234. _The COMMON ARUM, CUCKOO PINT, or LORDS AND LADIES_ (Arum
maculatum), _is a well-known plant, which grows in shady hedge bottoms;
and has, about the month of May, a club-shaped spike, frequently of
purple colour at the top, issuing from a green sheath with which it is
enveloped._
The acridity of every part of this common plant, whilst in a recent state,
is such that, if tasted, there is left upon the tongue an intolerably
disagreeable burning and pricking sensation, which continues for a long
time afterwards; and which no one, who has once tasted it, will be inclined
to experience a second time. If bruised and applied to the skin, a blister
will shortly afterwards be raised.
It was from this property that the _roots_, which are whitish, and each
about the size of a nutmeg, were formerly used internally in medicine, as a
powerful stimulant, and externally for blisters. In some parts of France
they are employed in bleaching, from an opinion that, by their corrosive
quality, they render the linen white. Their acrimony is wholly dissipated
by drying; and, in a dried state, they afford an almost tasteless
farinaceous powder, which may even be made into bread. The powdered roots
of the common arum are converted, by the French, into an harmless cosmetic,
which is sold at a high price under the name of _Cyprus powder_.
In consequence of a premium which was offered by the Society for
Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, for discovering a method
of preparing starch from materials not used as food for man, an experiment
was made, by Mrs. Jane Gibbs, of Portland, in Dorsetshire, upon the roots
of the common arum. A peck of the roots was found to produce about four
pounds' weight of starch; and she prepared, in the whole, about two hundred
weight. The process was to clean the roots, and pound them in a mortar with
water: the pulp thus formed was strained, and after being allowed to
settle, the water was poured off, and the starch remained at the bottom.
Whilst speaking of the arum, it may be stated that the flowers of some of
the foreign species (_Arum crinitum_ and _A. dracunculus_) have so strong a
smell, like carrion, that even flesh-flies are attracted to deposit their
eggs in them: and that the structure of the flowers is such that, when the
insects attempt to retreat, they are prevented by the reversed hairs which
are there found, and are destroyed. Some of the species are considered
wholesome food; one (_Arum esculentum_) is much cultivated for this purpose
in the West Indies and South America. The leaves of this plant, when
boiled, are much esteemed as potherbs, and the roots are eaten either baked
or boiled.
235. _The SWEET CHESNUT_ (Fagus castanea, Fig. 65) _is a stately tree,
which grows wild in some of the southern and western parts of England,
and is distinguished by having spear-shaped and pointed leaves, with
tapering serratures at the edge._
_The flowers appear in long hanging spikes or clusters, about the month
of May; and the fruit, which is ripe in September, is enveloped in a husk
defended by a great number of complicated prickles._
Notwithstanding the known durability of the oak, there does not appear any
well-authenticated instance of the age of an oak being equal to that of the
celebrated chesnut-tree, at Tortworth, in Gloucestershire, which was known
as a boundary mark in the reign of King John. This tree is supposed to have
then been more than 500 years old, making its age at this time to exceed
1100 years. The diameter of its trunk is fifteen feet, and it still
continues to bear fruit.
Few of our forest trees are more beautiful than the chesnut. It is true
that the generality of painters prefer the oak for its picturesque form;
but in the landscapes of Salvator Rosa, and other celebrated masters,
chesnut-trees are very conspicuous.
The _timber_ of this tree was formerly much in use. The beams and rafters
of many of our most ancient churches are formed of it; and its appearance
so nearly resembles that of the oak, that it requires the eye of a good
judge to distinguish them from each other. For the heads and staves of
casks, the wood of the chesnut is considered peculiarly excellent; and
pipes, made of it for the conveyance of water under ground, are said to be
more durable than those either of elm or oak. For furniture it may be
stained so as somewhat to resemble mahogany. Hop-poles, and poles for
espaliers and dead fences, made of young chesnut-trees, are preferred to
most others.
