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Transcriber’s Note:
This version of the text cannot represent certain typographical effects.
Italics are delimited with the ‘_’ character as _italic_. Boldface type
is delimited with the ‘=’ character as =Boldface=.
Footnotes have been moved to follow the paragraphs in which they are
referenced.
The many marginal notes usually appeared at the beginning of a
paragraph. These are given here on a separate line as
[Sidenote: A topic.]
Where the notes are in mid-paragraph, they are merely interpolated in
the text [Sidenote: Inline] at an appropriate point.
There are a number of diagrams that cannot be directly rendered in this
version. An attempt has been made for each to retain the information
conveyed. For instance, the chart of the various municipal offices
facing p. 205 has been rendered here as an indented list.
All illustrations, charts, tables and graphs are accompanied by a
separate explanatory page, either preceding or following. Neither are
included in the pagination. They have been moved to the nearest logical
paragraph break, and demarcated by horizontal rules, which do not appear
in the text. A chart, “The Commission Plan”, facing p. 195, is missing
from the list of Maps, Charts, and Diagrams.
Minor errors, attributable to the printer, have been corrected. Please
see the transcriber’s note at the end of this text for details regarding
the handling of any textual issues encountered during its preparation.
SOCIAL CIVICS
┌──────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ Books by WILLIAM BENNETT MUNRO │
│ │
│ THE GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES │
│ THE GOVERNMENT OF AMERICAN CITIES │
│ THE GOVERNMENT OF EUROPEAN CITIES │
│ PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF MUNICIPAL ADMINISTRATION │
└──────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘
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JUSTICE
By Edward Simmons
This frontispiece is a reproduction of a famous
mural decoration in the New York Criminal Court
House.
The background is the doorway of the criminal court
room. Justice stands before the entrance holding in
one hand the conventional scales as a token of
impartiality, and in the other hand a globe to
symbolize the world. Over her left shoulder is
draped the national flag. Condemnation and Acquittal
are typified by the two children, one of whom holds
a sword, the other the dove of peace.
It has been usual to prefigure the Goddess of
Justice with her eyes bandaged, in token of her
immunity from outside influence. Mr. Simmons,
however, has here portrayed Justice with her eyes
uncovered, because he believed that “Justice should
have her eyes wide open—particularly in New York
City”.
The artist’s wife and two children were the models
for this painting.
[Illustration:
JUSTICE. By Edward Simmons
_Copyright by Edward Simmons. From a Copley Print,
copyright by Curtis & Cameron, Boston.
Reproduced by permission._
]
------------------------------------------------------------------------
SOCIAL CIVICS
BY
WILLIAM BENNETT MUNRO
PROFESSOR OF MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT
IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY
AND
CHARLES EUGENE OZANNE
TEACHER OF CIVICS
IN THE CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, CLEVELAND, OHIO
NEW YORK
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1922
_All rights reserved_
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
COPYRIGHT, 1922
BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
---
Set up and electrotyped. Published June, 1922
PREFACE
Many excellent textbooks are already available for the teaching of
civics. Why should another be added to the number? Wherein does this
book differ from the rest? What are its outstanding features?
_The Plan._ This book covers a wider range than most texts. It includes
not only a survey of governmental framework and functions, but many
topics which are ordinarily spoken of as questions in economics,
sociology, and international relations. The propriety of including such
topics scarcely requires a defensive argument nowadays, for the old
lines of demarcation in the social sciences are rapidly breaking down.
The problems of our complex modern civilization pay no heed to technical
boundaries. They are the joint product of political, social, and
economic forces. No one can get a grasp of them if he lets his mind run
on a single track. A well-organized course in civics, or in the problems
of democracy, should acquaint the student with the great institutions,
relations, and principles which dominate the life of the community. To
accomplish this end it should carry him as far afield as need be.
_The Method._ Nevertheless, the main theme of this book is American
government. No matter what the topic under discussion, the authors have
tried to link it up with the drift and purposes of governmental action
and policy. This intimate and continuous connection between public
problems and public policy is the central concept of the book; it is the
thread which holds the various chapters together. There are many winding
roads in the broad domain of the social sciences, but sooner or later
they all lead through the realm of government.
The authors have not tried to discuss every possible phase of their
subject. Questions of outstanding importance have been given the right
of way; minor matters have been relegated to the footnotes or omitted
altogether. Those who desire enlightenment upon the odds and ends of
government or economics can get it from an encyclopedia. The primary aim
has been to get the facts hitched up to principles, and to set the
principles in their right perspective. For this reason considerable
space has been given to problems which, although international in their
scope, are of profound importance to the people of the United States.
