, and few foresaw
his elevation to the throne. It is, in fact, probable that Pius IX.
had made him Camerlengo, not in order to exclude him from the Papacy,
but because he was not likely to be required for it. Since Alexander
VI. no Chamberlain had been elected Pope. There were, however, shrewd
observers who predicted his rise, and little surprise was expressed
when, after the third scrutiny, on February 20th, he secured forty-four
out of the sixty-one votes. We may set aside romantic speculations
about the Conclave. A few cardinals perceived that the Church needed
in its ruler just such a combination of clear intelligence, broad
knowledge, and diplomatic temper as Cardinal Pecci possessed, and
he was sufficiently sound on Papal politics to disarm the more
conservative. It is not impossible that waverers reflected as they
gazed on the worn white frame of the cardinal, that, whatever policy he
adopted, Leo XIII. would not long rule the Church.
The Liberal press had recalled his friendship with Gioberti and his
permission of a service in memory of Cavour, but Leo quickly reassured
the more rigid cardinals. The crowd gathered in the great square
to receive the blessing of the new Pope, yet hour followed hour
without his making an appearance. R. de Cesare shows that the Italian
Government was prepared, not only to preserve order, but to render
military honours if he appeared on the balcony. The intransigeant
cardinals opposed it, and four hours later he gave the blessing inside
St. Peter's. Similarly with his coronation. It is untrue that the
Italian Government refused to take measures to preserve order if he
were, as was usual, crowned in St. Peter's. On the advice of the more
conservative cardinals he chose to be crowned in semi-privacy in the
Sistine Chapel on March 3d.[364] Indeed when, on February 22d, he had
been compelled to go to his late palace for his papers, he crossed
Rome in the utmost secrecy. He would, like Pius, have "no truck with
the robbers." To the Kaiser, the Tsar, and the Swiss President he had
written on the day of his election to say that he looked forward to
more friendly relations, but in his first Consistory, on March 28th, he
assured the cardinals that there would be no reconciliation with Italy,
and on April 28th he issued his first Encyclical, _Inscrutabile_, in
which, besides asserting the claim of the temporal power, he described
Europe, in more graceful terms than Pius, yet in the same spirit, as
filled with a "pestilential virus" and nearing death unless it speedily
took the antidote of Papal obedience. There was to be no truck with
"the new civilization" also.
Yet Leo XIII. has passed into contemporary history as the great
"reconciler of differences," in Carlyle's phrase: the man who, by a
superb diplomacy and a fortunate conjunction of character and genius,
rescued the Church from the dangerous position in which Pius IX. had
left it and raised it to a higher level of prestige and power. The
historian must make allowance for contemporary enthusiasm. Probably
most rulers of ability and character have left that impression among
the generation which witnessed their death. Leo, moreover, as befitted
a temperate and high-minded man, excited no bitter opposition. All
the current biographies of him are from Catholic pens: few of them
even pretend to have the candour and balance of historical writers.
Leo's story is still to be written. It suffices here to remark that
the forces he most fiercely combated--Socialism and Rationalism--made
during his Pontificate a progress out of all proportion to the increase
of population: that the Church of Rome actually decreased, if we take
account of the growth of population: and that "modernism" within the
Church became the customary attitude of cultivated Catholics. Among
the most potent facts of his Pontificate are the facts that France, to
retain which he made grave sacrifices, was entirely lost to the Church:
that Italy, which he defied, has established its position with absolute
security and abandoned its creed to a remarkable extent: that Portugal,
Spain, and Spanish-America have witnessed a similar spread of revolt:
that in England, Germany, and America there has been no progress other
than increase by births and immigration: that Leo's effort to check
Socialism by a Christian social zeal failed and was almost abandoned by
him in his later years: and that his attempt to impose St. Thomas of
Aquinas on modern thought and his design of directing modern Scriptural
research have only embarrassed the scholars of his Church. He was one
of the great men of his great age, the ablest Pope in three hundred
years: but he failed. He made no impression whatever on what he called
the "diseases" of modern thought and life, and he left his Church
numerically weaker--in proportion to the increase of population--than
he found it.[365]
His policy in Italy is almost invariably described as being
conciliatory without sacrificing the Papal claim. We cannot regard
as entirely amiable a policy of reminding the Italian monarchy
and statesmen, every few years, that they are sacrilegious and
excommunicated thieves, and it is surely now clear that Leo erred in
maintaining the attitude of Pius and forbidding Catholics to take
part in the elections. The _Catholic Encyclopædia_ imputes to him the
remarkable expectation that the revolutionary elements in Italy would,
if not checked by the Catholic vote, win power at the polls and the
government would seek the aid of the Vatican; and the writer describes
this as a miscalculation which Pius X. was obliged to correct.[366]
Indeed the one wise move on the part of Leo XIII. in regard to
Italy is either suppressed or discussed with strained scepticism by
Catholic writers. During the first few years after his coronation Leo
continued to protest against the wickedness of the world in general
and of Italy in particular. In 1881 he had a singular and unpleasant
proof of the resentment of Rome. On July 13th the remains of Pius IX.
were transferred to the Church of St. Lawrence, where he wished to
be buried, and, the government feeling that a public ceremony would
lead to disorder, the translation was to be secret and nocturnal. But
the "secret" was carefully divulged before the hour, and a vast crowd
of the faithful assembled to do homage to the Papa-Re. The rougher
anti-clericals were thus stimulated to make an unseemly protest, and
Leo took occasion again to protest to the Catholic Powers that his
position was intolerable.
On April 24, 1881, the Pope urged the Catholic Associations to enter
the field of municipal politics, and in the following year he, in the
Encyclical _Etsi nos_ (February 5th), and on the occasion of the death
of Garibaldi (June 2d), again made severe attacks upon Italy. The
friction increased. In July (1882) Leo had to protest that bishops,
not recognizing the government, received no incomes or palaces, and
that monks and nuns who endeavoured to evade the law of suppression
were hardly treated. Then a dismissed employee of the Vatican brought
an action against the Pope in the Italian court, and though the action
was dismissed, the court claimed jurisdiction, and Leo made a heated
protest to France and Austria. In 1884 the Propaganda was compelled to
invest its money in Italian funds, and the Pope, after the customary
protest, set up a number of procurators in foreign countries to whom
the faithful might send their offerings. In 1886 the anti-clerical
campaign became more violent; tithes were abolished, and many Italian
Catholics began to desire reconciliation. Italy entered into the Triple
Alliance with Austria and Germany, and henceforward appeals to the
"Catholic" Powers were obviously futile. France itself had by this
time an anti-clerical government and majority, and German and Austrian
Catholics bitterly resented the Italian attack on the Triple Alliance.
In February, 1887, Cardinal Jacobini, the Secretary of State, died, and
Cardinal Rampolla entered upon his famous career. Leo openly directed
the new Secretary to insist on the restoration of the temporal power,
and ordered that the Rosary be recited nightly in the churches of
Rome. But in the course of that year there was a change in the Vatican
policy, though, since it was unsuccessful, it is usually concealed or
called into question. Crispi himself revealed, a few years later, that
there were negotiations for a settlement between the Vatican and the
Quirinal, and that France, irritated by the Triple Alliance, threatened
to put greater pressure on its Church unless the Pope withdrew from the
negotiations.[367] Mgr. de T'Serclaes virtually admits the fact, and
conjectures that Crispi wanted Italy to have a share in the approaching
celebration of the Pope's Jubilee. We have no right to question
Crispi's assurance that France intervened, and that the Vatican
was willing to hear of compromise. The Papal authorities, however,
concealed the unsuccessful offer and returned to the earlier attitude.
The Pope's sacerdotal Jubilee was celebrated in 1888 with immense
rejoicings, and the anti-clericals retorted with fresh legislation. In
1889 a statue of Giordano Bruno was erected at Rome. It is said that
Leo XIII. spent the hours of the demonstration in tears at the foot of
the altar, and that he had some idea of leaving Rome. The gates of the
Vatican were carefully watched, and there was great excitement in Rome
when it was announced that he had actually passed over a few yards of
Roman territory--to visit the studio of a sculptor near the Vatican.
But the Pope clung to his theory of being imprisoned in the Vatican,
and the remaining years were like the earlier: anathema on one side,
disdain and defiance on the other. When he died, the laity of Rome
itself had become so largely anti-clerical that Catholic Deputies to
the Chamber did not care to be seen going to mass, and in the north
Socialism was advancing at a remarkable pace.
In Germany, on the other hand, Leo won considerable success, though
his biographers describe it inaccurately. The _Kulturkampf_ was at its
height when Leo was elected, and he at once wrote a firm and courteous
letter to the Emperor, trusting that peace would be restored. In his
cold and ironical reply (evidently written by Bismarck) the Emperor
observed that there would be peace when the Pope directed the clergy
to obey the laws, and Leo retorted (April 17, 1878) that the laws
were inconsistent with the Catholic conscience. But circumstances
favoured the Pope. Two attempts were made to assassinate the Emperor,
and he directed Bismarck to see that rebellious impulses in the young
were checked by religious education. It seems clear that the Emperor
had begun to dislike the struggle with the Church, and by this time
Bismarck himself must have seen that persecution had led only to the
better organization and greater energy of the Catholics, while his
policy was threatened from another side by the rapid advance of Social
Democracy. The Papal Nuncio at Munich, Mgr. Aloisi-Masella, was invited
to Berlin. He was instructed from Rome to decline the invitation, and
Bismarck arranged a "wayside inn" meeting at Kissingen. As Bismarck
insisted on the government retaining a veto on all ecclesiastical
appointments, the negotiations broke down, and little progress was made
when they were resumed by the Vienna Nuncio and Prince von Reuss.
