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=ABBEY and OVERTON.--The English Church in the Eighteenth Century.= By

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=ABBOTT.--Hellenica.= A Collection of Essays on Greek Poetry,

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=A Skeleton Outline of Greek History.= Chronologically Arranged. Crown

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Endymion.

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=A Voyage in the ‘Sunbeam,’ our Home on the Ocean for Eleven Months.=

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Exeter College, Oxford. 8vo. 15_s._

=CHISHOLM.=--=Handbook of Commercial Geography.= By G. G. CHISHOLM,

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=CHURCH.=--=Sir Richard Church, C.B. G.C.H.= Commander-in-Chief of the

Greeks in the War of Independence: a Memoir. By STANLEY LANE-POOLE,

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=COLENSO.=--=The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua Critically Examined.= By

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=The Æneid of Virgil.= Translated into English Verse. Crown 8vo. 6_s._

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Edwy the Fair; or, The First Chronicle of

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=A Short Enquiry into the Formation of Political Opinion=, from the

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=DE LA SAUSSAYE.=--=A Manual of the Science of Religion.= By Professor

CHANTEPIE DE LA SAUSSAYE. Translated by Mrs. COLYER FERGUSSON (_née_ MAX

MÜLLER). Revised by the Author.

=DE REDCLIFFE.=--=The Life of the Right Hon. Stratford Canning: Viscount

Stratford De Redcliffe.= By STANLEY LANE-POOLE.

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=DE TOCQUEVILLE=--=Democracy in America.= By ALEXIS DE TOCQUEVILLE.

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=The English in America: Virginia, Maryland, and the Carolinas.= 8vo.

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=DOYLE= (A. Conan)--=Works by.=

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=The Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay.= By the Right Hon. Sir G. O.

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Popular Edition, 1 vol. crown 8vo. 2_s._ 6_d._

Student’s Edition, 1 vol. crown 8vo. 6_s._

Cabinet Edition, 2 vols. post 8vo. 12_s._

Library Edition, 2 vols. 8vo. 36_s._

MACDONALD (Geo.)--=Works by.=

=Unspoken Sermons.= Three Series. Crown 8vo. 3_s._ 6_d._ each.

=The Miracles of Our Lord.= Crown 8vo. 3_s._ 6_d._

=A Book of Strife, in the Form of the Diary of an Old Soul=: Poems.

12mo. 6_s._

MACFARREN--=Lectures on Harmony.= By Sir G. A. MACFARREN. 8vo. 12_s._

MACKAIL.--=Select Epigrams from the Greek Anthology.= Edited, with a

Revised Text, Introduction, Translation, and Notes, by J. W. MACKAIL,

M.A. Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. 8vo. 16_s._

MACLEOD (Henry D.)--=Works by.=

=The Elements of Banking.= Crown 8vo. 5_s._

=The Theory and Practice of Banking.= Vol. I. 8vo. 12_s._ Vol. II.

14_s._

=The Theory of Credit.= 8vo. Vol. I. 7_s._ 6_d._; Vol. II. Part I. 4_s._

6_d._

McCULLOCH--=The Dictionary of Commerce= and Commercial Navigation of the

late J. R. MCCULLOCH. 8vo. with 11 Maps and 30 Charts, 63_s._

MALMESBURY.--=Memoirs of an Ex-Minister.= By the Earl of MALMESBURY.

Crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._

=MANUALS OF CATHOLIC PHILOSOPHY= (_Stonyhurst Series_):

=Logic.= By RICHARD F. CLARKE, S.J. Crown 8vo. 5_s._

=First Principles of Knowledge.= By JOHN RICKABY, S.J. Crown 8vo. 5_s._

=Moral Philosophy (Ethics and Natural Law).= By JOSEPH RICKABY, S.J.

Crown 8vo. 5_s._

=General Metaphysics.= By JOHN RICKABY, S.J. Crown 8vo. 5_s._

=Psychology.= By MICHAEL MAHER, S.J. Crown 8vo. 6_s._ 6_d._

=Natural Theology.= By BERNARD BOEDDER, S.J. Crown 8vo. 6_s._ 6_d._

[_Nearly ready._]

=A Manual of Political Economy.= By C. S. DEVAS, Esq. M.A. Examiner in

Political Economy in the Royal University of Ireland. 6_s._ 6_d._

[_In preparation._]

=MARTINEAU= (James)--=Works by.=

=Hours of Thought on Sacred Things.= Two Volumes of Sermons. 2 vols.