_The Arrangement._ No two textbook writers seem able to agree as to the
proper order in which material should be arranged. But the sequence of
the chapters is not, after all, a matter of much importance. No one
feels under any obligation to finish the Book of Deuteronomy before
beginning to read the Acts of the Apostles. The teacher who prefers to
start with the civic activities rather than with the organization of
government should have no hesitation in doing so. In this book, at any
rate, each of the larger divisions of the subject is treated
independently, and does not depend upon the others. Some schools devote
a half year to civics, and a half year to economics. Material adapted to
such an arrangement can be obtained by a slight transposition of the
chapters.[1]
_The Supplementary Material._ More than a hundred pages are devoted to
lists of general references, group problems, short studies, questions,
and topics for debate. It is not anticipated, of course, that any
teacher can find time to use them all; but the endeavor has been made to
afford ample variety for selection. Among the general references are
included not only a few of the most authoritative and most recent
publications, but also some elementary books which can ordinarily be
found in the smaller school and public libraries. The group problems are
intended to be of special service to those teachers who use the “project
method” of instruction; but in any event the practice of setting groups
of pupils to work upon problems of a comprehensive character is a good
one for every teacher to pursue at times. Some of these group problems
are “projects” in the strict sense of the term; others are merely
research topics of an elementary sort. Some involve field work; some do
not. The questions are not designed to be tests of memory, but to
provide a basis for socialized recitations, to provoke discussion, and
to encourage among the pupils the habit of forming their own opinions.
The numerous and varied topics for debate have been inserted with the
idea of lending encouragement to one of the most effective methods of
promoting interest in public problems.
_The Point of View._ In dealing with controverted questions, of which
there are a great many in the field of civics, the authors have tried to
hold the scales justly, and to give both sides a fair hearing. It may be
that they have not in all cases succeeded; if so, they can only plead
the unconscious partisanship to which all human flesh is heir. In any
event these chapters have been written with a sincere desire to promote
a more intelligent citizenship, with an abiding faith in the merits of
American government, and with the conviction that the people of the
United States will prove abundantly capable of solving their manifold
problems by the traditional process of reconciling liberty with law.
_The Illustrations._ Apart from a number of diagrams, the illustrative
material has been drawn from the masterpieces of American mural art.
They symbolize what is best in our civilization; they may serve to give
pupils a passing acquaintance with a few creative works of enduring
value; and they have some artistic merit, which most textbook
illustrations have not. For the selection of these illustrations and for
the explanatory legends which accompany them, I am indebted to my wife.
_A Word of Acknowledgment._ To Mr. Ozanne this book owes a large part of
whatever value it may possess. He has had a great deal to do with the
arrangement of materials and the methods of presentation. Every page has
had his repeated scrutiny. It is to me a great pleasure to have had, in
this work, the close co-operation of one who possesses not only a
mastery of the subject but a rare proficiency in classroom methods.
WILLIAM BENNETT MUNRO.
HARVARD UNIVERSITY,
February 22, 1922.
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE v
PART I
THE AMERICAN ENVIRONMENT
CHAPTER
I. HUMAN SOCIETY 1
II. THE PEOPLE, RACES, AND RACIAL PROBLEMS OF THE UNITED 19
STATES
III. ECONOMIC FACTORS AND ORGANIZATION 37
PART II
THE ORGANIZATION OF GOVERNMENT
THE FOUNDATIONS OF GOVERNMENT
IV. THE NATURE AND FORMS OF GOVERNMENT 62
V. THE CITIZEN: HIS RIGHTS AND DUTIES 78
VI. POPULAR CONTROL OF GOVERNMENT 94
THE ELECTORAL SYSTEM
VII. SUFFRAGE AND ELECTIONS 118
VIII. PARTY ORGANIZATION AND PRACTICAL POLITICS 145
LOCAL AND STATE GOVERNMENT
IX. COUNTIES AND RURAL COMMUNITIES 166
X. CITY GOVERNMENT 182
XI. MUNICIPAL PROBLEMS OF TODAY 203
XII. STATE GOVERNMENT IN OUTLINE 226
NATIONAL GOVERNMENT
XIII. THE NATIONAL CONSTITUTION 246
XIV. CONGRESS AT WORK 266
XV. THE PRESIDENT AND HIS CABINET 286
XVI. THE COURTS AND THE LAW 308
PART III
THE CIVIC ACTIVITIES
ECONOMIC
XVII. NATURAL RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION 326
XVIII. THE AGRICULTURAL INTERESTS 339
XIX. THE ENCOURAGEMENT AND REGULATION OF COMMERCE 356
XX. THE ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL OF INDUSTRY 383
XXI. LABOR AND LABOR PROBLEMS 400
XXII. CURRENCY, BANKING, AND CREDIT 424
XXIII. TAXATION AND PUBLIC FINANCE 450
XXIV. PUBLIC UTILITIES AND PUBLIC OWNERSHIP 474
SOCIAL
XXV. EDUCATION 492
XXVI. PUBLIC HEALTH AND SANITATION 514
XXVII. POOR-RELIEF, CORRECTION, AND OTHER WELFARE PROBLEMS 540
INTERNATIONAL
XXVIII. THE NATIONAL DEFENCE 563
XXIX. FOREIGN RELATIONS 587
XXX. THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 606
XXXI. THE UNITED STATES AND THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS 625
XXXII. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTION 646
APPENDIX
THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 665