Much of the _fruit_ of the chesnut is consumed as food by the poorer
classes of people on the Continent, but particularly by those of Spain and
Italy; and, when dried and powdered, it is no mean substitute for flour, in
bread and puddings. Chesnuts are imported into this country in considerable
quantities, both from France and Spain, and are roasted and eaten in
desserts: those which are grown here being much smaller than what we
receive from abroad. On the Continent they are sometimes used for making
starch, and in the bleaching of linen.
236. _The BEECH_ (Fagus sylvatica, Fig. 64) _is a forest tree known by
its waved and somewhat oval leaves, and its triangular fruit, consisting
of three cells, and enclosed, by pairs, in a husk which is covered with
simple prickles._
There are beech woods in many parts of England, but the trees flourish best
in rich, calcareous soils. These woods, it has been observed, are
peculiarly dry and pleasant to walk in; and, under their shade, afford to
the botanist many interesting plants, such as the bird's nest
(_monotropa_), winter green (_pyrola_), and some rare _orchideæ_.
Beech-trees bear lopping well, and may be trained so as to form lofty
hedges, which are the more valuable for shelter, as the leaves, though
faded, remain through the winter, and the twisted branches may be formed
into a very strong fence.
The _wood_ is hard and brittle, and, if exposed to the air, is liable soon
to decay. It is, however, peculiarly useful to cabinet-makers and turners.
Carpenters' planes, tool-handles, and mallets, are made of it. When split
into thin layers, it is used to make scabbards for swords. Chairs,
bedsteads, and other furniture, are occasionally formed of beech.
The fruit of this tree, which has the name of _beech-mast_, and is ripe in
September, is palatable to the taste; but, if eaten in great quantity, it
occasions giddiness and head-aches. When, however, it is dried and
powdered, it may be made into a wholesome bread. The inhabitants of Scio,
one of the Ionian Islands, were once enabled to endure a memorable siege by
the beech-mast which their island supplied. This fruit has, occasionally,
been roasted and used as a substitute for coffee. When subjected to
pressure, it yields a sweet and palatable _oil_, which, if properly made,
is equal, in quality, to the best olive-oil, and has the advantage of
continuing longer than that without becoming rancid. Beech-oil is
manufactured in several parts of France; and is used by the lower classes
of Silesia instead of butter. The cakes which remain after the oil is
extracted are a wholesome food, and may also be advantageously employed for
the fattening of swine, poultry, and oxen.
In some countries the _leaves_ of the beech-tree are collected in the
autumn, before they have been injured, by the frosts, and are used instead
of feathers for beds; and mattresses formed of them are said to be
preferable to those either of straw or chaff.
237. _The OAK_ (Quercus robur, Fig. 68) _is a well-known timber tree, of
native growth in this country, as well as other countries in northern
temperate climates._
It is to this valuable tree that our navy is indebted for its existence;
and without it this invincible barrier of the country could not be
supported. _Oak timber_ being hard, tough, tolerably flexible, and not very
liable to splinter, is, in Europe, preferred to every other kind for the
construction of ships of war. It is also well adapted to every purpose of
rural and domestic economy, particularly for staves, laths, and the spokes
of wheels. Until the introduction of mahogany, it was very generally used
for furniture; and, in large mansions, it was customary even to line the
walls of rooms with _wainscot_, or panelling of oak.
This tree is remarkable for the slowness of its growth, for its great
longevity, and the dimensions to which it attains. It has, however, been
remarked that the trunk of the oak seldom increases to a greater
proportionate diameter than about fourteen inches in eighty years. As to
its dimensions, it is stated that an oak belonging to Lord Powis, and
growing, in 1764, in Bromfield Wood, near Ludlow, measured sixty-eight feet
in girth and twenty-three feet in height, and contained in the whole 1455
feet of timber.