In the following year Falk, the framer of the famous May Laws,
resigned, and the Vatican resumed its efforts. On February 24, 1880,
the Pope informed the Archbishop of Cologne that the government might
have a restricted veto on the ordinations of priests if it would
grant an amnesty--eight out of twelve bishops were still in exile or
prison--and modify the laws. Bismarck refused, but there was some
relaxation of the laws. In 1881 several bishops were appointed, and in
1882 Bismarck voted funds for a German representative at the Vatican.
It was, however, at once discovered that the bargain put the Pope in a
dilemma. Bismarck demanded that Leo should direct the Alsatian clergy
to submit, but, though the Pope promised that he would "see to it,"
he dared not interfere. In 1884 diplomatic relations were formally
restored. Several bishops returned from exile, and episcopal incomes
were restored; but the amnesty was not extended to the Archbishop of
Cologne and the Archbishop of Gnesen and Posen, and Catholic students
were not allowed to go to Louvain, Rome, or Innspruck.
In 1885 Bismarck made a further step by inviting the Pope to mediate
between Germany and Spain in their quarrel for the possession of the
Caroline Islands. It is said that Bismarck was entrapped into this
by a Catholic journalist announcing that Spain was about to make the
invitation. However that may be, the invitation flattered the Vatican,
and the two rebellious archbishops were "persuaded" by the Pope to
resign. The German Catholics were now beginning to murmur against the
Pope, and the negotiations proceeded slowly, but in 1886 Bismarck
bluntly denounced the May Laws, and it was proposed to modify them.
Shortly afterwards, however, it appeared that the Pope had conveyed
an impression that he would pay a high price (besides the veto on
priests) for the surrender. The Centre Party opposed Bismarck's new
law of military service, and he appealed to Rome. Rampolla, through
the Bavarian Nuncio, directed the Catholic members to desist, but,
to the equal dismay of the Chancellor and the Pope, they refused to
obey and caused a dissolution of the Reichstag. Their leader, Baron
Frankenstein, replied to the Bavarian Nuncio that they took orders
from Rome only in ecclesiastical matters.[368] Bismarck, in his anger,
got copies of the letters and published them. What followed we can
only gather from the sequel. The Centre withdrew its opposition,
the military law was passed, and the May Laws were modified. German
Liberals beheld the strange spectacle of the Iron Chancellor, in the
Reichstag, indignantly denying that the Pope was a "foreign power," who
ought not to intervene in German affairs.
No further concessions were won from Germany--the Jesuits are still
excluded--but since 1887 the Church in that country has enjoyed
comparative peace and prosperity. William II. acceded to the throne
in 1888, and from the first he insisted on friendly relations with
Rome. On three occasions (1888, 1893, and 1903) he visited Leo at the
Vatican. Bismarck retired in 1890, after a final defeat by the Centre
Party. The money due to the bishops (whose incomes had been suspended)
now amounted to more than £400,000, and Bismarck invited the Pope to
compromise in regard to it. Leo refused; the government must settle the
matter with the Catholics of Germany, he said. In the later debate in
the Reichstag the Minister of Worship heatedly denounced the Pope for
duplicity, but the Centre had its way and the whole sum was restored
to the bishops. It is further claimed, though without documentary
evidence, that the Emperor's visit to the Vatican in 1893 was for
the purpose of urging the Pope to order the members of the Centre to
support the new military laws. In the sequel the Catholic members were
divided and the laws passed. But documents on these recent events
will not reach the eye of this generation, and we cannot be sure how
far the _Kulturkampf_ was abandoned as a reward for Papal support of
Germany's military policy. On the other hand, the alliance in hostility
to Socialism has proved a failure. The Catholic vote at the polls fell,
during Leo's Pontificate, from 27.9 per cent. of the total vote to 19.7
(in 1903): the Social Democratic vote increased nearly tenfold.[369]
In France the policy of the Pope was correct and particularly
unsuccessful. A few years after the fall of the Papal States the number
of professing Catholics in France arose to about thirty millions in
a nation of thirty-six millions; and the sincerity of a very large
proportion may be judged from the fact that nearly two thirds of the
Papal income from Peter's Pence (which rose to nearly half a million
sterling a year) came from French Catholics. Yet when Leo died, the
professing Catholics had fallen to about six millions in a population
of thirty-nine millions. We must beware of ascribing this failure to
Leo XIII., though undoubtedly he never exhibited a sound knowledge
or statesmanlike grasp of the situation in France. That country was
developing along anti-clerical lines, and no Pope or prelate could
have diverted it. Leo was absorbed in the superficial struggle of
royalists and republicans until the serious development had proceeded
too far. In the later seventies the anti-clericals began to assert
their rapidly growing power and influence legislation. The Jesuits
were again expelled, and education further withdrawn from Catholic
control. The Pope followed the development in helpless concern until
October 22, 1880, when, at the demand of the French faithful, he passed
his censure. The Republican authorities paid no heed and in 1883 Leo
sent a protest to President Grévy. In a cold and indifferent reply the
President pointed out that the Catholic clergy could expect little
favour from a Republican institution which they constantly attacked,
and the Pope's attention was forcibly drawn to the royalist agitation
which divided the Church and fed the anti-clerical campaign against
it. We must conclude that Leo, like so many Catholics, miscalculated
the recuperating power of royalism, besides fearing to offend a
powerful section of the clergy and laity, as he still hesitated to
direct Catholics to submit to the Republic. For a time he trusted
that the democratic movement headed by the Comte de Mun would bring
relief, but it increased the confusion, and on February 16, 1892, Leo
issued his famous Encyclical, urging the French Catholics to submit
to the Republic and assail only its anti-clerical laws. The royalists
sulked: in one diocese the Peter's Pence offerings fell from £60,000 to
£35,000. Even the Panama Scandal in 1893 failed to yield any advantage,
and the Church completed its series of blunders by adopting the crusade
against Dreyfus. In his later years Leo could but helplessly look on
while Waldeck-Rousseau and Combes disestablished and debilitated the
Church. Even within the Church he was compelled to witness an immense
advance of the "Americanism" which he detested.[370]
In Belgium the political circumstances were more favourable to the
plans of the Vatican. In the summer of 1879 the Liberals passed a law
for the secularization of the elementary schools, and the Catholics
complained that the Pope, who blamed the violence of their language,
failed to discharge his office with due severity. In point of fact, Leo
was working so diplomatically, assuring the King that the clergy must
respect the civil authority and separately encouraging the clergy to
resist "iniquitous" laws, that the government at length publicly taxed
him with duplicity and withdrew its representative from Rome. In 1885,
however, the Catholics returned to power, and, enjoying the advantage
of a division of the hostile forces (Liberals and Socialists),
established a lasting influence in the country.
Austria, on the other hand, proved unsatisfactory to the Vatican. From
the day of its alliance with Italy the Roman officials looked with
annoyance on Austria, and the consistent tone of Mgr. de T'Serclaes'
references to it reflect the Vatican attitude. A letter which the Pope
wrote to the bishops of Hungary in 1886, urging them to resist the new
and unecclesiastical laws in regard to marriage and education, was
construed as a wish to cause trouble in Austria, or between Austria and
Italy, and the same murmurs arose when Leo urged the Austrian clergy
to resist further Liberal laws in 1890. The laws were carried, and
the protests of the Pope were disregarded. In Spain the Pope was more
fortunate, as he curbed the disposition of the clergy to adopt the
ill-fated Carlist cause.[371] Portugal remained outwardly faithful, and
a Concordat granted by the King in 1886 permitted the Pope to effect a
much needed reform in the ecclesiastical administration of India. Some
advantages were won, also, in Switzerland, where the older hostility
was checked, and the Church prospered.
The relations of the Vatican with Russia were singular, and gave rise
to bitter complaint among the Catholic subjects of the Tsar. To the
amiable letter in which Leo announced his election the Tsar gave a cold
and discouraging reply. In 1879, however, the attempt on the Tsar's
life gave Leo an opportunity to insinuate his belief that only Catholic
influence could curb these criminal impulses; and when Alexander II was
assassinated in 1883, he approached his successor with more success. In
the succeeding years of diplomatic intercourse the repression of the
Catholic Poles was partly relieved; but no concession was made when the
Pope presented to the Tsar the petition of the Ruthenian Catholics in
1884, or when he deprecated the exile of the Bishop of Wilna in 1885.