INDEX
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Justice. By _Edward Simmons_ _Frontispiece_
PAGE
The Family. By _Charles Sprague Pearce_ Facing 12
The Melting Pot. By _Vesper L. George_ ” 33
Thrift and Prosperity. By _Frederick Dielman_ ” 50
Liberty, Fraternity, Equality. By _Edward Simmons_ ” 78
Government. By _Elihu Vedder_ ” 118
Good Administration. By _Elihu Vedder_ ” 145
Washington at the Constitutional Convention. By ” 255
_Violet Oakley_
Science Revealing the Treasures of the Earth. By ” 329
_Edwin A. Abbey_
The Spirit of Vulcan. By _Edwin A. Abbey_ ” 383
The Crowning of Labor. By _John W. Alexander_ ” 400
The Evolution of the Book. By _John W. Alexander_ ” 492
Justice and Mercy. By _A. R. Willett_ ” 554
The Spirit of Light. By _Edwin A. Abbey_ ” 606
The Graduate. By _Edwin H. Blashfield_ ” 646
LIST OF MAPS, CHARTS, AND DIAGRAMS
PAGE
The Center of Population Facing 21
The Growth of American Cities ” 183
The City Manager Plan ” 197
Municipal Administrative Departments ” 205
Traffic Zones ” 210
Simplified State Administration ” 241
Land Regions of the United States ” 340
The Relation of Money and Prices ” 443
The National Debt, 1860-1920 ” 467
The Control of Education ” 500
The Rise of Prices in War Time ” 582
SOCIAL CIVICS
CHAPTER I
HUMAN SOCIETY
_The purpose of this chapter is to explain why human beings have
come together into a society, to point out some of the chief
influences which affect their action in organized groups, and to
show that government is the greatest of the agencies through which
human co-operative action is maintained today._
[Sidenote: The supremacy of man.]
=Man’s Place on the Earth.=—The present organization of society finds
its explanation in the nature of man. Man is by nature a social being;
he possesses intelligence and the capacity to organize. Among living
creatures man is by no means the first in physical power—he is neither
so strong as the lion nor so fleet as the reindeer. But he dominates the
earth because he more than makes up, by his mental and moral
superiority, for whatever may be lacking in physical prowess. We do not
know when mankind first began to assert its mastery over all other forms
of life on the earth, but it was a very long time ago. Man’s superior
intelligence gave him a start, and his capacity for organization enabled
him to clinch the victory. Today he is supreme on land, at sea, and in
the air.
[Sidenote: Evolution.]
=The Principle of Development.=—Human society did not come into
existence all at once; it has grown to its present form through the slow
process of time. Everywhere we see the principle of development at
work—among individuals and among institutions. Everything is still in a
continual process of change and this has unquestionably been the case
for many thousands of years. Or to put it in another way, new forms of
life and institutions are continually being evolved from older forms.
[Sidenote: Darwin and his work.]
To understand this principle of continual change and development it is
necessary to know something about the doctrine of evolution. This
doctrine is commonly associated with the name of Charles Darwin, for
although many others had hinted at the idea, he was the first to set it
forth accompanied by scientific evidence.[2] Darwin’s theory has been
much misunderstood; in the illiterate mind it is often summed up by
saying that “Man is descended from the monkey”. But Darwin did not say
anything of the kind, neither did he ever deny the existence of God as
the controlling factor in the life of the universe. Darwin’s theory of
evolution asserted that all forms of life now on earth have sprung from
a few simple, primitive types, and that human life is an evolution from
one of these earlier forms. Human institutions, likewise, did not arise
instantaneously but developed from simple and primitive beginnings into
their complex structure of today.
[Sidenote: Soundness of Darwin’s theory.]
The evidence upon which the doctrine of evolution rests is too extensive
and too technical to be even summarized here but it is regarded as
trustworthy by most scientists.[3] For fifty years it has been studied,
discussed, and tested by scholars with the result that educated men are
now disposed to accept the doctrine so far as its main principles are
concerned although they differ about various details.
It is astonishing how little we know, after all, about the beginnings of
things. We do not know when or how life began upon the earth. We do not
know the exact origin of man. But we do know that all forms of life and
institutions have grown; they were not created in the shape we now have
them. All the general laws of life which apply to plants and animals
apply also to man. Alike they are born, they are nourished, they mature,
and they produce descendants like themselves.
[Sidenote: The principle of “natural selection” and the struggle for
existence.]
The method of evolution, according to Darwin’s theory is based upon the
principle of _natural selection_. It is a well-known law of nature that
“like begets like”, in other words that offspring resemble the
parent-stock although there may be some individual differences. If it
were not so, a definite species would never be perpetuated. All forms of
life, moreover, reproduce themselves more or less abundantly. It is said
that the progeny of a single starfish exceeds half a million per year.
Even the elephants, which are the slowest breeding of all animals,
produce a sufficiently numerous offspring to over-run the whole of
Africa if every young elephant grew to maturity.