Before oak timber is in a state to be used it is requisite that the trees
should be barked, and suffered to stand uncut for three or four years, that
they may become perfectly dry. The _bark_ thus obtained is extensively used
in the tanning of leather; and afterwards it serves as fuel, and for making
hot-beds for the growth of pines, and some other plants. The astringent
properties of oak-bark render it of use for medical purposes. The
_saw-dust_ of this tree, and even the _leaves_, though much inferior to the
bark, have been found useful in tanning. The former of these is the
principal vegetable production of this country, which is used in the dyeing
of fustian.
On the leaves and buds of the oak certain excrescences are formed, in
consequence of the puncture of insects, as the lodgment for their eggs and
a habitation for their future young. These are termed _galls_, and if, when
arrived at a certain state, they are infused in a weak solution of vitriol,
they impart to it a purple or violet tinge; and, after the whole colouring
matter is extracted, this becomes perfectly black. Considerable quantities
of galls are used in dyeing, and for other purposes.
_Acorns_, or the seeds of the oak, possess an astringent quality, and have
a bitter taste, both of which may be extracted by steeping them, for some
time, in cold water, or by boiling them. After this simple process, they
are not an unpalatable fruit. With the ancient Britons they were an article
in great request, and even constituted an important part of their food; and
there can be little doubt that, carefully prepared, dried, and reduced to
powder, they might, in times of scarcity, be adopted as a substitute for
bread-corn. By pressure an oil is obtained from them which may be used for
lamps; and a kind of coffee is prepared from them in some parts of the
Continent.
The branches of the oak, as well as those of several other kinds of trees,
are burned for the formation of _charcoal_; and it is a remarkable
circumstance that the properties of charcoal, from whatever wood it may be
made, are nearly the same. One of the most remarkable of these is, that it
is not liable to decay by age. Hence it was customary, with the ancients,
to char or burn the outside of stakes, or other wood, which were to be
driven into the ground, or placed in water. Charcoal may be preserved
without injury for an almost indefinite length of time; and, in the ancient
tombs of the inhabitants of northern nations, entire pieces of charcoal are
at this day frequently discovered.
Besides the great use of charcoal in the composition of gunpowder, and to
artists and manufacturers of different kinds, it has lately been employed,
with considerable success, in correcting the rancid and disagreeable smell
of train oil, so as to render it fit to be burned in chamber lamps; and
several manufactories of this oil have been established in the
neighbourhood of London. Newly-made charcoal, if rolled up in clothes which
have contracted a disagreeable odour, will effectually destroy it; and if
boiled with meat beginning to putrefy will take away the taint.
This substance is used by artists in the polishing of brass and
copper-plates, for the drawing of outlines, and numerous other purposes.
When purified, it forms perhaps the best tooth-powder that is known. The
mode of purifying it is to reduce it to powder, wash it repeatedly with
water, and then dry it by means of a strong heat in close vessels. This
heat expels the foreign contents with which it is impregnated; but however
intense, if the vessels are closed, it in no respects alters the quality of
the charcoal. The vapour of burning charcoal is extremely pernicious; and
persons exposed to it in confined rooms are liable to be suffocated in a
very short time. The best remedy is immediately to take them into the
strongest draught of cold air that can be obtained, to loosen all their
garments, and apply volatile spirits to their nostrils.
238. _CORK is the external bark of a species of oak_ (Quercus suber)
_which grows in Spain, Portugal, and other southern parts of Europe, and
is distinguished by the fungous texture of its bark; and by its leaves
being evergreen, oblong, somewhat oval, downy underneath, and waved._
The principal supply of the cork that is consumed in Europe, is obtained
from Catalonia in Spain; and the culture and the preparation of it yield to
the inhabitants of that province near 250,000_l._ per annum.
In the collecting of cork, it is customary to slit it with a knife, at
certain distances, in a perpendicular direction from the top of the trees
to the bottom; and to make two incisions across, one near the top and the
other near the bottom of the trunk. For the purpose of stripping off the
bark, a curved knife with a handle at each end is used. Sometimes it is
stripped in pieces the whole length, and sometimes in shorter pieces, cross
cuts being made at certain intervals. In some instances the perpendicular
and transverse incisions are made, and the cork is left upon the trees
until, by the growth of the new bark beneath, it becomes sufficiently loose
to be removed by the hand.