In 1888, however, Russia approached the Vatican through Vienna, and the
negotiations have given rise to acute controversy. The Poles murmured
that the Pope was disposed to betray their national interests in order
to please France by obliging its virtual ally, Russia. How far the Pope
was preparing to enforce on the Poles the Russian demands--for a more
extensive use of the Russian language in Poland and for a surrender
of the offspring of mixed marriages--and to what extent he realized
the true designs of Russia, cannot be confidently determined. It is
clear only that he meditated concession, and the suspicion that he thus
sought a political advantage in France is not implausible.
A similar complaint arose among that other shattered Catholic nation,
the Irish. The Parnellite movement of the eighties, it was said, was
used by him as a means of accommodating and conciliating England;
and there is little room for doubt that this design influenced his
policy. It was one of the general lines of his campaign in Europe to
persuade rulers that the power of his Church would be their greatest
guarantee of docility. In 1881 he warned Archbishop McCabe that the
disturbances of public order in Ireland were not to be favoured, and he
made the hint more explicit in the following year. In 1883 he gravely
disturbed the Irish Catholics by issuing a drastic condemnation of the
Parnell Testimonial Fund and forbidding the clergy to work for it;
while Errington was amiably received at the Vatican. The disturbance
became graver, and in 1885 Leo summoned the Irish bishops to Rome. Even
their representations failed to disturb his policy, and on April 13,
1888 (after a Roman envoy, Mgr. Persico, had been sent on the quaint
mission of studying the situation in Ireland), a decree of the Holy
Office condemned the "Plan of Campaign." So loud were the murmurs at
this invasion of the political rights of the Irish that an Encyclical
(_Sæpe Nos_) had to be dispatched on June 24 to secure the submission
of the bishops. We may at least discover some penetration in the Pope's
confidence that Ireland would not permanently resent the abuse of his
authority.
The advantage gained in England was slight. The broad stream of
immigration from Ireland since 1840, which had given the illusion of
a rapid growth of Catholicism, and the more slender stream which is
associated with the Oxford Movement, had materially lessened, and a
period of loss had begun (in proportion to the increase of population).
For nearly two decades the Pope was content with domestic measures like
the regulation of the conflicts between monks and bishops (May 8, 1881)
and the establishment of an hierarchy in India. On April 20, 1895,
he took a bolder step, and in the Encyclical _Ad Anglos_ invited the
English people to renew their ancient allegiance to Rome. Undismayed
by the absence of a response, he, on September 13, 1896, issued the
famous Encyclical _Apostolicæ Curæ_, in which he assailed the validity
of orders in the English Church. The brisk controversy which ensued
does not concern us; but we may assume that, from the figures at the
disposal of the Vatican, the Pope would sadly realize, when the century
drew to a close, that the Catholic Church in England had not increased,
beyond the natural growth by births and immigration, during his long
and laborious Pontificate.
In the United States Leo had a thorny task. With his keen scent for
Socialistic insurgence against constituted authority, he proposed,
in 1887, to condemn the 730,000 American Catholic workers who were
incorporated in the "Knights of Labour." Cardinal Gibbon defended
them, and a grudging toleration was issued from Rome. In 1893 the Pope
sought to improve his relations with the Republic by taking a handsome
part in the fourth centenary of the discovery of America, but by that
time a grave struggle had begun to rend the cosmopolitan Church in
the States. Americans naturally resented the Germanism of the German
Catholic schools, and in 1892 Archbishop Ireland consented to hand over
to the School Board some of these elementary schools, on condition
that the Catholic teachers were retained and hours were assigned for
religious instruction. The Germans and the Ultramontanes raised the cry
that Ireland and Gibbon were favouring the "godless schools" of the
Republic, and denounced the plan to Rome. Again the Cardinal and the
Archbishop won a grudging _tolerari posse_ ("may be tolerated in the
circumstances") but a fierce agitation went on in the American Church,
and the Pope's representative, Mgr. Satolli, was vigorously opposed by
the more American prelates.
In 1896 it was believed that Satolli was instrumental in securing the
removal of Mgr. Keane from the rectorship of the Catholic University at
Washington, and when an intriguing German professor was dismissed by
the University authorities and Rome demanded his restoration. Cardinal
Gibbon forced the Pope to withdraw the demand. The ultras then--with
the persistent aid of the Jesuits and their _Civiltà Cattolica_ at
Rome--attacked a biography of Father Hecker, of which an American
translation had been published with warm recommendations from Ireland
and Gibbon. A Roman prelate authorized the printing of a scathing
attack on the book, and, although Rampolla protested that neither he
nor the Pope was involved in the authorization, the American prelates
took up a menacing attitude. At this juncture Leo, whose repeated
counsels to lay the strife had been disregarded, wrote his famous
letter on Americanism to Cardinal Gibbon (January 22d, 1899). Piquant
stories are told of the sentiments expressed by the American prelates,
but these the historian cannot as yet control. The struggle ended in a
compromise. The book was not condemned, but quietly withdrawn, and the
American prelates generally disavowed the principles to which the Pope
gave the name of Americanism.
These are but feeble summaries of the vast diplomatic activity which
absorbed the long days of the venerable Pontiff, and one must leave
almost unnoticed other important actions. In 1885 he negotiated with
the Chinese government for the representative of the Celestial Empire
at Rome, but the French, rightly suspecting an intrigue on the part of
Germany to strengthen its influence in the Far East, forced him to
desist. He had the satisfaction of closing a schism in the Armenian
Church (1878), and secured favourable measures in some of the Balkan
States and a few of the South American republics. He restored the
Borgia Rooms in the Vatican (1897), created a modern observatory out
of the old Gregorian observatory of the sixteenth century (1888),
formed a Reference Library of 30,000 volumes at the Vatican, and opened
the Vatican archives to scholars (1883).[372] Frail, worn to a pale
shade of his former self, the devoted Pope maintained to the end his
formidable struggle against a seceding world. Rising at six in the
morning--often having summoned his secretary to the bedside during the
night--he said his mass and heard a mass said by his chaplain. Then
after a cup of chocolate or goat's milk, he began the long day's work
with Rampolla, or impressed his innumerable visitors with his piercing
dark eyes and translucent features. At two he dined--soup, eggs (rarely
meat), and a little claret--and then, after a nap or a drive in the
gardens, returned to work until his simple supper at ten. After that
the journals of the world, carefully marked, were read to him; and the
burning lamp told of his ceaseless thinking and praying until after
midnight. Fortunately he did not, like so many Popes, lack financial
resources. The Papal income before 1870 had been about £130,000, and
the Italian government had offered to pay this. When Pius IX. refused
the offer, his income was swollen by voluntary gifts to £400,000
a year, and he left nearly a million and a quarter sterling to his
successor. In addition to this large income Leo received vast sums
on the occasion of his Sacerdotal Jubilee in 1888 and his Episcopal
Jubilee in 1893: the presents (besides Peter's Pence) in 1888 were
valued at £2,000,000 by the Vatican authorities, and in 1893 the money
offered amounted to £1,600,000.
The chief means by which the Pope created in his followers the illusion
of triumphant statesmanship was the Encyclical. A most assiduous
student of Latin from his boyhood, he raised the ecclesiastical tongue
to a level it had rarely touched and impressed the world with his
literary scholarship. A Roman prelate once described to me how he would
linger over the composition, toying with his pen and saying to his
secretary: "What _is_ that word that Sallust uses?" His style was an
attempt to combine the graceful lucidity of Sallust and the opulence of
Cicero. The literary merit of his Encyclicals was so great that even
generally informed men at times overlooked the inadequacy of their
content: an inadequacy which is seen at once when we reflect that the
great Encyclicals which dealt with the socio-political questions of the
hour are not consulted by any non-Catholic authority on such questions.
The attack upon Socialism which runs through his writings provoked only
the smiles of his opponents and did not check the large secessions of
French, German, and Italian Catholics to Socialism. A second principal
theme was the duty of submission to authority, and the Pope's analysis
of authority, on the basis of St. Thomas, belongs to the pre-scientific
stage of sociology. A third general theme is that Catholicism made
the civilization of Europe, and that that civilization is perishing
because of its apostasy. In this argument the Pope not only gravely
misunderstood the age in which he lived, but betrayed an historical
conception of the social evolution of Europe which belongs essentially
to the more backward seminaries.[373]
The chief Encyclicals, which were at one time claimed as masterly
expositions of eternal principles, have already passed out of even
Catholic circulation. _Quod Apostolici_ (December 28, 1878) is a
vigorous attack on Socialism, on familiar lines. _Æterni Patris_
(August 4, 1879) imposed the philosophy of St. Thomas, the opportunist
character of which the Pope never perceived, on the modern Catholic
world.[374] _Arcanum_ (February 14, 1880) asserted the strict Catholic
ideal of indissoluble marriage, and had no influence on the increasing
concession of divorce. _Diuturnum_ (June 29, 1881), written after
the assassination of the Tsar, argued that these outrages naturally
followed the abandonment of the true faith; it did not include an
examination of the cruelties of the Russian authorities. _Humanum
Genus_ (April 20, 1884) condemned Freemasonry. _Immortale Dei_
(November 19, 1885) dealt, in Scholastic vein, with the constitution of
States and the foundations of authority, and is a fine exposition of
mediæval thought on the subject. _In Plurimis_ (May 8, 1888) condemned
slavery in Europe. _Libertas_ (June 20, 1888) is another Scholastic
dissertation on liberty, leading to an attack on the modern claims of
freedom of thought, worship, and expression. _Rerum Novarum_ (May 15,
1891) is the most famous of the Pope's utterances on social questions.