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6_d._

=The Seat of Authority in Religion.= 8vo. 14_s._

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I. Personal: Political.

II. Ecclesiastical: Historical.

III. Theological: Philosophical.

IV. Academical: Religious.

[_In course of publication._]

=MASON.=--=The Steps of the Sun=: Daily Readings of Prose. Selected by

AGNES MASON. 16mo. 3_s._ 6_d._

=MAUNDER’S TREASURIES.=

=Biographical Treasury.= With Supplement brought down to 1889, by Rev.

JAS. WOOD. Fcp. 8vo. 6_s._

=Treasury of Natural History=; or, Popular Dictionary of Zoology. Fcp.

8vo. with 900 Woodcuts, 6_s._

=Treasury of Geography=, Physical, Historical, Descriptive, and

Political. With 7 Maps and 16 Plates. Fcp. 8vo. 6_s._

=Scientific and Literary Treasury.= Fcp. 8vo. 6_s._

=Historical Treasury=: Outlines of Universal History, Separate Histories

of all Nations. Fcp. 8vo. 6_s._

=Treasury of Knowledge and Library of Reference.= Comprising an English

Dictionary and Grammar, Universal Gazetteer, Classical Dictionary,

Chronology, Law Dictionary, &c. Fcp. 8vo. 6_s._

=The Treasury of Bible Knowledge.= By the Rev. J. AYRE, M.A. With 5

Maps, 15 Plates, and 300 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. 6_s._

=The Treasury of Botany.= Edited by J. LINDLEY, F.R.S. and T. MOORE,

F.L.S. With 274 Woodcuts and 20 Steel Plates. 2 vols. fcp. 8vo. 12_s._

=MAX MÜLLER= (F.)--=Works by.=

=Selected Essays on Language, Mythology and Religion.= 2 vols. crown

8vo. 16_s._

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=India, What can it Teach Us?= A Course of Lectures delivered before the

University of Cambridge. 8vo. 12_s._ 6_d._

=Hibbert Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion=, as illustrated

by the Religions of India. Crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._

=Introduction to the Science of Religion=; Four Lectures delivered at

the Royal Institution. Crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._

=Natural Religion.= The Gifford Lectures, delivered before the

University of Glasgow in 1888. Crown 8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._

=The Science of Thought.= 8vo. 21_s._

=Three Introductory Lectures on the Science of Thought.= 8vo. 2_s._

6_d._

=Biographies of Words, and the Home of the Aryas.= Cr. 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._

=A Sanskrit Grammar for Beginners.= New and Abridged Edition. By A. A.

MACDONELL. Crown 8vo. 6_s._

=MAY.=--=The Constitutional History of England= since the Accession of

George III. 1760-1870. By the Right Hon. Sir THOMAS ERSKINE MAY, K.C.B.

3 vols. crown 8vo. 18_s._

=MEADE= (L. T.)--=Works by.=

=The O’Donnells of Inchfawn.= With Frontispiece by A. CHASEMORE. Crown

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=Daddy’s Boy.= With Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 5_s._

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5_s._

=House of Surprises.= With Illustrations by EDITH M. SCANNELL. Crown

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=The Beresford Prize.= With Illustrations by M. E. EDWARDS. Crown 8vo.

5_s._

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=Social Arrows=: Reprinted Articles on various Social Subjects. Cr. 8vo.

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The Gladiators.

The Interpreter.

Good for Nothing.

The Queen’s Maries.

Holmby House.

Kate Coventry.

Digby Grand.

General Bounce.

=MENDELSSOHN.=--=The Letters of Felix Mendelssohn.= Translated by Lady

WALLACE. 2 vols. cr. 8vo. 10_s._

=MERIVALE= (The Very Rev. Chas.)--=Works by.=

=History of the Romans under the Empire.= Cabinet Edition, 8 vols. crown

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Popular Edition, 8 vols. crown 8vo. 3_s._ 6_d._ each.

=The Fall of the Roman Republic=: a Short History of the Last Century of

the Commonwealth. 12mo. 7_s._ 6_d._

=General History of Rome from B.C. 753 to A.D. 476.= Cr. 8vo. 7_s._

6_d._

=The Roman Triumvirates.= With Maps. Fcp. 8vo. 2_s._ 6_d._

=MILES.=--=The Correspondence of William Augustus Miles on the French

Revolution, 1789-1817.= Edited by the Rev. CHARLES POPHAM MILES, M.A.

