The most effectual way to guard against the dangerous tendency of
theories is to collect and lay open to examination at one view some of
the most celebrated of them, with which mankind have from time to time
been furnished. Several of these will be found to be so obscure that
astonishment is excited that they were ever dignified with the name of
philosophy; others are so entirely inconsistent and at the same time
have such equal claims to plausibility that they mutually confute each
other; a few are so intimately connected with the truths that the study
of geology and astronomy have displayed that it is difficult to escape
the hazardous abyss into which they would lead--but the greater part
are the effusions of fancy, and resemble more the emanations of a
feverish or disordered brain than the cool dictates of reason and
common sense. It is confidently believed that the student who will
attentively read them _all_, will be very slow to adopt _any one_ of
the number.
The most ancient Indian and Egyptian philosophers agreed in rightly
ascribing the creation of the world to an OMNIPOTENT and INFINITE
BEING, and it is a curious fact that they represented him as having
_repeatedly destroyed_ and _reproduced_ the _world_ and its
_inhabitants_. In "the Institutes of Menu," the sacred volume of the
Hindoos, which were written eight hundred and eighty-eight years B.C.,
are the following verses:
"The Being whose powers are incomprehensible, having created me,
(Menu,) and this universe, again became absorbed in the Supreme Spirit,
changing the _time of energy for the hour of repose_."
"When this power _awakes_, then has this world its _full expansion_;
but when he _slumbers_ with a tranquil spirit, then _the whole system
fades away_."
It is perfectly ascertained that the Greeks borrowed this idea of a
former successive destruction and renovation of this world from the
Egyptians. Plutarch tells us that it was the theme of one of the hymns
of Orpheus; and it is well known that Orpheus, although a Greek poet,
gained all his knowledge of astronomy, divinity, music and poetry in
Egypt.
This most ancient Pagan theologist believed that all things were
created by a Being whom he represents as _invisible_ and
_incomprehensible_, and to whom he has given the appellation of THE
COUNSELLOR _of_ LIGHT _and_ SOURCE _of_ LIFE; but he has degraded this
sublime idea of the Almighty by supposing that from an egg, the progeny
of _chance_, all mankind have been produced.
The philosopher _Leucippus_, who was also a Grecian, taught that "the
universe was _infinite_; that it was in part a _plenum_ and in part a
_vacuum_--that the plenum contained innumerable corpuscles or atoms of
various figures, which, falling into the vacuum, struck against each
other; and hence arose a variety of curvilinear motions, which
continued till at length atoms of similar forms met together, and
_bodies_ were produced. The primary atoms being specifically of equal
weight, and not being able, on account of their multitude, to move in
circles, the smaller rose to the exterior parts of the vacuum, whilst
the larger (entangling themselves,) formed a spherical shell, which
revolved about its centre and which included within it all kinds of
bodies. This central mass was gradually increased by a perpetual
accession of particles from the surrounding shell, till at last (says
Leucippus) the EARTH was formed. In the mean time the spherical shell
was continually supplied with new bodies, which, in its revolution, it
gathered from without. Of the particles _thus_ collected in the
spherical shell, some in their combination formed _humid_ masses,
which, by their circular motion, gradually became _dry_ and were at
length ignited and became STARS. The SUN was formed in the same manner
in the _exterior_ surface of the shell; and the _moon_ in its
_interior_ surface. In this manner the universe was formed."--Such a
jargon of _learned nonsense_ requires no comment; yet Leucippus had for
a time the reputation of possessing superior wisdom!
Epicurus adopted the idea of Leucippus as to the atoms, and imagined
that they moved _obliquely_, and Democritus bestowed on them
_animation_. Gassendi contended for atoms and a _void_, and Descartes
asserted a _plenum_ and a subtle _matter_, which revolving in vortices
was under the direction of an intelligent being.
Hippasus and Heraclitus maintained that the being who was the author of
all things was _fire_.
Many of the ancient philosophers believed this world to be
_eternal_--among these may perhaps be ranked Pythagoras, Aristotle,
Socrates and Plato.
Zeno advocated with great zeal the theory of "two principles," _spirit_
and _matter_, one active and the other passive.