The organization of the Catholic workers in Italy, France, and America,
and the concern about the condition of the workers (really about the
growth of Socialism) which Bismarck and William II. had hypocritically
conveyed to the Pope, moved him to formulate his views on social
questions. The only points of relative importance are that a Pope at
last consented to bless the efforts of the workers to obtain better
conditions (with strict regard to private property and submission
to authority), and that he pleaded for a "sufficient wage"; but the
seeming boldness of this latter truism was undone a few weeks later,
when the Archbishop of Malines wrote to ask if an employer sinned
against justice in giving a wage which would support the worker but
not his family, and the Pope nervously directed Cardinal Zigliara
to reply (anonymously) that such an employer would not sin against
justice, though "possibly against charity and natural equity."[375]
_Providentissimus Deus_ (November 18, 1893), which sought to promote
biblical studies, caused Catholic scholars to groan in despair; it
proclaimed the inerrancy of the Old Testament.[376] _Apostolicæ Curæ_
(September 13, 1896) condemned Anglican orders, and led to a prolonged
controversy in England. _Graves de communi_ (January 18, 1901) shows
the later enfeeblement of the Pope's social zeal. He still approves
Christian democracy, and demands justice in the industrial world, but
he stresses alms-giving as a social solution and urges particular
concentration on religious effort.[377]
The great Pope struggled on until his ninth decade of life had opened.
He died on July 20, 1903, leaving his sternly contested inheritance to
less skilful hands, marking, with his dying eyes, the onward progress
of all the forces he had hailed as disastrous and the advance of
"Americanism" (or Modernism) within the Church. His failure must not
blind us to the greatness of his personality. He united intellectual
breadth and penetration with a high character and a lofty devotion
to his work. His weakness was the antiquated and restricted nature
of his knowledge and his inheritance of an untenable position. The
concessions he made to his age were too tardy, too grudging, and often
too obviously opportunist. With equal readiness he wrote a letter of
recommendation of a work of canon law (by Marianus de Luca) which
advocated the execution of heretics, and he blessed the republics
of France and America. But the great theme of his life was that
civilization was perishing because it had shaken off the allegiance of
Rome, and he lived to see the world "rounding onward to the light" and
departing ever farther from its old traditions.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 358: In a letter to his brother Charles, July 3, 1837, he
remarks that he has entered the clergy "in order to carry out the
wishes of his father." Catholic lives of Leo XIII., which abound, must
be read with discretion. They are even more tendentious than lives
of Pius IX., and the best of them--by Mgr. de T'Serclacs (2 vols.,
1894), L.K. Goetz (1899), J. de Narfon (1899), Mgr. B. O'Reilly (1903),
and P.J. O'Byrne (1903)--are very unreliable. Mr. Justin McCarthy's
short _Pope Leo XIII._ (1896) is a summary of these, and shares their
defects. With them should be read _Joachim Pecci_ (1900) by Henri des
Houx, for the period before his election, and _Le Conclave de Léon
XIII._ (1887) by Raphael de Cesare: both Catholic writers, but more
candid and discriminating. See also Boyer d'Agen, _La Jeunesse de Léon
XIII._ (1896) and _Monsignor Joachim Pecci_ (1910) and works to be
mentioned hereafter.]
[Footnote 359: These are chiefly reproduced in the works of Boyer
d'Agen.]
[Footnote 360: See the documents in Henri des Houx, pp. 166-7, and
Mgr. de T'Serclaes, vol. i., pp. 127-132. Most biographers grossly
misrepresent his "promotion." Rome plainly decided that he was not
suitable for a nunciature.]
[Footnote 361: His episcopal pronouncements are given in _Scelta di
Atti episcopali del Cardinale G. Pecci_ (1879).]
[Footnote 362: He was made cardinal on December 19, 1853.]
[Footnote 363: Mgr. Cataldi, whom he afterwards made his master of
ceremonies. H. des Houx (p. 329) observes that, when Cataldi died, his
papers were put under seal by Leo's orders and his letters have never
been published.]
[Footnote 364: See de Cesare, pp. 138-144.]
[Footnote 365: The losses of the Church are analyzed by the author, and
Catholic authority is quoted in most cases, in _The Decay of the Church
of Rome_ (2d ed. 1910). In France alone the loss was about 25,000,000.
His Papal pronouncements are collected in _Leonis XIII. P.M. Acta_ (17
vols., 1881-1898), _SS. D.N. Leonis XIII. allocutiones_, etc. (8 vols.,
1887-1910), and _Discorsi del Summo Pontefice Leone XIII._ (1882).]
[Footnote 366: Article "Leo XIII."]
[Footnote 367: _Contemporary Review_, 1891 (vol. lx., 161).]
[Footnote 368: See the documents relating to the episode in T'Serclaes,
i., 425.]
[Footnote 369: On the relations of Rome and the Centre compare Count
von Hoensbroech's _Rom und das Zentrum_ (1910). There are also curious
details in the same writer's _Fourteen Years a Jesuit_ (Engl. trans.
1911).]
[Footnote 370: See E. Barbier, _Le Progrès du libéralisme Catholique
en France sous le Pape Léon XIII._ (1907) and A. Houtin, _Histoire du
Modernisme Catholique_ (1913).]
[Footnote 371: See M. Tirado y Rojas, _Leon XIII. y España_ (1903), for
details in regard to Spain.]
[Footnote 372: We have on earlier pages seen that parts of the archives
are still reserved, even from ecclesiastics. On the general question
see G. Buschdell, _Das Vatikanische Archiv und die Bedeutung seiner
Erschliessung durch Papst Leo XIII._ (1903).]
[Footnote 373: An English translation of the chief Encyclicals has been
issued by Wynne in America (1902). For other work see _Poems, Charades,
Inscriptions of Leo XIII._ (1902, ed. Henry).]
[Footnote 374: The injunction was not, of course, literally obeyed. At
Louvain University, where Leo believed that he had established Thomism
in its purest form, Mgr. (now Cardinal) Mercier gave us little of
St. Thomas, and not one priest in a thousand ever opens the pages of
Aquinas. At Rome Leo set up a Thomist Academy at a cost of £12,000 to
himself.]
[Footnote 375: See Mgr. de T'Serclaes, ii., 107-111.]
[Footnote 376: I speak from personal recollection, being a professor in
a seminary at the time. Leo went on to form a Biblical Commission, of
which my liberal professor, Fr. David Fleming, became secretary. The
first decision it was his duty to sign was that Moses was the author
of the Pentateuch! For the later doubts and despair of Leo see the
very interesting details in A. Houtin's _La Question Biblique au XIX.
siècle_ (2d ed., 1902) and _La Question Biblique au XX. siècle_ (2d
ed., 1906).]
[Footnote 377: In the _Encyclopædia Britannica_ ("Leo XIII.") it is
said that the Pope in 1902 advises the workers to turn aside from
social zeal and concentrate on the interests of the Papacy. This seems
to be inaccurate. His pronouncements of that year are of the same
tenor as the Encyclical _Graves de communi_. See _Sanctissimi D.N.
Leonis XIII. Allocutiones_, etc., vol. viii., pp. 65-78 and 181-2. The
Americans have issued an English translation of the chief Encyclicals.]