But nowhere does the entire progeny of any organisms, whether plants,
animals, or human beings, survive to full growth. If every acorn became
an oak tree, there would in time be no room for anything else on the
surface of the earth. If every tadpole grew to be a frog, there would be
no room for anything else in the waters of the earth. All life, however,
is a struggle for existence, a relentless competition for air, sunshine,
moisture, and soil on the part of plants, and for food and shelter on
the part of animals. The further down we go in the scale of life the
more bitter this struggle for existence becomes; small animals eat up
the plants; large animals feed on the smaller ones. Higher in the scale,
the struggle is not so keen, and among mankind it is the least strenuous
of all.
In this struggle for existence, what plants and animals survive? The
answer is that those which are best fitted to their environment continue
to exist and to reproduce themselves, while those which are more poorly
adapted to their environment fall out of the race and disappear.
[Sidenote: The survival of the fittest.] In other words natural
selection or the survival of the fittest was thought by Darwin to be the
principle which determines the course of evolution. The unfit perish and
the fit survive, everything depending upon the relative success of the
organism in adapting itself to the conditions under which it is
endeavoring to live. The clumsy mastodon became extinct; his bones are
now relics in museums; but the horse, being fleet of foot, managed to
survive. The fit organisms,—plants or animals or human beings,—have
survived and have perpetuated the species. They gave to their offspring
the traits or qualities which enabled themselves to survive. In that way
each generation of organisms became a little better fitted to its
environment than the generation which went before. This is a slow
process for human beings, of course, for it takes twenty years or more
to produce a new generation of men, whereas new generations of birds,
reptiles, and lower animals appear every few months. The principle of
natural selection, moreover, does not fully account for the form which
evolution has taken. Other factors have also been at work, but
scientists are not yet agreed as to their nature or importance.[4]
[Sidenote: Natural selection as applied to the human race.]
Now how does the human race figure in all this? Mankind has also been
at all times under the necessity of adapting itself to its
environment, and in the early stages of human history those who did
not successfully adapt themselves went to an early grave. During
century after century natural selection and the other factors
strengthened the race. As the race grew stronger in intelligence, man
undertook to subdue his environment rather than to be subdued by it,
and in considerable measure he succeeded. He discovered the art of
kindling a fire and made this element his servant in conquering the
cold. He domesticated wild animals, made them provide him with milk
and meat, and compelled them to carry his burdens. Step by step he
mastered the natural conditions which surrounded him. This he did by
his ability to work with his fellow-men. Through this power of
co-operation he created group organizations—society, the state, and
government.
[Sidenote: Today the strong assist the weak.]
The struggle for existence among men is not now, therefore, as it was in
primitive days, a life-and-death competition for food and shelter.
Individuals have come to recognize each other’s rights and to seek even
their own advantage by co-operation rather than by strife. The
association of individuals in the family and the community serves to
preserve the weak whom a keen struggle for existence would eliminate.
Our whole system of poor-relief, hospitals, and care for the defective
is based upon the idea of giving a fair chance to those who otherwise
would be crowded out of the struggle for existence altogether. The
competition today is not so much between individuals as among groups,
small or large, including competition between whole nations of men.
[Sidenote: The relative influence of inheritance and environment.]
=The Factors in Social Progress.=—Two factors have greatly influenced
the course of social evolution or social progress. These factors are
_inheritance_ and _environment_. By inheritance we mean the qualities,
physical and mental, which each generation inherits from the generation
preceding. By environment we mean the general surroundings, physical and
social, in which the people live. Mankind influences these surroundings
to a considerable extent and moulds them to his own needs, but in turn
is also influenced by them. Everything that is characteristic of man is
the result of these two forces, inheritance and environment. In some
things the first is more important, in others the second. For example,
under normal conditions the height of a man or woman is determined
almost altogether by inheritance, for no one by taking thought can add a
cubit to his stature. Intelligence, likewise, is to a large degree an
inherited quality. But morals, manners, education, and personal habits
are determined much more largely by environment than by inheritance.
[Sidenote: Which is the more potent influence?]
The respective influences of inheritance and environment cannot,
however, be in all cases clearly separated. Both often work to produce
the same result, as when a person who inherits a strong body and a sound
mind is fortunate enough to be placed in an environment where both body
and mind are developed by out-of-door life and a good education.
Sometimes they work in opposite directions, as when a child starts life
with a strong physique and good natural intelligence, but grows up in a
crowded tenement amid sordid conditions which weaken the one and fail to
afford scope for the other. We cannot say, therefore, that one factor is
always stronger or weaker than the other. The social progress of the
race is promoted by improving both influences. Environment especially
can be improved by human effort. Man’s control of his inheritance is not
nearly so complete, but everything that conduces to the betterment of
health or education and promotes a higher morality is a step towards
improving its influence.
[Sidenote: The two forms of inheritance.]
=Physical and Social Inheritance.=—The influence of inheritance is
exerted from two quarters which may be distinguished by calling them
_physical_ and _social_. [Sidenote: (_a_) Physical.] By the former we
mean the influence exerted upon human beings by the bodily and mental
traits which are handed down to them by their own parents. Not all the
characteristics of parents are transmitted to their children but mainly
those which the parents themselves have inherited. Traits or qualities
which have been acquired by the parents during their own lives do not
ordinarily descend to their children.[5] Parents who are born
feeble-minded will in all probability have feeble-minded children; but
parents who acquire through education a high degree of learning and
culture cannot transmit any of this to their children by inheritance.