_Mahomet_ maintained that the world was created in two days, and the
mountains were afterwards _placed_ upon it; and that during _these_ and
two _additional_ days the inhabitants were formed; and in two more the
seven heavens were created.
The waters of the deluge are ridiculously represented by him as being
poured out of an _oven_. The Alcoran says that all men were drowned
except Noah and his family; and that at an appointed time God said, "O
earth swallow up the waters!" "and thou, O heaven, withhold thy rain!"
and _immediately_ the waters abated. Is it not surprising that so many
thousands should have adopted this theory.
Mr. Thomas Burnet was a man of genius and taste, a learned divine and a
philosopher; but he suffered his imagination to take the lead of his
judgment. He was the friend and object of admiration of Addison. His
work is entitled, "The sacred theory of the earth, containing an
account of the origin of the earth and of all the general changes which
it hath already undergone or _is to undergo till the consummation of
all things_." He taught that originally the earth was a _fluid mass_,
composed of various materials; that of these the heaviest descended to
the centre, and formed a _hard_ and _solid body_--that the waters took
their station round this body--and that all lighter fluids rose above
the water, forming first a strata of oily matter and next a strata of
air--that the air was then impure, containing great quantities of
earthy particles, which gradually subsided and composed a _crust_ of
earth and oil--that this crust was the first habitable part of the
earth and abode of man and other animals--that the surface was
_uniform_, no _mountains_ nor _seas_ nor other inequalities were to be
seen--that in this _state_ it remained about sixteen centuries; by
which time the heat of the sun gradually drying the crust, produced
cracks or fissures, which gradually penetrating deeper and deeper,
finally perforated the entire crust--that in an instant the whole split
in pieces and fell into the great abyss of water. _This_ (says Burnet)
was the UNIVERSAL DELUGE!--That with these masses of _earth_ were
carried vast quantities of _air_, and the masses dashing violently
against each other, accumulated and divided so irregularly, that great
_cavities_ filled with air were left between them--that the waters
gradually opened passages into these cavities. In proportion as they
were filled with water, the surface of the earth began to discover
itself in the most elevated places, till at last the waters appeared no
where but in those extensive valleys which now contain the ocean--that
islands and sea rocks are small fragments, and continents are large
masses of this ancient crust.
His theory was attacked and pretty roughly handled by his cotemporaries
Erasmus Warren, John Keill and McFlamstead, the astronomer royal.
How Burnet could imagine that man and other land animals could have
inhabited an earth which had a _plane surface_, it is difficult to
conceive. If these animals resembled those that at present inhabit this
planet, they could not have subsisted without water; and if this
element was supplied by rain, and the earth had no inequalities of
surface, the whole earth must have been covered by a sea or at least
been a swamp. It was perhaps this reflection that generated the idea of
Demailet, that man was originally a _fish_.
Mr. Robinson was a respectable clergyman of the English established
church. In 1694 he wrote what he calls an _anatomical_ description of
the earth. He contends that matter at first consisted of innumerable
particles of divers figures and different qualities; these he obliges
to move about in a confused manner until the world was finally created,
by the _infusion_ of a _vital spirit_. He is of opinion that the earth
is a _great animal_; that it has a skin, flesh, blood, &c. He lays it
down as incontrovertible, that the centre contains a vast cavity of a
multangular figure, containing crude and indigested matter, endued with
contrary qualities, and causing much strife and contention. When the
airy particles prevail, they cause hurricanes; when the fiery ones are
uppermost, earthquakes and volcanoes are the result. The mountain
chains he takes to be real ribs, and finally he seriously tells us,
that this vast animal is subject to fevers, agues, and other
distempers. Yet Robinson had his day, and all his readers did not
appear to consider him a lunatic.
Mr. John Woodward was a classical scholar and an eminent physician. He
was _also_ a man of much observation; but he was infected with the
disease of theory-making.
He agreed in part with Burnet, but _refined_ upon him.
He contended that the waters of the ocean were aided by a supply from
the central parts of the earth in effecting the general deluge. He also
believed that the _whole fabric_ was dissolved instead of the _crust_,
as taught by Burnet. He said, that in order to assist in this general
dissolution, the _power_ of attraction, of _cohesion_, was suddenly
suspended. Every thing being thus dissolved and jumbled in one common
mass, a precipitation took place according to the laws of gravitation.