LIST OF THE POPES[378]
Peter 67
Linus 67-79
Anacletus 79-90
Clement 90-99
Evaristus 99-107
Alexander I. 107-116
Sixtus I. 116-125
Telesphorus 125-136
Hyginus 136-140
Pius I. 140-154
Anicetus 154-165
Soter 165-174
Eleutherius 174-189
Victor 189-198
Zephyrinus 198-217
Callistus I. 217-222
Urban I. 222-230
Pontianus 230-235
Anterus 235-236
Fabian 236-250
Cornelius 251-253
Lucius I. 253-254
Stephen I. 254-257
Sixtus II. 257-258
Dionysius 259-268
Felix I. 269-274
Eutychian 275-283
Caius 283-296
Marcellinus 296-304
Marcellus 308-309
Eusebius 309
Melchiades 311-314
Silvester I. 314-335
Marcus 336
Julius I. 337-352
Liberius 352-366
Damasus I. 366-384
Siricius 384-398
Anastasius I. 398-401
Innocent I. 402-417
Zozimus 417-418
Boniface I. 418-422
Celestine I. 422-432
Sixtus III. 432-440
Leo I. 440-461
Hilarius 461-468
Simplicius 468-483
Felix II. 483-492
Galasius I. 492-496
Anastasius II. 496-498
Symmachus 498-514
Hormisdas 514-523
John I. 523-526
Felix III. 526-530
Boniface II. 530-532
John II. 533-535
Agapetus I. 535-536
Silverius 536-538
Vigilius 538-555
Pelagius I. 556-561
John III. 561-574
Benedict I. 575-579
Pelagius II. 579-590
Gregory I. 590-604
Sabinianus 604-606
Boniface III. 607
Boniface IV. 608-615
Deusdedit 615-618
Boniface V. 619-625
Honorius I. 625-638
Severinus 638-640
John IV. 640-642
Theodore I. 642-649
Martin I. 649-655
Eugene I. 654-657
Vitalian 657-672
Adeodatus 672-676
Donus 676-678
Agatho 678-681
Leo II. 682-683
Benedict II. 684-685
John V. 685-686
Conon 686-687
Sergius I. 687-701
John VI. 701-705
John VII. 705-707
Sisinnius 708
Constantine 708-715
Gregory II. 715-731
Gregory III. 731-741
Zachary 741-752
Stephen II. 752
Stephen II. (III.) 752-757
Paul I. 757-767
Stephen III. (IV.) 768-772
Hadrian I. 772-795
Leo III. 795-816
Stephen IV. (V.) 816-817
Paschal I. 817-824
Eugene II. 824-827
Valentine 827
Gregory IV. 827-844
Sergius II. 844-847
Leo IV. 847-855
Benedict III. 855-858
Nicholas I. 858-867
Hadrian II. 867-872
John VIII. 872-882
Marinus I. (or Martin II.) 882-884
Hadrian III. 884-885
Stephen V. (VI.) 885-891
Formosus 891-896
Boniface VI. 896
Stephen VI. (VII.) 896-897
Romanus 897
Theodore II. 897
John IX. 898-900
Benedict IV. 900-903
Leo V. 903
Christopher 903-904
Sergius III. 904-911
Anastasius III. 911-913
Lando 913-914
John X. 914-928
Leo VI. 928
Stephen VII. (VIII.) 928-931
John XI. 931-936
Leo VII. 936-939
Stephen VIII. (IX.) 939-942
Marinus II. (Martin III.) 942-946
Agapetus II. 946-955
John XII. 955-964
Leo VIII. 963-965
Benedict V. 964-965
John XIII. 965-972
Benedict VI. 973-974
Benedict VII. 974-983
John XIV. 983-984
Boniface VII. 984-985
John XV. 985-986
Gregory V. 986-996
John XVI. 997-998
Silvester II. 999-1003
John XVII. 1003
John XVIII. 1003-1009
Sergius IV. 1009-1012
Benedict VIII. 1012-1024
John XIX. 1024-1032
Benedict IX. 1032-1045
Gregory VI. 1045-1046
Clement II. 1046-1047
Damasus II. 1048
Leo IX. 1049-1054
Victor II. 1055-1057
Stephen IX. (X.) 1057-1058
Benedict X. 1058-1059
Nicholas II. 1059-1061
Alexander II. 1061-1073
Gregory VII. 1073-1085
Victor III. 1087
Urban II. 1088-1099
Paschal II. 1099-1118
Gelasius II. 1118-1119
Callistus II. 1119-1124
Honorius II. 1124-1130
Innocent II. 1130-1143
Celestine II. 1143-1144
Lucius II. 1144-1145
Eugene III. 1145-1153
Anastasius IV. 1153-1154
Hadrian IV. 1154-1159
Alexander III. 1159-1181
Lucius III. 1181-1185
Urban III. 1185-1187
Gregory VIII. 1187
Clement III. 1187-1191
Celestine III. 1191-1198
Innocent III. 1198-1216
Honorius III. 1216-1227
Gregory IX. 1227-1241
Celestine IV. 1241
Innocent IV. 1243-1254
Alexander IV. 1254-1261
Urban IV. 1261-1264
Clement IV. 1265-1268
Gregory X. 1271-1276
Innocent V. 1276
Hadrian V. 1276
John XXI.[379] 1276-1277
Nicholas III. 1277-1280
Martin IV. 1281-1285
Honorius IV. 1285-1287
Nicholas IV. 1288-1292
Celestine V. 1294
Boniface VIII. 1294-1303
Benedict XI. 1303-1304
Clement V. 1305-1314
John XXII. 1316-1334
Benedict XII. 1334-1342
Clement VI. 1342-1352
Innocent VI. 1352-1362
Urban V. 1362-1370
Gregory XI. 1370-1378
Urban VI. 1378-1389
[Clement VII. 1378-1394]
Boniface IX. 1389-1404
[Benedict XIII. 1394-1424]
Innocent VII. 1404-1406
Gregory XII. 1406-1415
Alexander V. 1409-1410
John XXIII. 1410-1415
Martin V. 1417-1431
Eugene IV. 1431-1447
Nicholas V. 1447-1455
Callistus III. 1455-1458
Pius II. 1458-1464
Paul II. 1464-1471
Sixtus IV. 1471-1484
Innocent VIII. 1484-1492
Alexander VI. 1492-1503
Pius III. 1503
Julius II. 1503-1513
Leo X. 1513-1521
Hadrian VI. 1522-1523
Clement VII. 1523-1534
Paul III. 1534-1549
Julius III. 1550-1555
Marcellus II. 1555
Paul IV. 1555-1559
Pius IV. 1559-1565
Pius V. 1566-1572
Gregory XIII. 1572-1585
Sixtus V. 1585-1590
Urban VII. 1590
Gregory XIV. 1590-1591
Innocent IX. 1591
Clement VIII. 1592-1605
Leo XI. 1605
Paul V. 1605-1621
Gregory XV. 1621-1623
Urban VIII. 1623-1644
Innocent X. 1644-1655
Alexander VII. 1655-1667
Clement IX. 1667-1669
Clement X. 1670-1676
Innocent XI. 1676-1689
Alexander VIII. 1689-1691
Innocent XII. 1691-1700
Clement XI. 1700-1721
Innocent XIII. 1721-1724
Benedict XIII. 1724-1730
Clement XII. 1730-1740
Benedict XIV. 1740-1758
Clement XIII. 1758-1769
Clement XIV. 1769-1774
Pius VI. 1775-1799
Pius VII. 1800-1823
Leo XII. 1823-1829
Pius VIII. 1829-1830
Gregory XVI. 1831-1846
Pius IX. 1846-1878
Leo XIII. 1878-1903
Pius X. 1903-1914
Benedict XV. 1914-
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 378: I include Peter, as is usual, though it must be recalled
that no writer calls him "bishop" of Rome until the third century, and
it cannot be regarded as _proved_ that he ever visited Rome. The date
of his death, and the succeeding dates until the third century, and
many later, are conjectural and disputed.]
[Footnote 379: On account of some confusion in mediæval chronicles, a
spurious "John XV." was inserted in the list of Popes. Hence John XXI.
was really John XX., but the names of the later Popes are so fixed that
it seems better, as is usually the case, to skip from John XIX. to John
XX.]