There is no royal road to learning. Some of us are born with better or
worse possibilities than others, but we are all born illiterate.
[Sidenote: (_b_) Social.]
The other form of inherited influence is called our social heritage
because it represents the whole accumulation of knowledge, habits, and
expedients which have come down to us by the social process of teaching
and learning. Each generation of mankind is enormously dependent upon
its social inheritance; without it everything that we now call
civilization would collapse in a very short time. Each generation takes
over all the knowledge possessed by the one which went before; each
generation adds something to this stock of knowledge, habits, and
expedients for the benefit of the generation which comes after it. Each
generation, if it is to live happily, must adapt this social inheritance
to its own particular needs.
[Sidenote: The two kinds of environment:]
=Physical and Social Environment.=—The other great influence is that of
environment. By physical environment we mean the conditions of nature
and society in which man lives, moves, and has his being. Physical
environment includes the geographic, climatic, and other natural
conditions which surround the people. [Sidenote: (_a_) Physical.] These
conditions have an important influence upon the trend of human
development and they are not, for the most part, under man’s control.
Man must adapt himself and his ways of life to them. In cold climates he
must wear warm clothing, provide artificial heat in houses, and consume
warmth-giving food. Groups of men must everywhere mould their
occupations to the character of the soil, the natural resources, and the
other conditions of the physical environment in which they live. It is
because of differences in physical environment that the Southern states
developed cotton-culture on a large scale and employed slave labor,
while the Northern states gave their attention to farming and industry
with free labor.
Physical environment, moreover, determines in some measure the relations
of the various races with their neighbors. Men will be influenced by
neighboring groups of men in so far as physical features make
intercourse easy or difficult. A race of men who live on a distant
island, or in any other shut-off region, will not be so easily
influenced by neighboring races as if they dwelt in the midst of a
fertile plain. To some extent, as has been said, man is able to overcome
the difficulties which physical environment sets in the face of
progress. If there is inadequate rainfall, he may devise a system of
irrigation and carry on certain forms of agriculture as successfully as
though rainfall were abundant. By means of railroads, steamships, and
electric or radio communication he can be in constant contact with other
men who are separated from him by physical obstructions. But however
much the conditions of nature may be controlled, they still exert a
great influence upon human progress.
[Sidenote: (_b_) Social.]
The social environment is quite a different thing. By it we mean the
conditions altogether apart from geographic or natural features, which
influence the daily life of mankind. We include within social
environment such things as family life, the schools, the churches, the
organization and methods of industry, the form of government—everything
that society develops in the way of institutions. Many of these, as has
been pointed out, are natural growths, but the mind of man has also had
a large part in shaping their course.
[Sidenote: How customs and laws create a social environment.]
Most of the things we do, whether as a body of people or as individuals,
are merely the result of custom or general habit. Why do men have their
hair cut short while women let their hair grow long? Why do people wear
black when they are in mourning? In some countries they wear white. The
answer is merely that every nation, through long-continued habit,
develops its own ways of doing things and keeps on doing things in that
way regardless of any present reason. Orientals, when they eat their
meals, squat on the floor; Europeans and Americans seat themselves at
the table. Aryans shake hands when they meet; the Esquimos hold their
hands high above their heads as a token of greeting. The gentleman of
today, when he greets a lady on the street, raises his hat. This is not
a particularly graceful custom, nor is it in rainy weather an altogether
hygienic one; but it has been in vogue among the people of western
Europe for many centuries. It goes back to the days of chivalry when the
armored knight raised his visor to show his countenance and disclose his
identity.
Primitive races are governed largely by customs, and not until a race
has shown itself amenable to the influence of custom is it prepared to
be governed by laws. Laws differ from customs in that they have a
definite sanction, in other words are enforced by some official
authority. The institutions and practices which make up the social
environment may be the outcome of long-standing custom, like the system
of trial by jury, for example; or they may be brought into existence by
law, as, for instance, the admission of women to suffrage or the
establishment of national prohibition. The avowed purpose of all human
institutions is to promote the greatest good of the greatest number, in
other words to provide the best social environment.
=Some Important Social Forces.=—The basis of custom is habit. Customs,
in other words, are habits which extend [Sidenote: Two important social
forces: habit and imitation.] to the whole community and receive its
approval. We do not always realize how great a part _habit_ plays in our
daily lives.[6] Without it the day’s work could not be done. By habit we
walk, eat, dress ourselves, and perform many other common acts. Just
think how long it would take a novice to put the various parts of a
watch together; but the watchmaker, being habituated to the task, can do
it in an hour. The foundation of habit is _imitation_. One man does a
thing successfully; others follow his lead; a habit develops and a
general practice or custom may be the ultimate outcome. The influence of
custom is usually conservative, for when a custom is once firmly
established it does not easily give way. Take the custom of smoking
tobacco, for example. Europeans found it in vogue among the Indians when
they first came to America; they adopted it and have kept it up for more
than four hundred years. Sometimes, however, the habit or custom is only
of short duration, in which case we commonly call it a fashion. Fashions
come and go. A century ago men used snuff and women powdered their hair;
but these things have wholly passed out of fashion today.