Locke pronounced a panegyric upon this theory!
Mr. William Whiston, a celebrated astronomer and learned divine, also
gave loose to his fancy in an extraordinary manner.
He was of opinion that the ancient chaos from which this earth
originated, was the atmosphere of a comet; that the detail given by
Moses is not of the _creation_ of the world, but of its _passage_ from
the state of a _comet_ to that of a _planet_, so as to make it
habitable.
In the beginning, (says Mr. Whiston,) "God created the _universe_," but
the earth was then an uninhabitable comet, surrounded by darkness; and
hence, he says, we are told that, "_darkness covered the face of the
deep_;" that it was composed of heterogeneous materials, having its
centre occupied with a globular hot nucleus of about two thousand
leagues in diameter, round which was an extensive mass of thick fluid;
that this fluid contained few solid particles, and still less of water
or air; that on the first day of the creation, the _eccentric_ orbit of
the comet was exchanged for an ellipsis nearly circular, and every
thing instantly assumed its proper place. The different materials
arranged themselves according to the laws of gravity, and the annual
motion of the earth then began. That the _centre_ of the earth is a
solid body, still retaining the heat of the former comet; that round
this is a heavy fluid and a body of water in concentric circles, upon
the latter of which the earth is founded; that after the atmosphere of
the earth had been thus freed from the earthy particles of that of the
comet, a pure air remained, through which the rays of the sun instantly
penetrated, when God said "_let there be light_." He ascribes to the
_precipitation_ with which the earth was formed, the great difference
_now found_ in the materials that compose its crust, and the mountains
and vallies to the laws of gravity. He maintains that before the deluge
the water of the present ocean was dispersed over the earth in small
caverns, and that the mountains were at greater distances, and not so
large as at present; but that the earth was a thousand times more
fertile, and contained a great many more inhabitants, whose lives were
ten times longer. All this he is of opinion was effected by the
_superior heat_ of the nucleus; but that this heat augmented the
passions and destroyed the virtue of man and the sagacity of other
animals, and caused the universal sentence of death which was inflicted
by the deluge. He says, that that event was occasioned by a change in
the inclination of the earth's axis, occasioned by the tail of a comet
meeting with the earth, in returning from its perihelium, when "_the
cataracts of heaven were opened_." Newton denied that there was any
thing in astronomy wherefrom to presume this change of inclination. But
the celebrated Count de Buffon left his predecessors far behind, after
premising that the sphere of the sun's attraction is not limited by the
orbits of the planets, but extends indefinitely, always decreasing
according to the squares of the augmented distances: that the comets
which escape our sight in the heavenly regions are, like the planets,
subject to the attraction of the sun, and by it their motions are
regulated: that all these bodies (the directions of which are so
various,) move round the sun, and describe areas proportioned to their
periods; the planets in ellipses, more or less circular, and the comets
in narrow ellipses of vast extent.--He asserts, that comets run through
the system in all directions; but that the inclinations of the planes
of their orbits are so very different, that though, like the planets,
they are subject to the laws of attraction, they have nothing in common
with regard to their progressive or impulsive motions, but appear in
this respect to be absolutely independent of each other.
He then conjectures that a comet, falling obliquely into the body of
the sun, drove off a part from its surface, and communicated to it a
violent impulsive force. This effect he supposes was produced at the
time when God is said, by Moses, to have "separated the light from the
darkness," by which Buffon understands a _real, physical_ separation;
the opaque bodies of the planets being detached from the luminous
matter of which he supposed the sun to be composed, and he imagined
that the part struck off was one six hundred and fiftieth part of the
sun's body.