INDEX
A
Accolti, Cardinal, 317
Acquaviva, Cardinal, 356, 357
Acquaviva, General, 344
_Acta S. Callisti_, 7, 17
_Acta S. Silvestri_, 87, 88
_Ad Anglos_, 435
Adelchis, 93
Adelperga, 94
Adriano da Corneto, 263
Æneas, Sylvius, 241, 243
_Æterni Patris_, 408, 440
Afiarta, Paul, 83, 84
African Church, Rome and the, 20, 40, 70
Agnes, the Empress, 145, 147, 150
Agnes de Meran, 188
Aistulph, 80-3
Albani, Cardinal, 357, 392
Alberic of Camerino, 131, 133, 139
Albert of Brandenburg, 304
Albigensians, massacre of the, 194-200
Alcuin, 78, 97
Alexander, II., 147, 149
Alexander, III., 173
Alexander V., 228
Alexander VI., 242-66
Alexander Severus, 16
Alexis, Comnenus, 193
Alfonso of Leon, 157
Alfonso II. of Naples, 254, 256, 259
Alidosi, Cardinal, 278
Allen, Cardinal, 246
Altheim, Synod of, 138
Ambrose, St., 30, 31, 35, 38
America, the Papacy and, 389, 411, 412, 436
Americanism, 432, 437
Ammianus Marcellinus, 24
Anastasius, 75, 102
Anatolius of Thessalonica, 41
Anselm of Baggio, 145
Anselm of Lucca, 147, 150, 152
_Antiphonary_, the, 62
Antonelli, Cardinal, 402-3, 407, 410
_Apostolicæ Curæ_, 436
Aretini, 275
Ariald, 145
Arianism, 19, 21, 31
Arichis, 92, 93, 94
Ariosto, 281, 301, 302
Arnold of Brescia, 174
Arnold of Citeaux, 195, 198, 199
Arnulph, 127
Arsenius, Legate, 109, 112, 126
Art in mediæval Rome, 266, 282-4
Astrology at Rome, 274
Attila, 50-1
Atto of Vercelli, 133
Austria expelled from Italy, 399, 405
Auxentius, 28, 37
Auxilius, 129
Avignon, the Popes at, 203-22
B
Baglione, G., 274
Bajazet, the Sultan, 256
Baldwin of Flanders, 110, 192
Baluze, S., 205
Barbarossa, Frederic, 173
Barry, Dr. W., 129
Basil, St., 32
Basilica Julii, 24, 25
Basilica Liberii, 25
Basilica Sicinini, 25
Basle, Council of, 240
Beatific Vision, John XXII. and the, 219
Beatrice of Tuscany, 148, 163
Benedict III., 103, 107, 113
Benedict IX., 140, 143
Benedict X., 146
Benedict XI., 203
Benedict XIII., 227, 238
Benedict XIV., 353-67
Benedict of Soracte, 128, 130, 135
Benedictines, the, and the classics, 58
Bentivoglio, 274, 278
Benzo, Bishop, 142, 147
Berengar, King, 130, 134
Berengaria of Castile, 189
Bérenger, 144
Bernard, of Clairvaux, 172
Bernetti, Cardinal, 395
Bertha of Lorraine, 134
_Bertinian Annals_, the, 112
Bertrand de Goth, 207
Bertrand de Poyet, 216
Bibbiena, Cardinal, 287, 290, 303
Bible, early translation of the, 36
Bismarck and Leo XIII., 428-30
Bonaparte, Jerome, 379
Boniface I., 39
Boniface VIII., 203, 209
Boniface IX., 223, 224
Bonitho, Bishop, 142, 151, 164, 168
_Book of Gomorrha_, 144
_Book of Pastoral Rule_, 61
Borgia, Cæsar, 244, 258, 260, 263, 267, 272
Borgia, Jofre, 244, 256
Borgia, Juan, 244, 256, 258
Borgia, Lucretia, 244, 250, 254, 255, 260, 262
Borgia, Pedro Luis, 244
Borgia, Rodrigo, 261
Borgia Family, the, 242
Borgia Rooms, the, 438
Boris, King, 116
Bramante, 283
Breviary, reform of the, 358-9
Brosch, M., 246, 269
Brosses, President de, 353, 354
Bruce, Robert, 219
Brunetti, A., 398
Brunichildis, Gregory and, 71
Brussels, Leo XIII. at, 418-9
Bulgaria and the Papacy, 137, 191
Buoncompagni, Cardinal, 333, 334
Burchard, J., 245, 249, 262
C
Cacault, 374
Cadalus, Bishop, 147
Cajetan, Legate, 307
_Calandria_, the, 303
Calixtus III., 242
Callistus, Pope, 6-18
Cambrai, League of, 276, 277
Canon of Scripture, early, 36, 55
Canossa, Henry IV. at, 163, 165-7
Capocci, Giovanni, 176, 177
Caprara, Cardinal, 376
Caraffa, Cardinal, 259
Carbonari, the, 388, 395
Cardinal, the title, 146
Cardinalate, reform of the, 339
Cardinals in the fifteenth century, 248
Carlism, the Vatican, 433
Carlomann, 84
_Caroline Books_, the, 97
Caroline Islands, the, 429
Carpophorus, 8
Carvajal, Cardinal, 275, 289
Cassiodorus, 58
Catacombs, the, 3, 26, 36
Cataldi, Mgr., 421
Cathari, the, 182
Catherine of Siena, 222
Cavour, 405, 406
Celestine I., 39
Celestine III., 174
Celibacy of the clergy, 145-6, 152, 155
Celidonius, 42
Cenci, 160
Censorship, early claims of, 55, 115
Cesena, massacre of, 222
Chabrol, Count de, 384
Chalcedon, Council of, 47-9, 74
Charlemagne, 84, 85-6, 90-97, 99, 101
Charles Martel, 79
Charles the Bald, 108, 109, 115, 116
Charles the Simple, 137
Charles II., 206
Charles V., 295, 297, 298, 307, 319-28
Charles VI., 362
Charles VIII., 256-8
Chigi, the banker, 302
China, Jesuits in, 364
China, Leo XIII., and, 457
Choiseul, 357, 360
Christianity, early condition of, 1-3
Christopher, Pope, 128
Cibò, Franceschetto, 248
Cibò, Innocenzo, 290
_Civiltà Cattolica_, the, 406
Clement I., 4, 5
Clement III., 169, 173
Clement IV., 209
Clement V., 203, 206, 217
Clement VI., 209, 221
Clement VII., 223, 311-2
Clement XI., 360
Clement XII., 354, 355, 357
Clement XIII., 368
Clement XIV., 368, 369
Colonna, M.A., 294
_Commentary on the First Book of Kings_, 63
Comminges, Count de, 190
Conciliar Movement, the, 227, 232, 240
Concordat with Napoleon, 374-6, 387
Conradin, 202
Consalvi, Cardinal, 371, 372, 375, 377, 387-9
Constance, Council of, 234-8, 240
Constance of Sicily, 180
Constantine, 21
Constantinople, Council of, 32, 33, 48, 49
Constantinople, Fall of, 241
Constantinople taken by the Latins, 193, 194
Constantius, 19, 23
Constanza of Aragon, 181
Contarini, Cardinal, 322
Conti family, the, 173
Conti, Ricardo, 177
Cornaro, Cardinal 302
Cornelius, Pope, 3
Costa, Cardinal, 259
Counter-Reformation, the, 310
Crespy, Peace of, 325
Crispi, 426
Crusade, the Fourth, 191-4
Culture, early decay of, 57, 62-3, 84
Cyprian, St., 20
Cyriacus, 75
Cyril of Alexandria, 39, 44
D
D'Agnesi, Maria Gaetana, 358
Damasus, 21-37
D'Amboise, Cardinal, 268, 275
Damiani, Peter, 144, 145, 147, 151
Dammann, Dr. A., 165
Declaration of the Gallican Clergy, 352
Delarc, O., 142
Desiderius of Vienne, 62, 71
Deusdedit, Cardinal, 151
_Dialogues_ of Gregory the Great, 59
Didier, Abbot, 149, 153, 169
Didier, King, 83-5, 90
Dietrich von Nieheim, 223, 225
Dio Cassius, 16
Dionysian Decretals, the, 120
Dioscorus of Alexandria, 44-6
Discipline of the early Church, 13
Divorce in the early Church, 29
Djem, Prince, 256, 257
Döllinger, Dr., 3, 8, 9, 13, 151, 409
Dominic St., 196, 201
_Dominus ac Redemptor Noster_, 369
Donation of Constantine, 87, 241
Dovizo, Bernardo, 287, 290
Duchesne, Mgr., 89, 130, 131
Dümmler, E., 129
Dupanloup, 409
E
Eastern Church, Rome and the, 31-3, 44-50, 73-6, 105-6
Ebbo of Rheims, 113, 119
Edict of Milan, 21
Eginhard, 82, 99
Elizabeth of Spain, 363
Encyclicals of Leo XIII., 439, 440
Endre, Prince, of Hungary, 190
England and the Papacy, 58, 71, 94, 148, 185-8, 219, 229, 309, 312, 346,
363, 381, 411, 435-6
Ephesus, Council of, 46
_Epigrams of Damasus_, 36
Erigena, John Scotus, 115
Ethelbert, 72
_Etsi Nos_, 425
Eudocia, 105
Eudoxia, the Empress, 52
Eugenius IV., 240
Eulogius, 75
Eusebius, Pope, 20
Eusebius of Dorylæum, 48
Eustochium, Jerome's letter to, 34-5
Eutyches, 45, 46
_Ex Quo Singulari_, 365
_Execrabilis_, 210
_Exsurge, Domine_, 308
F
Fantuzzian Fragment, the, 81, 88
Farnese, Alessandro, 316, 321, 325, 326
Farnese, Giulia, 249, 252, 253, 254
Farnese, Vittoria, 325
Febronianism, 362, 370
Fedele, P., 129
Felicia, daughter of Julius II., 271
Felix, Anti-Pope, 23, 24
Ferdinand of Spain, 275, 276, 291
Ferdinand VI., 361
Ferrante of Naples, 255
Ferrara and Julius II., 281
Fesch, Cardinal, 378
Flavian, 45-7
Flodoard, 131, 136
Fontana, 345
_Forged Decretals_, the, 104, 105, 117-22
Forgeries of Middle Ages, 87, 88
Formosus, 125, 127, 132
Foulques of Marseilles, 196, 198
France and the Papacy, 42, 71, 79-87, 97, 157, 188, 194-200, 219, 256-8,
276-8, 289, 304, 347, 360-1, 400-2, 431-2
France, Anatole, 2
Francis I., 292, 293, 295, 297, 317
Francis, St., 201, 202
Francis Joseph I., 412
Frankenstein, Baron, 429
Frankfort, Synod of, 97
Fratricelli, the, 214
Frederic the Great, 356, 364
Frederic of Saxony, 307, 308
Frederic of Sicily, 180, 182, 185
Freemasonry, Benedict XIV. and, 366
Friedrich of Tirol, 234, 236, 237
Fuscianus, 9
G
Gabrielli, Cardinal, 382
Gaeta, flight to, 401
Galilei, Galileo, 352
Galla Placidia, 47
Garibaldi, 405, 406, 407
Gattina, Petrucelli della, 371, 393
"Gelasian Decree," the, 36, 37, 55
Gelasius I., 37, 55, 115
Gerbert, 139
Germany and the Papacy, 108-9, 158-69, 182-5, 215-8, 229, 411, 427-30
Gfrörer, 142
Ghibellines, the, 182, 216
Gibbon, Cardinal, 436, 437
Gioberti, 397, 418, 420
Giovio, Paolo, 291, 300
Gizzo, Cardinal, 399
Glaber, Raoul, 140
Godfrey of Tuscany 148
Grassis, P. de, 291
Gratian, the Emperor, 27, 38
Gratian, John, 140, 143
Great Schism, the, 221-3
Gregory I., 57-77
Gregory III., 79
Gregory VII., 141-70
Gregory X., 204
Gregory XI., 222
Gregory XII., 226, 227, 231
Gregory XIII., 332, 334
Gregory XVI., 392, 395, 396
Grévy, President, 432
Grisar, Father, 11, 18
Guelphs, the, 182
Guibert of Ravenna, 168
Guido of Spoleto, 127
Guiscard, Robert, 148, 155, 168, 169
Guise, Duke of, 347, 348, 349
Günther, 108, 109
Guy, the Cistercian, 195
H
Hadrian I., 81, 83, 84-100
Hadrian II., 110, 118, 125, 126, 127
Hadrian IV., 174
Hadrian VI., 311
Hecker, Father, 437
Helletrude, 111
Henry III. (Germany), 143, 144
Henry IV. (Germany), 154, 158-69
Henry V. (Germany), 172
Henry VI. (Germany), 178, 179
Henry III. (France), 346, 347, 349
Henry IV. (France), 347, 348, 349, 350
Henry VIII. (England), 277, 279, 292, 293, 294, 309
Heribert of Vermandois, 137, 138
Herimann of Cologne, 138
Herlembald, 148, 159
Hermingard, 84
Hilary, St., and the Papacy, 42
Hildebrand. _See_ Gregory VII.