After the pieces are detached they are soaked in water; and, when nearly
dry, are placed over a fire of coals, which blackens their external
surface. By the latter operation they are rendered smooth, and all the
smaller blemishes are thereby concealed: the larger holes and cracks are
filled up by the artful introduction of soot and dirt. The pieces are next
loaded with weights to make them even; and lastly they are dried, stacked,
or packed in bales for exportation.
Many of the uses of cork were well known to the ancients. Its elasticity
renders it peculiarly serviceable for the stopping of vessels of different
kinds; and thus preventing either the liquids therein contained from
running out, or the external air from passing in. The use of cork for
stopping glass bottles is generally considered to have been introduced
about the fifteenth century. The practice of employing this substance for
jackets to assist in swimming is very ancient; and it has lately been
applied in various ways towards the preservation of life, when endangered
by shipwreck. The floats of nets used for fishing are frequently made of
cork: pieces fastened together make buoys, which, by floating on the
surface of the water, afford direction for vessels in harbours, rivers, and
other places. In some parts of Spain it is customary to line the walls of
houses with cork, which not only renders them warm, but prevents the
admission of moisture. The ancient Egyptians sometimes made coffins of it.
On account of its lightness, cork is used for false legs; and, from its
being impervious by water, it is sometimes placed betwixt the soles of
shoes to keep out moisture. When burned, it constitutes that light black
substance known by the name of _Spanish black_.
In the cutting of corks for use, the only tool employed is a broad, thin,
and sharp knife; and, as the cork tends very much to blunt this, it is
sharpened upon a board by one whet, or stroke on each side, after every
cut; and, now and then, upon a common whet-stone. The corks for bottles are
cut in the length way of the bark, and consequently the pores lie across.
Bungs, and corks of large size, are cut in a contrary direction: the pores
in these are therefore downward, a circumstance which renders them much
more defective in stopping out the air than the others. The parings of cork
are sold to the makers of Spanish black.
239. _The WALNUT is a well-known shell fruit, produced by a tree_
(Juglans regia, Fig. 69), _which grows wild in the northern parts of
China and Persia, and has winged leaves; the leaflets, about nine in
number, large, oblong, smooth, thick; and the end one with a stalk._
Although greatly admired, both for the beauty of its foliage, and for the
excellence of its fruit, the cultivation of the walnut-tree in England is
by no means attended to so much as it was formerly, when its _wood_ was
considered the most ornamental timber produced in our island. It is
pleasingly veined, and admits of a fine polish, but its colour is much less
rich than that of mahogany; and consequently, except for the making of
gunstocks, it has, of late, been wholly superseded by that more favourite
wood. On the Continent, however, the walnut-tree is still in request for
furniture of various kinds.
The _fruit_ of the walnut-tree is covered externally with a thick and
smooth green husk, the juice of which stains the fingers black. In an
unripe state, before the shells are formed, the whole fruit may be made
into a pickle, and also into ketchup. In medicine the unripe fruit is
considered of use for the destruction of worms, and is usually administered
in the form of an extract.
Walnuts become ripe about the beginning of October; and, as they grow in
clusters, generally at the ends of the branches, it is customary to beat
them down with long poles. The kernel, which is covered with a tough,
yellow, and bitter skin, is more esteemed than that either of the hazel-nut
or filbert. It yields, on pressure, a sweet kind of oil, which, in
quantity, amounts to about half the weight of the kernel.
There are several varieties of walnut, which are well known to the
cultivators of that tree.
240. _The HICKORY-NUT_ (Juglans alba) _is a North American species of
walnut, the shell of which is very hard, does not split asunder like that
of the walnut, and is of smoother and lighter colour than that_.