He informs us that this matter issued from the sun, not in the form of
_globes_, but of liquid _torrents_ of fire; and that a projectile
motion having been communicated by the stroke of the comet, the light
particles separated from the dense, which, by their mutual attractions,
formed globes of different solidities; and that the projectile force
being proportioned to the density of the particles, determined the
respective distances from the sun to which they would be carried. Our
author having thus (at one blow of a comet) created the planets out of
the superabundant materials of the sun, and having driven them to the
distances of their spheres from that body, was put to a great straight
to prevent them from obeying the law of projectiles, in returning
whence they issued, and in obliging them to revolve round a common
centre. This part of his theory is _very lame_ indeed. He first
unphilosophically ascribes this change of direction to an acceleration
of velocity; and secondly, the acceleration he very erroneously
supposed would take place by the anterior particles attracting and
hastening the posterior ones, and by the posterior ones pushing forward
or hastening the anterior ones. But appearing to be unsatisfied himself
with this explanation, he next makes the shock of the comet remove the
sun from its former situation--so that when the planets, according to
the law of projectiles, returned to the place from whence they had
departed, they did not enter into the sun again, who had thus
_fortunately_ stepped out of their way, or Buffon's ingenious creation
would have been entirely destroyed.
But to proceed. He supposes that the earth, having acquired its present
shape by its motion while in a liquid state, the fire was eventually
extinguished by its rapid passage through space, or after having
consumed all the combustible matter it contained. Mr. Buffon
acknowledges that the constituent parts of the earth's crust are now of
very different densities; but he gives no satisfactory explanation for
the change which must have taken place, if as he supposed, they were
_once homogeneous_. Nor does he account for the separation of the
_land_ from the _water_. It is true he leaves us to infer that such a
separation took place; for he says, that "the motion of the _waters_ is
_coeval with time_." He also says, that the waters occupy the lowest
grounds, and that all the mountains have been formed at the bottom of
the sea, by means of currents and tides. His primeval world must
therefore have had cavities, in which the waters were preserved.
Such is the theory of the Count de Buffon, a gentleman of great
ingenuity, taste and erudition; whose works, so long as he confined
himself to _facts_ and _reasoning_, have been universally admired; but
whose _theories_ have been as much ridiculed by _others_ as _he_
ridiculed those of Burnet and Whiston. Soon after the publication of
this theory, Buffon was summoned before the Faculty of Theology at
Paris, and there informed that fourteen propositions in his works were
reprehensible and contrary to the creed of the church. One of these,
which related to geology, was, "That the waters of the sea were
concerned in producing the mountains and valleys of the land." And it
is curious to remark that _this_, which was almost the only correct
geological proposition in the whole work, Buffon _publicly renounced!_
Upon this theory of Buffon I would take leave, upon the highest modern
authority, further to observe, that "from a long series of
observations, made with powerful telescopes, Herschel discovered that
the solar light and heat do not emanate from the _body_ or _nucleus_ of
the sun, but from certain phosphoric and pyrophoric clouds, which are
produced and developed in its atmosphere. That this immense ocean of
light is violently agitated over its whole surface, causing those
corrugations of its disc which he has so well described,--and which
indeed, may be observed through a telescope of moderate powers, by even
an unpractised eye. When this superficial structure is broken through
and widely separated, we may discern the black veil of subjacent solar
clouds, or even the solid dark nucleus of the sun itself. Hence
Herschel accounts for the dark spots which are frequently observed on
the sun's disc, and for the shelving margins which surround
them.--Across these excavations of the phosphoric film, bridges of
luminous matter, are seen to stretch, which extending in breadth,
finally cause the dark chasm to disappear, and restore to the sun all
its original brightness. The area of one of these black spots is often
much greater than the whole surface of the terrestrial globe. When the
storm subsides in the solar atmosphere, the equilibrium of its clouds
replaces the layer of light. It is well known that these spots, first
observed by Gallileo, led to the discovery of the sun's motion round
its axis, and showed that this motion is accomplished in twenty-five
and a half days."
Had Buffon been acquainted with these great excavations of luminous
matter, he would probably have ascribed them to a projection of the
solar substance giving origin to some new planet or comet, and causing
diminution of the sun's heat proportional to the darkened portion of
its orb. But Herschel has shown, on the contrary, that the seasons in
which the solar spots are most abundant, are characterized not by
decreased light and heat to the earth, but apparently by an opposite
result. He hence infers, that these spots correspond, and are owing to
an increased activity in the vibratory motions, by which the sun
excites the ether, diffused through space.