Hildeprand, 92, 93
Hildwin, 112
Hincmar of Rheims, 105, 111-13, 119, 120
Hippolytus, 7, 8, 11, 12, 17
_Historia Augusta_, the, 16
Hodgkin, Dr., 88, 90
Hohenstauffens, the, 182, 202
Honorius I., 79
Hontheim, Johann von, 370
Hormisdas, 55
Hrodgaud, 93
Hrzan, Cardinal, 372
Hübner, Baron de, 333, 343
Hucbert, 107
Hugh Candidus, Cardinal, 149, 159
Hugh of Provence, 138, 139
Hugues Géraud, 211, 212
Hungarians in Italy, the, 135
Huns, St. Leo and the, 50
Hus, John, 232, 235, 238
Hutten, Ulrich von, 305, 308
I
Ignatius of Antioch, 4
Ignatius of Constantinople, 105-7
Ignatius of Loyola, 331, 333
Image-worship, quarrel about, 97
Immaculate Conception, the, 403-4
Index of Prohibited Books, the first, 55
Indulgences, origin of the Spanish, 192
Indulgences, traffic in, 225, 231, 284, 301, 305
Infallibility, struggle over, 409-10
Infessura, S., 245, 250
Ingeltrude, 107
Innocent I., 38, 39
Innocent III., 137, 141, 171-201
Innocent VII., 226
Inquisition, the, at Rome, 324, 331
_Inscrutabile_, 423
_Interest Apostolicæ Sedis_, 183
Investiture-struggle, the, 152, 172
Ireland, Archbishop, 436
Ireland, Leo XIII. and, 434-5
Irene, the Empress, 94, 96
Irmengard, 135
Isaac Comnenus, 193
Italy, Unification of, 405-7
J
Jacobini, Cardinal, 426
Jacques de Via, 213
James III., 363
Jansenists, the, 360-1
Jean of Jandun, 215
Jerome, St., 22, 23, 27, 34, 36
Jerome of Prague, 232
Jesuits, the, 343, 352, 360, 364, 365, 369, 387-8, 399, 402-3
Jews, John XXII. and the, 219
Jews, the Papacy and the, 65
Jews, Sixtus V. and the, 343
John VIII., 125, 126, 133
John IX., 131
John X., 126-38
John XI., 128, 130, 131, 138
John XII., 139
John XXII., 205-20
John XXIII., 221-39
John of Bohemia, 218
John Capistrano, 241
John the Faster, 73-4
John Lackland and the Papacy, 185-8
John of Ravenna, 114
Joseph II., 355, 369, 370
Josephine, divorce of, 378, 383
Judith, 110
Julius II., 246, 247, 250, 255, 257, 268-84
Julius III., 331
K
Kailo of Ravenna, 132
Keane, Mgr., 437
Kitto, E.J., 223, 235
Knights of Labour, the, 436
Kulturkampf, the, 427-30
L
La Balue, Cardinal, 248
Ladislaus of Hungary, 157
Ladislaus of Naples, 223, 227
Lambert of Hersfeld, 164, 166
Lambruschini, Cardinal, 392
Landulph, 145
Lanfranc, 154, 156
Langton, Stephen, 186-7, 188
Languedoc, heresy in, 195
Lateran basilica, the, 20, 25, 56
Lateran Council, the Fourth, 200
Lateran Council, the Fifth, 280, 282, 303
League, the Catholic, 347, 348
Leo I., 39-54
Leo II., 79
Leo III., 101
Leo IV., 102
Leo V., 127
Leo IX., 144
Leo X., 248, 250, 287-309
Leo XII., 391
Leo XIII., 415-42
Leo the Isaurian, 53
Leonardo of Arezzo, 223, 227
Leonetti, A., 243
Leontia, the Empress, 76
L'Épinois, H. de, 243, 245
Leti, Gregorio, 333
_Liber Pontificalis_, the, 8, 11, 24, 80, 87-9
Liberius, 19, 22, 23
Liverani, P., 129, 132
Lollards, the, 232
Lombards, the, in Italy, 56, 66, 68, 79, 92-3
Lothair of Lorraine, 107, 109, 110
Lottery, the Papal, 357
Louis of Anjou, 228, 229, 230
Louis of Bavaria, 215, 216, 217
Louis II., 103, 107-9
Louis VIII., 188
Louis XII., 260, 261, 274, 277-8, 291
Louis XVIII., 414
Luchaire, Achille, 175
Luciferians, the, 30
Luitprand, Bishop, 130, 132, 136
Luitprand, King, 79
Lunéville, Treaty of, 374
Luther, Martin, 252, 299, 306-9
M
Macarius, 30
Magic, John XXII. and, 212
Magna Charta denounced by Innocent III., 188
_Magna Maralia_, 59, 63
Malabar Rites, the, 364
Malatesta of Rimini, 230
_Mandragola_, 303
Manfred, 202
Manichæans, the, 41, 43
Manichæism, 195
Manning, Cardinal, 409
Marcia, 6
Marcian, 47, 50
Maria Theresa, 362
Marie of Brabant, 190
Markwald of Anweiler, 179, 180, 181
Marozia, 128-32, 135-6, 138, 139
Marriage, the Papacy and, 188, 189, 190
Marsiglio of Padua, 215
Martens, Dr. W., 142, 160
Martin I., 79
Martin V., 240
Martyrology, reform of the, 359
Mary Stuart, 346
Mathew, Dr., A.H., 142, 153, 167, 243
Mathilda of Tuscany, 148, 150, 155, 163, 165
Matteo Visconti, 216
Maurice, the Emperor, 68, 69, 73-6
Maury, Cardinal, 371
Maximilian, the Emperor, 273, 275, 276, 277, 294
Maximinus, 27
May Laws, the, 428, 429
Mazzini, 396, 398, 404
Medici, Catherine de', 347
Medici, Cosmo de', 239
Medici, Giuliano de', 290, 292
Medici, Giulio de', 290
Medici, Lorenzo de' (nephew of Leo X.), 290, 297, 298
Melchiades, 118
_Menæchmi_, the, 262
Mercier, Cardinal, 440
Michael, Angelo, 283, 301, 329
Michael de Cesena, 215
Michael the Drunkard, 105, 106
Michiel, Cardinal, 263
Militz, Karl von, 307
Milo, the Legate, 198
Miollis, General, 381
Mirandola, G.P. della, 304
Modernism, 432, 437, 442
Montfort, Simon de, 199, 200
Monti di Pietà, 303
Morality in the early Church, 33-5, 66
N
Napoleon I. and the Papacy, 370, 374-88
Napoleon III., 400, 405
Nepotism at the Vatican, 174, 244-60, 271, 290, 291, 315, 316, 320, 331
Newman, Cardinal, 409
Nicæa, Council of, 96
Nicholas I., 102-23
Nicholas II., 146, 147
Nicholas V., 217, 241
Nicholas of Cusa, 241
Nielsen, Dr. F., 373, 393
Normans and the Papacy, 145, 147, 169
O
Ockham, William of, 215
Offa, 94, 96
Olivarez, Count, 347
Organic Articles, the, 376, 377
Orsini, the, 174, 177
Orsini, Adriana, 249, 252
Orsini, Cardinal B., 263
Orsini, Giulia, 249, 252, 253, 254
Orsini, Laura, 253, 271
Orsini, Paolo, 334
Orsini, Virginio, 255
Otto I., 139
Otto of Brunswick, 182, 183, 184
Oxford Movement, the, 435
P
Pacca, Cardinal, 381-2, 387
Pagi, 129
Pallavicino, Cardinal, 275
Pandolpho, the Legate, 187, 188
Papal supremacy, evolution of, 5, 30-1, 37, 39, 44, 48, 53, 67, 74-6, 103
Parnellism 434-5
Paschasinus, 49
_Pastor Æternus_, 410
Pastoureaux, the, 219
Patarenes, the, 145, 148, 159
Patrimonies, the Papal, 64, 79
Paul at Rome, 4
Paul I., 83
Paul II., 246
Paul III., 252, 313-29, 363
Paul IV., 331
Pedro of Aragon, 190, 199
Pelagius, Pope, 58
Pepoli, Count, 338
Peretti, Alexander, 336
Peretti, Camilla, 334, 341
Peretti, Francesco, 334
Persecution, the Papacy and, 43, 70, 196
Persico, Mgr., 435
Perugino, 283
Peter at Rome, 4
Peter, brother of John X., 135
Peter of Carbara, 217
Petrarch, 211, 216
Petrucci, Cardinal, 295
Philip II., 186, 187, 188, 198
Philip III., 203, 207
Philip VI., 217, 220
Philip of Anjou, 202
Philip Neri, St., 333
Philip of Suabia, 179, 182-4
Phocas, the Emperor, 76
Photius, 105, 106
Pierleone, Cardinal, 183
Pierleone, Giovanni, 176, 177
Pierre de Castelnau, 195, 197
Pignatelli, Cardinal, 387