Its kernel is sweet and well tasted, and affords a considerable portion of
oil.
241. _The HAZEL-NUT and FILBERT are well-known fruits, the former of a
shrub_ (Corylus avellana, Fig. 67) _which grows in hedges and thickets;
and the latter of a somewhat similar shrub, which is cultivated in
orchards and kitchen gardens._
Each of these kinds of _nuts_ is much esteemed, but particularly the
latter; the flavour of its kernels being very delicious. They are, however,
difficult of digestion, and, when eaten in considerable quantity, sometimes
produce very unpleasant effects. The oil which is obtained from hazel-nuts
by pressure is little inferior in flavour to that of almonds, and, under
the name of _nut-oil_, is often used by painters. Chemists employ it as the
basis of fragrant oils artificially prepared, because it easily combines
with and retains odours. This oil is found serviceable in obstinate coughs.
If nuts be put into earthen pots and well closed, and afterwards buried
eighteen inches or two feet deep in the earth, they may be kept sound
through the winter.
In many parts of the country _hazels_ are planted in coppices and
hedge-rows for several useful purposes; but particularly to be cut down,
periodically, for charcoal, for poles, fishing-rods, &c. Being extremely
tough and flexible, the branches of the hazel are used for making hurdles,
crates, withs or bands, and springles to fasten down thatch. They are
formed into spars, handles for implements of husbandry; and, when split,
are bent into hoops for casks. Charcoal made from hazel is much in request
for forges; and, when prepared in a particular manner, is used by painters
and engravers to draw their outlines.
In countries where yeast is scarce, it is not unusual to twist loosely
together the slender branches of this shrub, and to steep them in ale-yeast
during its fermentation. They are then hung up to dry; and, at the next
brewing, are put into the wort instead of yeast. The _roots_ are used by
cabinet makers for veneering: and, in Italy, the _chips_ of hazel are
sometimes put into turbid wine for the purpose of fining it.
242. _The HORNBEAM_ (Carpinus betulus, Fig. 73) _is a forest tree which
grows to the height of sixty or seventy feet, yet seldom exceeds fifteen
or eighteen inches in diameter, has smooth white bark, marked with grey
spots, and leaves about three inches long and two broad, oval, pointed,
and serrated._
As a timber-tree the hornbeam is more esteemed on the Continent than in
this country. It grows readily in stiff soils, particularly on the sides of
hills; and is easily transplanted. The _wood_, which is white, hard, and
tough, is used by turners; and is wrought into cogs for mill-wheels,
screw-presses, the heads of beetles, handles of working tools, and other
instruments and machinery in which great strength is required. As fuel it
is preferred, on account of its readier inflammability, to most other kinds
of wood. The _inner bark_ is used, in some countries, for dyeing yellow.
From the foliage of the hornbeam being luxuriant, and admitting of being
clipped, without injury, into any of those forms which the old French
garden style required, this tree was formerly much more planted in England
than it is at present. It preserves a great portion of its withered leaves
through the winter; and, if properly planted as a hedge, it forms an
excellent fence. The German husbandman, when he erects a fence of hornbeam,
throws up a parapet of earth, with a ditch on each side, and plants his
sets (which he raises from layers) in such a manner that every two plants
may be brought to intersect each other, in the form of a St. Andrew's
cross. In that part where the plants cross, he scrapes off the bark, and
bends them closely together with straw. In consequence of this operation
the two plants consolidate into a sort of indissoluble knot, and push, from
the place of junction, horizontal slanting shoots, which form a living
palisado or _chevaux de frise_; so that such a protection may be called a
rural fortification. These hedges, being annually and carefully pruned,
will, in a few years, become impenetrable in every part. It is not uncommon
in Germany, to see the high roads thus guarded for many miles together; and
great advantage might be derived from adopting the same plan in many parts
of our own kingdom.