The new improvements in optics, afford a very unexpected means of
determining whether it be true, as Herschel imagined, that the solar
light does issue from an incandescent solid or fluid. When such a body,
raised to a very high temperature, becomes luminous, the rays which fly
off in all directions, do not come from the _outer surface_ only, but
also proceed, as the rays of heat do, from a multitude of material
points placed beneath or within the surface, to a certain depth,
extremely small indeed, but actually existing. Now, such of those rays
as traverse the envelope of the heated mass obliquely, acquire and
preserve a peculiar property, which can be rendered sensible by
experiment; they are _polarised_. But if the same mass, instead of
being rendered luminous by its proper temperature, be only covered with
an exterior film of flame, which is the source of its light, the rays
do _not_ then possess this property.
Science has thus been enabled to submit to this singular test, the
light which the sun sends to us. M. Arago, the author of this beautiful
experiment, has in fact discovered that the rays of the sun, when
transmitted even obliquely, _are not polarised_.
These results are _fatal_ to the _theory_ of _Buffon_. Those who belong
to his school, if any remain, can no longer contend for the _sun_ as
the eternal _furnace_ from which to make _ignited spheres_; but on the
contrary, the nucleus of that luminary may possibly enjoy a _habitable_
planetary temperature.
In 1788 Werner published, by his lectures, _his_ famous theory of the
earth. He supposed that at some former period this globe had, for a
long time, been covered with water to a greater depth than the original
altitude of the highest mountains. That this immense body of water was
then tranquil, or nearly so, and contained in solution all the
materials of all the rocks of which the present crust of the earth is
composed. That in this state, chemical deposites, exhibiting more or
less of a crystalline structure, were first gradually made, and
invested the nucleus of the earth. That these chemical deposites
constitute the primitive rocks, including the granite and trap, and are
distinguished by their crystalline form, and by the total absence of
organic remains. That during this period, most of the highest mountains
were formed; but by a gradual subsidence of the waters the summits of
these mountains were left naked, the tranquillity of the waters was
disturbed, and currents were consequently produced. That by these
currents the naked rocks were worn and partially disintegrated; and the
grains or fragments thus produced, were diffused through the mass of
water. That the rocks formed at this period would, of course, consist
partly of chemical and partly of mechanical deposites. That they would
also lie over the primitive rocks, but in consequence of the diminished
altitude of the waters, they would appear at a lower level, often
resting on the declivities of primitive mountains. That as organic
remains make their first appearance in the rocks of this period, it is
inferred that the rocky shores which had recently emerged from the
great deep, were then passing into a habitable state. That the level of
the great ocean continuing to sink, more extensive portions of the
earth were left exposed to the increasing violence of the currents, and
the solution, which was originally chemical, now became, in a great
degree, composed of grains, or comminuted fragments, detached from the
older rocks, and that hence the minerals of this period consist of
mechanical deposites; that they lie over the two preceding classes and
at a lower level, in consequence of the greater subsidence of the
waters.
That extensive portions of the globe having now become dry, new species
and genera inhabited the waters and dwelt upon the land, while numerous
vegetables adorn the shores and other parts of the earth. Hence these
rocks abound with organic remains, both animal and vegetable.
Doctor Hutton published his theory about the year 1795; he supposed
that all the solid parts which form the crust of the present globe,
have proceeded from the disintegration and destruction of former
continents, by the gradual action of the atmosphere and water; that the
ruins of those ancient continents were transported by water, and
deposited at the bottom of ancient seas; and that these heterogeneous
materials thus deposited, were consolidated by the action of
subterraneous fires; and, by the same agents, were subsequently
elevated to form the present continents. That gneiss and other
stratified rocks were only softened, elevated, and sometimes variously
inclined; while granite and other unstratified minerals were completely
fused, and in many cases forced upwards by this powerful agent through
the incumbent strata. That as _this_ earth had _arisen from the ruins_
of an _anterior world_, so _that_ had originated from the ruins of a
_former_ one, and so _ad infinitum_.
Each of the two last theories obtained numerous advocates; and a flame
of controversy respecting them was kindled, that for some years blazed
throughout Europe with great fury. As usual, both parties claimed the
victory; but impartial readers appear to think that while each party
may lay some claims to correctness, yet as an entire theory both are in
the wrong.
(_To be continued._)
A great mind may change its objects, but it cannot relinquish them; it
must have something to pursue: Variety is its relaxation, and amusement
its repose.
For the Southern Literary Messenger.