=The Course of Social Progress.=—Having considered the various social
factors and forces (development, inheritance, environment, custom, and
so on) we are now in a position to ask and to answer the following
question: In accordance with what principle has human society developed?
There was a time when even educated people imagined that such
organizations as the state were planned in advance, that individuals
merely came together in prehistoric days and agreed after calm
deliberation to establish a civil government. That, of course, was an
absurd idea. Today we realize that one step in social organization led
gradually to another, that institutions were not created but evolved,
that various social factors and forces exerted an influence upon their
development, and that the strongest institutions survived while the
weaker disappeared.
[Sidenote: Institutions that have succumbed in the struggle for
existence.]
In the course of human history associations of every type have come into
existence; many still continue to flourish while others merely abode
their little hour and went their way. The organizations which we have
today, including the family, the school, the church, the community, the
state, are among those that have survived. Those that succumbed during
the long journey down the ages would make a formidable list. Who ever
hears nowadays of the totem-kin, the clan, or the gens? Where do we now
find tribunes, praetors, augurs, and triumvirates? Absolute monarchy, as
a form of government, once held sway over most of the world. But
democratic government entered into competition with it, and as there was
not room enough for both, one crowded the other off the stage. The great
mediaeval institution of feudalism dominated the rural life of Europe
for more than five hundred years, but the last relics of feudal tenure
have practically all been swept away. The trade guilds of the olden
days, the orders of nobility, the crowns and coronets, the soothsayers
and the alchemists—all of them have disappeared or are rapidly
disappearing. The beaches of history are strewn with the wrecks of
social and political institutions. Some others, like the hereditary
peerages of a few European countries, are barely able to keep afloat.
The institutions which survive and flourish are the ones that have been
found best fitted to survive.
[Sidenote: Importance of the family.]
=The Fundamental Social Group.=—In human society the foundation-group is
the family. Human beings are social by nature; the motive which draws
people together is so universal that we call it a natural instinct.
Individuals do not live in isolation. Nobody leads the hermit type of
life if he can avoid it. Robinson Crusoe was not on his little island
because he wanted to be there. Even among the least civilized races of
men, among savage tribes, there is a grouping of men, women, and
children on the basis of blood relationship. The family, as a unit, is
older than either the state or the community. It is the foundation upon
which other groups and organizations have been built, hence it is
rightly called the “social microcosm” or basis of society.
[Sidenote: The function of the family.]
The primary function of the family is to keep the human race in
existence. Its first duty is the rearing of children so that a new
generation may take the place of the old. Other duties that belong to
the family may be handed over to the school (the duty of secular
education) or to the church (the duty of religious instruction); but the
primary function of the family, that of perpetuating the race, is one
which cannot be transferred.
The whole stream of human life flows through the family organization.
The same virtues which make for harmony in the household,—obedience,
co-operation, loyalty, and service,—are the ones which mark good
citizenship; therefore the home is the primary school of all the civic
virtues. For this reason the collapse of the home and of home life would
be nothing short of a human catastrophe.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
[Illustration:
THE FAMILY. By Charles Sprague Pearce
_From a Copley Print, copyright by Curtis & Cameron, Boston.
Reproduced by permission._
]
THE FAMILY
By Charles Sprague Pearce
From the mural painting in the entrance pavilion of
the North Hall, Library of Congress.
This is the ancient family. The father has just
returned from hunting. The mother holds up the baby
to welcome him and his little daughter throws
her arms about him. On the benches of stone at
either side of the group sit the grandmother and
grandfather, the latter with the air of a patriarch.
By his side lies a scroll. Three generations are
placed together in the idyllic environment of which
the poets have so often written.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
[Sidenote: The clan.]
=Other Social Groups.=—Out of the family grew the clan, or group of
families united by ties of kinships. In early days the clan was a
wandering group, like the gipsy bands of today; but ultimately each clan
settled upon the land and became a community. In these communities men
became trained in manual labor; they developed customs and the rudiments
of a village government.
Then came the next stage—several village communities joined together for
defence against their mutual enemies. A loose confederation at first,
this group of communities in time became a state, usually with a
chieftain or a monarch at its head. In other cases a single village
community grew in size to such an extent that it became a city state,
like Athens or Sparta. The most notable example of this development is
afforded by ancient Rome, where a small community grew into a World
Empire. The family, the clan, the community, the confederation of
communities, the state, and, ultimately, the nation—that is the general
course of political evolution, although this line of development was not
in all cases exactly followed.
But the evolution was not confined to political institutions alone.
Social and economic groups and institutions developed also. A variety of
needs called forth one institution after another, the church, the
school, the club, the industrial organization. Each has its own function
in organized society.
[Sidenote: Government is the guiding hand.]
=The Rôle of Government.=—The dominating factor in the social and
economic life of today, however, is the political community (nation,
state, and municipality), acting through the agency which we call
government. Government is the great co-ordinating factor. Day by day we
are looking more and more to government for leadership, for regulation,
and for supervision in all our greater social and economic activities.