243. _The PLANE-TREE_ (Platanus orientalis, Fig. 71) _is distinguished by
having broad leaves, each with about five principal divisions, and these
subdivided into smaller ones._
By the ancient Greeks and Romans the plane-tree was highly valued, on
account of its grateful shade; and the latter were much delighted by
training it in such manner as to admit of their sitting beneath its
branches. Wherever they built their magnificent colleges for the exercise
of youth, in the gymnastic arts, as riding, wrestling, running, leaping,
throwing the discus, &c. and where also the gravest philosophers met to
converse together and improve their studies, they planted avenues and walks
of plane trees for refreshment and shade.
Though now frequently planted in parks and pleasure grounds, the sycamore
(122) is, in many instances, preferred to it. The plane, though a native of
Asia and the southern parts of Europe, is very hardy, grows rapidly, and
will flourish in any common soil, and in any aspect.
Its _wood_, at a certain age, becomes much veined; and, consequently, is
valuable for many kinds of domestic furniture, but particularly for tables.
244. _The CABBAGE-TREE_ (Areca oleracea) _is an American species of palm,
which grows to the height of a hundred feet and upwards, and is destitute
of leaves until within a few feet of the summit. The leaves, sometimes
near twenty feet long, are winged, and the leaflets are entire._
Such is the general elegance of this tree that it is frequently denominated
the queen of woods. Its _fruit_, which grows in bunches from the top, is an
oblong and obtuse kind of berry, of bluish purple colour, and about the
size of an olive. The sheaths of the flowers, and the floral leaves, when
first developed, are folded round each other, enclosed in a thin, green,
and spongy bark, eight or nine inches in circumference, and constitute the
part which is denominated the _cabbage_. This is white, and, when boiled,
is esteemed a great luxury. It is also eaten raw as a salad, and fried with
butter; and its taste is said to resemble that of an artichoke. This part
is likewise frequently made into a pickle with vinegar and spices.
We are informed that the cabbage-tree was first introduced into Jamaica by
Admiral Knowles, when governor of that island; and that it has since been
cultivated there with great attention. But it is chiefly planted for its
beauty, being considered too valuable to be often cut down for the small
portion of food which it thus affords, however delicious that may be.
In the _leaves_ of this tree there is a thread-like substance, which is
sometimes spun, like hemp, and made into different kinds of cordage. The
sockets or grooves formed by the broad part of the footstalks of the leaves
are used by the negroes as cradles for their children; and on the inner
sides of the very young footstalks there are tender pellicles, which, when
dried, may be converted into paper. The _trunks_, when cleared of the pith,
serve as water pipes and gutters. Of the _pith_ a kind of sago is made; and
in this pith, after the trees are felled, there is bred a large species of
caterpillar which the inhabitants of some of the West Indian islands eat as
a great delicacy.
245. _The CATECHU, ARECA, or BETEL-NUT-TREE_ (Areca catechu), _is a
species of palm which grows in the East Indies._
_It is generally from thirty to forty feet high, and its trunk is six or
eight inches in diameter. The leaves, which grow on the summit, are
winged, having the leaflets folded back; and the fruit is a pulpy berry
with thin skin, containing a nut about an inch in length, and of a
rounded conical form._
The _kernel_ of the areca-nut, which is covered by a thin, smooth, and
yellowish shell, is somewhat like a nutmeg, but contains, in the centre, a
white, soft, greyish, and almost liquid substance, which becomes hard as
the nut ripens. This fruit is in general use by the Indians, who cut it
into slices, mix it with other substances, wrap it in the leaves of betel
(22), and chew it much in the same manner as the common people of our
country chew tobacco. The consumption of these nuts in India is almost
beyond calculation. They are an article of considerable trade, from port to
port; and also from India to China, but they are seldom brought into
England, though they might be of use in some of our manufactures.
The drug called _catechu_, and formerly _terra japonica_, was supposed to
be an extract prepared from the above nuts; but it is now ascertained to be
made from the wood of a species of mimosa.