Pinturicchio, 266, 283
Pippin, Donation of, 80-3
Pirie-Gordon, C.H.C., 175
Pisa, Council of, 228, 229
Pisa, second Council of, 278, 279
Pius II., 243
Pius III., 268
Pius IV., 331
Pius V., 332, 334
Pius VI., 369, 372
Pius VII., 371-90
Pius VIII., 392
Pius IX., 393-413, 425
Plebiscites in Italy, 405, 406, 408
Pliny, 2
Poles, the Vatican, the, 434
Poli, Oddo, 177
Pontianus, 18
Pragmatic Sanction, the, 286, 294, 304
Primacy, idea of the, 6, 30, 37, 39, 40, 48
Priscillianists, the, 31
Pucci, Lorenzo, 290
Pulcheria, 46, 47
Q
_Quanta Cura_, 407
Quiercey Donation, the, 81
R
Rampolla, Cardinal, 426, 429
Raphael, 301
Ratherius, Bishop, 133
Ratisbon, Diet of, 322
Ravenna and the Papacy, 67, 68
Raymond of Toulouse, 196-9
Raynaldus, 243
Reformation, the, 286, 304-9, 312, 317-30
Reformation, foregleams of the, 215, 232, 241, 286
Reginald of Canterbury, 186
Renaissance, the, 241
Renier, the Cistercian, 195
_Rerum Novarum_, 441
Revolution, the French, 370, 372
Riario, Cardinal, 296
Riario, Pietro, 246
Richard the Lion-Heart, 185
Robert of Geneva, 222, 223
Robert of Naples, 216, 217
Romwald, 94-5
Roquain, F., 142, 151
Roscoe, W., 291
Rosmini, A., 400, 402
Rossi, G.B. de, 8, 9, 13
Rossi, Pellegrino, 400
Rothrad of Soissons, 111-12, 119
Rotrud, 96
Roy, Jules, 120, 121
Rudolph II., of Burgundy, 134
Rudolph of Suabia, 159, 163, 165, 167, 168
S
Sabellius, 12
_Sacramentary_, the, 62
St. Bartholomew, Massacre of, 332
Sta. Maria Maggiore, 25
St. Peter's, building of, 274, 283
Sala, Cardinal, 417
Saldanha, Cardinal, 365
Sancho of Portugal, 190
Sanfedisti, the, 388, 396
Sangallo, 329
Sanseverino, Cardinal, 289
Sant' Angelo, Castle of, 60
Sanuto, M., 253, 291
Satolli, Mgr., 437
Sauli, Cardinal, 296
Savona, Pius VII. at, 383-5
Savonarola and Alexander VI., 264-5
Scatfgoch, Bishop, 364
Schmalkaldic League, the, 327, 328
Schwemer, R., 185
Sergius III., 125, 127, 128, 129, 131
Sergius IV., 139
Servatus Lupus, 118
Severus, Bishop, 68
Sforza, Cardinal Ascanio, 248, 250
Sforza, Giovanni, 254, 259
Sforza, Lodovico, 255, 258
Sigismund of Hungary, 229-30, 232-8
Silvester I., 20
Silvester II., 139, 143, 157
Simeon of Bulgaria, 137
Simony at Rome, 210, 224-5, 250, 268, 301
Sirianus, Pope, 37
Sixtus III., 39
Sixtus IV., 244, 246
Sixtus V., 332-50
Slaves, the Papacy and the, 65
Socialism and the Vatican, 424, 427, 428, 431, 441
_Sollicitudo Omnium_, 388
Solomon of Brittany, 119
Solomon of Hungary, 157
Spain and the Papacy, 70, 154, 157, 189-90, 260, 347-9, 361
Spina, Archbishop, 374
Spirituals, the, 214
Stephen I., 80
Stephen II., 80-2
Stephen III., 83
Stephen IV., 83
Stephen V., 101
Stephen VI., 125, 126, 127
Stephen X., 145, 146
Stephens, W.R.W., 142
Strozzi, the banker, 302
Stuarts, the Vatican and the, 363
Sulpicius Severus, 31
Syagrius, Bishop, 71
Syllabus, the, 407
T
Talleyrand, 376, 380
Talleyrand-Périgord, Countess, 204
Talmud, condemnation of the, 219
Tancred of Sicily, 181
Tarasius, 96
Tassilo, 93
Tedald, 160
Templars, suppression of the, 203
Temporal power, beginning of the, 78-83, 86-90, 95
Tencin, Cardinal, 354, 355
Tertullian, 5, 13
Tetzel, 306
Teutonic Knights, the, 219
Theodora of Rome, 128, 129-32
Theodora, the Empress, 56
Theodoric, 55
Theodosius, 32, 33
Theophylactus, 128, 132
Theutberga, 107, 110
Thomas Aquinas, philosophy of, 440
Three Chapters, the, 67
Transtiberina, the, 1, 16
Trent, Council of, 323-8, 330, 331-2
Troslé, Council of, 133
Turribius of Astorga, 43
U
_Unigenitus_, 360
Urban I., 11, 18
Urban II., 172
Urban VI., 222
Urban VIII., 352
Urbino, Duchy of, 294, 295, 298
Ursicinus, Anti-Pope, 25-7
V
Valens, 31
Valenti, Cardinal, 357
Valentinian I., 27, 29, 37
Valentinian II., 38
Valla, Lorenzo, 241
Vandals, Leo and the, 51-2
Vannozza dei Catanei, 245
Vatican, the, 178
Vatican Council, the, 408-10
Vatican, early state of the, 1, 2
Vatican Library, the, 438
Venantius and Gregory the Great, 72
Venice and the Papacy, 272-3, 275-6
Ventura, P., 397
Victor I., 5, 9
Victor III., 140
Victor Emmanuel I., 406
Vienna Congress, the, 388
Villani, 208
Viventius, 25, 27
Voltaire, 356
Vulgarius, 129, 130
W
Waldeck-Rousseau, 432
Waldrada, 107, 109, 110
Walpole, Horace, 356
Walter de Brienne, 181
Wenilo of Sens, 118
William II. and the Papacy, 430
William of Burgundy, 156
William the Conqueror, 148, 156
Wiseman, Cardinal, 379
Worms, Diet of, 308
Wulfad, 113
Wyclif, 232
X
Ximenes, Cardinal, 301
Y
York, Cardinal, 363
Young Italians, the, 395, 396
Z
Zachary I., 79, 80
Zara, the taking of, 192, 193
Zelanti, the, 388
Zephyrin, Pope, 6, 10
Zigliara, Cardinal, 441
Zosimus, 39
The Censorship _of_ the Church _of_ Rome and its Influence upon the
Production and the Distribution _of_ Literature
_A Study of the History of the Prohibitory and Expurgatory Indexes,
together with some Consideration of the effects of Protestant
Censorship and of Censorship by the State_
By GEO. HAVEN PUTNAM, LITT.D.
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This treatise presents a schedule of the Indexes issued by the Church,
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books, from the time of Gelasius I., 567 A.D., to the issue in 1900 of
the latest Index of the Church under Leo XIII.
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the singular wisdom, breadth, and thoroughness with which you have
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A Candid History of the Jesuits
By Joseph McCabe
Author of "Twelve Years in a Monastery," "Modern Rationalism"
_8o. $3.50_
It is curious that no writer addressing English-speaking readers,
has ever attempted a systematic history of the Jesuits. Probably
no religious body ever had so romantic a history, or inspired such
deadly hatred. On the other hand, histories of the famous society are
almost always too prejudiced, either for or against, to be reliable.
Mr. McCabe has attempted in this book to give the facts impartially,
and to enable the inquirer to form an intelligent idea of the history
and character of the Jesuits from their foundation to the present
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of political Jesuits and their singular behavior on the foreign
missions--is carefully studied, and the record of the Jesuits in
England is very fully examined.
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