F.L.S. Honorary Canon of Durham, Membre de la Société d’Histoire

Diplomatique. 2 vols. 8vo. 32_s._

=MILL.=--=Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind.= By JAMES MILL. 2

vols. 8vo. 28_s._

=MILL= (John Stuart)--=Works by.=

=Principles of Political Economy.=

Library Edition, 2 vols. 8vo. 30_s._

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=On Representative Government.= Crown 8vo. 2_s._

=Utilitarianism.= 8vo. 5_s._

=Examination of Sir William Hamilton’s Philosophy.= 8vo. 16_s._

=Nature, the Utility of Religion, and Theism.= Three Essays. 8vo. 5_s._

=MOLESWORTH= (Mrs.)--=Works by.=

=Marrying and Giving in Marriage=: a Novel. By Mrs. MOLESWORTH. Fcp.

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=The Story of a Spring Morning=, &c. With Illustrations by M. ELLEN

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=MOON= (G. Washington)--=Works by.=

=The King’s English.= Fcp. 8vo. 3_s._ 6_d._

=The Soul’s Inquiries Answered in the Words of Scripture.= A Year-Book

of Scripture Texts.

Illustrated Edition. With Blank Diary and 13 Photographs. Crown 8vo.

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=The Soul’s Desires Breathed to God in the Words of Scripture=: being

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32mo. 2_s._ 6_d._

=MOORE.=--=Dante and his Early Biographers.= By EDWARD MOORE, D.D.

Principal of St. Edmund Hall, Oxford. Crown 8vo. 4_s._ 6_d._

=MULHALL.=--=History of Prices since the Year 1850.= By MICHAEL G.

MULHALL. Crown 8vo. 6_s._

=MURDOCK.=--=The Reconstruction of Europe=: a Sketch of the Diplomatic

and Military History of Continental Europe, from the Rise to the Fall of

the Second French Empire. By HENRY MURDOCK. Crown 8vo. 9_s._

=MURRAY.=--=A Dangerous Catspaw=: a Story. By DAVID CHRISTIE MURRAY and

HENRY MURRAY. Cr. 8vo. 2_s._ 6_d._

=MURRAY and HERMAN.=--=Wild Darrie=: a Story. By CHRISTIE MURRAY and

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=NANSEN.=--=The First Crossing of Greenland.= By Dr. FRIDTJOF NANSEN.

With 5 Maps, 12 Plates, and 150 Illustrations in the Text. 2 vols. 8vo.

36_s._

=NAPIER.=--=The Life of Sir Joseph Napier, Bart. Ex-Lord Chancellor of

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=NAPIER.=--=The Lectures, Essays, and Letters of the Right Hon. Sir

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=NESBIT= (E.)--=Works by.=

=Lays and Legends.= Cr. 8vo. 5_s._

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=NEWMAN.=--=The Letters and Correspondence of John Henry Newman= during

his Life in the English Church. With a brief Autobiographical Memoir.

Arranged and Edited, at Cardinal Newman’s request, by Miss ANNE MOZLEY,

Editor of the ‘Letters of the Rev. J. B. Mozley, D.D.’ With Portraits, 2

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=NEWMAN= (Cardinal)--=Works by.=

=Apologia pro Vitâ Sua.= Cabinet Edition, cr. 8vo. 6_s._ Cheap Edition,

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=The Idea of a University defined and illustrated.= Crown 8vo. 7_s._

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=Select Treatises of St. Athanasius= in Controversy with the Arians.

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=An Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine.= Cabinet Edition,

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=Certain Difficulties felt by Anglicans in Catholic Teaching

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=Tracts.= 1. Dissertatiunculæ. 2. On the Text of the Seven Epistles of

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=Callista=: a Tale of the Third Century. Cabinet Edition, crown 8vo.

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⁂ For Cardinal Newman’s other Works see Messrs. Longman’s & Co.’s

Catalogue of Theological Works.

=NORRIS.=--=Mrs. Fenton=: a Sketch. By W. E. NORRIS. Crown 8vo. 6_s._

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=OMAN.=--=A History of Greece from the Earliest Times to the Macedonian

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=Hard Knots in Shakespeare.= 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._

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=POLE.=--=The Theory of the Modern Scientific Game of Whist.= By W.