In the field of social and economic effort, all roads lead through
government—it is the clearing house of our greater problems. Whether the
problem be one of banking, commerce, poor-relief, labor, or defence we
must reckon with the hand of government as one of the strongest among
constructive and harmonizing factors. Government is the focal point in
all civic relations. It provides a thread which winds its way along
every main line of civic activity. That has been particularly noticeable
in European countries; but it is now true of America as well. The
greatest of our socializing agencies is government.
[Sidenote: America’s emphasis on individualism.]
=Individual Liberty and Social Control.=—In the United States strong
emphasis has always been laid upon individual freedom, and rightly so,
because the encouragement of individual initiative is essential to
progress in a new country. The exploitation of vast natural resources
required that men should be given encouragement to pioneer, and should
not be held down by too much governmental interference. “That government
is best which interferes the least” was the common notion. Stress was
laid upon the prosperity of the individual rather than upon the welfare
of the whole people. This doctrine of extreme individualism undoubtedly
served a useful purpose in the days when the country’s biggest problem
was to increase production and gain for itself a place among the strong
nations of the world.
[Sidenote: The influence of the frontier.]
To a considerable extent this emphasis upon individualism was due to the
influence of the frontier. From the first settlement of the country down
to about 1880 the American people were engaged in the task of marching
steadily westward, conquering the wilderness as they went. This
mastering of a great domain demanded qualities of enterprise,
initiative, and individual courage. It developed men’s confidence in
their own power and made them reliant upon their own efforts. In old
countries the natural tendency is for the individual to look to the
public authorities for leadership, guidance, and supervision; on the
great American frontier the pioneers had to hew their own way. They
preceded the state and the community. This emphasis upon individual
initiative remained as the frontier rolled west and profoundly affected
the whole social temper of the country.
[Sidenote: The nature and scope of social control.]
In time a reaction came. Social control developed. The more thickly
populated a country becomes, the more complicated do the relations of
individuals grow, and the greater is the need for general restraint.
Social control, however, is not merely negative in its purpose. Its
object is not simply to restrain individuals in their freedom of action
but to encourage them in the thing which the general welfare demands.
The government is the chief agency through which social control is
exercised, but it is by no means the only one. Religious, fraternal,
professional, and benevolent organizations do a good deal in the same
general direction. Their function is to promote collective interests as
distinguished from the interests of individuals; they protect the
collective interests against the avarice or selfishness of individuals.
The government exercises social control by means of laws and
administrative orders; other organizations exercise it by their own
rules or by customs which the members obey.
[Sidenote: The limits of social control.]
There is always a danger, of course, that social control may proceed too
far. It is not the object of government and of social organizations to
run all men in the same mould, making them mere automatons without
individuality or initiative. Government should aim to give sufficient
scope for every individual to use his abilities in the best possible
way. Control over the acts and discretion of individuals is justified
only where such control promotes, in the long run, the well-being of the
greatest number of individuals. The state is not an end in itself.
Society is not an end in itself. The individual is the end. Society and
the state are merely means to the promotion of the general welfare and
the welfare of the individual. Their activities in the way of exercising
social control should go no further than this.
General References
C. H. COOLEY, _Social Organization_, pp. 3-22;
H. G. WELLS, _Outline of History_, Vol. I, pp. 3-103;
C. A. ELLWOOD, _Sociology and Modern Social Problems_, pp. 7-59;
F. S. CHAPIN, _Social Evolution_, pp. 3-101;
VERNON KELLOGG, _Darwinism Today_, pp. 10-57; 129-157;
J. A. THOMSON, _Darwinism and Human Life_, pp. 181-237;
D. S. JORDAN and V. L. KELLOGG, _Evolution and Animal Life_, pp. 1-56;
T. N. CARVER, _Sociology and Social Progress_, pp. 174-270;
E. A. ROSS, _Social Control_, pp. 1-105.
Group Problems
=1. How far should society control the conduct of individuals?= Why
social control is exercised. The extent of social control in older
countries,—Great Britain, France, and Germany. Its growth in America.
Causes of this growth. The point at which it ceases to be justified.
Illustrations. Effects of too much emphasis on individualism. Effects of
too much social restraint. Relation of social control to socialism.
=References=: E. A. ROSS, _Social Control_, pp. 49-76; H. G. WELLS, _New
Worlds for Old_, pp. 1-55; T. N. CARVER, _Sociology and Social
Progress_, pp. 788-808; _Ibid, Principles of National Economy_, pp.
740-749.
=2. What is progress? References=: F. S. MARVIN, _Progress and History_,
pp. 8-10; JOHN DEWEY “Progress” in _International Journal of Ethics_,
xxvi, 312-318 (1916); JAMES BRYCE, _Essays and Addresses in War Time_,
pp. 84-102 (War and Progress); GEORGE NASMYTH, _Social Progress and the
Darwinian Theory_.
Short Studies
1. =The past in the present.= H. R. BURCH and S. H. PATTERSON, _American
Social Problems_, pp. 33-43.
2. =The beginnings of civilization.= H. G. WELLS, _Outline of History_,
Vol. I, pp. 183-208.
3. =Earlier forms of the family.= C. A. ELLWOOD, _Sociology and Modern
Social Problems_, pp. 108-130.
4. =The development of the tribe into the community.= J. Q. DEALEY, _The
State and Government_, pp. 24-45.
5. =The American family as an economic unit.= MARY K. SIMKHOVITCH, _The
City Worker’s World_, pp. 1-21.
6. =The relation of leisure to family life.= FLORENCE KELLEY, _Some
Ethical Gains through Legislation_, pp. 105-125.
7. =The influence of environment.= F. S. CHAPIN, _Social Evolution_, pp.
121-170.
8. =Habit.= WILLIAM JAMES, _Psychology_, I, pp. 104-127.
9. =The influence of frontier conditions upon the development of
American society.= F. J. TURNER, _The Frontier in American History_, pp.
1-38.
10. =Individualism.= HERBERT SPENCER, _Social Statics_, pp. 100-136; C.
W. ELIOT, _The Conflict between Individualism and Collectivism in a
Democracy_, pp. 1-42.
Questions
1. How would you define “society”? Is it an organism? What resemblances
to an organism does it bear?
2. Explain the following terms: instinct; impulse; natural selection;
social inheritance; social environment; habit; custom; fashion; mob
mind; institution; social control. Give examples of each.
3. How has physical environment affected the ideas of the American
people in relation to (_a_) national defence; (_b_) form of government;
(_c_) social control? How has the physical environment of England
affected the ideas of the English people on the same matters?
4. What racial characteristics do you find most strongly marked in the
(_a_) Scotch; (_b_) Irish; (_c_) Scandinavians; (_d_) Italians; (_e_)
Jews; (_f_) Japanese?
5. Name any institutions, other than those given in the text, which have
served mankind for a time and been discarded.
6. Can you think of any customs which are universal throughout the
world? Any which prevail in the United States but not elsewhere? Any
which prevail in some parts of the United States but not in others?
7. Do Americans in general pay too much deference to custom? Is there
any ground for the European idea that there is “too much uniformity” in
American life?
8. Are crowds likely to be more conservative or more radical than the
individuals who compose them? Give your reasons. What is the difference
between a mob, a crowd, a meeting, and a deliberative assembly?
9. The family, as an organization, differs not only in size but in
nature, from all other social organizations such as the community, the
state and the nation. Show how this is.
10. In what ways would society suffer if the family as a social unit
were broken down?
11. To what extent has society the right to regulate, as a measure of
self-protection, the institution of marriage?
12. Why have we laid emphasis upon individualism in this country?
Explain why this stress is being steadily diminished.
13. Should social control be exercised over (_a_) the methods of
agriculture; (_b_) the marketing of timber; (_c_) the production and
sale of tobacco; (_d_) the rates charged by electric lighting companies;
(_e_) the price of bread at retail bakeries; (_f_) the hours of labor
for men; (_g_) the hours of labor for women; (_h_) the kind of pictures
shown in theaters; (_i_) the diet of the people; (_j_) the hours at
which young people may be on the streets after dark; (_k_) the religious
beliefs of the people? Tell why or why not in each case. Is a greater
degree of social control justified over certain classes of the
population than over others? Is it justified at certain times and not at
others?
14. If society exercises too little control over the individual, what
evils result? If it exercises too much control, what are the
consequences (_a_) upon the individual; (_b_) upon society itself?
Topics for Debate
1. Physical environment has had a more important influence than racial
characteristics in determining the establishment and maintenance of
democratic institutions in the United States.
2. Thomas Jefferson was right when he said “That government is best
which governs least”.
3. Society is under obligation to ensure every industrious man a decent
living.
-----
Footnote 1:
For example, by covering Chapters i, ii, iv-xvi, xxviii-xxix, in the
first term and Chapters iii, xvii-xxvii, xxx-xxxii in the second.
Footnote 2:
Charles Darwin, a distinguished English student of biology, was born
in 1809, and died in 1882. His theory was set forth in two famous
books, _The Origin of Species_ and _The Descent of Man_.
Footnote 3:
The most interesting general account of the beginnings of life and the
ancestry of man is that given in H. G. Wells’ _Outline of History_,
Vol. I, pp. 3-103. A brief summary of the evidence on which the
doctrine of evolution rests may be conveniently found in H. R. Burch
and S. H. Patterson, American Social Problems, pp. 12-32.
Footnote 4:
For a discussion of these other factors see Vernon Kellogg, _Darwinism
Today_.
Footnote 5:
There has been much discussion among scientists as to whether acquired
characteristics can be transmitted at all. The best opinion seems to
be against such transmission, but some biologists still hold to the
belief that transmission is possible, particularly in the lower
organisms. For a further discussion see W. E. Castle, _Genetics and
Eugenics_, pp. 26-27.
Footnote 6:
One of the best things ever written is the chapter on “Habit” in
William James’s _Psychology_. No one will regret the time spent in
reading it.