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=PRENDERGAST.=--=Ireland, from the Restoration to the Revolution=,

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=PRINSEP.=--=Virginie=: a Tale of One Hundred Years Ago. By VAL PRINSEP,

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=PROCTOR= (R. A.)--=Works by.=

=Old and New Astronomy.= 12 Parts, 2_s._ 6_d._ each. Supplementary

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=RENDLE and NORMAN.=--=The Inns of Old Southwark=, and their

Associations. By WILLIAM RENDLE, F.R.C.S. and PHILIP NORMAN, F.S.A. With

numerous Illustrations. Roy. 8vo. 28_s._

=RIBOT.=--=The Psychology of Attention.= By TH. RIBOT. Crown 8vo. 3_s._

=RICH.=--=A Dictionary of Roman and Greek Antiquities.= With 2,000

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=RICHARDSON.=--=National Health.= Abridged from ‘The Health of Nations.’

A Review of the Works of Sir Edwin Chadwick, K.C.B. By Dr. B. W.

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=RILEY.=--=Athos=; or, the Mountain of the Monk_s._ By ATHELSTAN RILEY,

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=The Orchard-House.= With 25 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 5_s._

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Account of English Water-Colour Art and Artists in the Eighteenth

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=RONALDS.=--=The Fly-Fisher’s Entomology.= By ALFRED RONALDS. With 20

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=ROSSETTI.=--=A Shadow of Dante=: being an Essay towards studying

Himself, his World, and his Pilgrimage. By MARIA FRANCESCA ROSSETTI.

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=RUSSELL.=--=A Life of Lord John Russell (Earl Russell, K.G.).= By

SPENCER WALPOLE. With 2 Portraits. 2 vols. 8vo. 36_s._ Cabinet Edition,

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=The Oxford Reformers--John Colet, Erasmus, and Thomas More=; a History

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=SHAKESPEARE.=--=Bowdler’s Family Shakespeare.= 1 vol. 8vo. With 36

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=Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare.= By J. O. HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS. 2

vols. Royal 8vo. £1. 1_s._

=The Shakespeare Birthday Book.= By MARY F. DUNBAR. 32mo. 1_s._ 6_d._

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=Shakespeare’s True Life.= By JAMES WALTER. With 500 Illustrations. Imp.

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=Colonel Quaritch, V.C.=: a Tale of Country Life. By H. RIDER HAGGARD.

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FOOTNOTES:

[1] And this opinion was the cause of the omission in the First Edition.

[2] See Sweet, History of English Sounds, p. 17.

[3] As pronounced, _e.g._, in Dutch _gaan_. This sound does not now

exist in English.

[4] This factor in the change of language (which has only recently

received investigation) cannot here be dwelt upon, as readers who have

not studied phonetics would be unable to follow the argument. Such

should at once endeavour to obtain at least a mastery of the elements of

phonetics, without which they cannot possibly understand many of the

problems with which we have here to deal, and all should then read the

very interesting article on _Phonetic Compensations_, by C. W. Grandgent

and G. S. Sheldon of Harvard University, in Modern Language Notes, June,

1888, No. 6, pp. 177-187.

[5] For further instances, see Skeat, Principles of English Etymology,

p. 376.

[6] A similar transference is observable in γέρανος, γρῦς, and in words

in modern languages expressive of the same idea; cf. also _corvus_,

which means a raven, a grapnel, a battering-ram, a surgical instrument,

and a sea-fish.

[7] See Marsh, English Language, in Students’ Series, lect. iii., pp.

55-62, with note on p. 64.

[8] See the discussions of the examples below. The ‘various’ meanings of

these words there given are mostly ‘usual’ ones. Whenever a speaker

utters any of these words in the body of his discourse, the word has

only one of the various ‘usual’ senses. The use of the word ‘body’ in

this very note may serve as illustration of an ‘occasional’

signification of a word with sundry ‘usual’ meanings.

[9] Vid. Murray, p. 1257.

[10] A more definite and unmistakable instance of a word acquiring a

concrete sense would be, ‘He raised his arm, and, with outstretched

_hand_, exclaimed, etc.’

[11] Murray, p. 898.

[12] Shakespeare could not gain currency for his _forgetive_, nor Bishop

Wilkins for his ‘_unwalkative_ cripple.’

[13] Cf. Whitney’s Life and Growth of Language, pp. 27, 28.

[14] Other examples are _fera_, _thier_, _deer_; γυνή, _queen_, _quean_;

and the modern Greek ἄλογο(ν) (the unreasoning animal), for ‘a horse.’

[15] Skeat, English Etymology, p. 257.

[16] In some cases the termination comes from the French _-eur_; and in

this case, too, the same remarks apply. Cf. also the words _butler_ =

_bottler_; _usher_, _ostiarius_, etc.

[17] So termed from the white streaked face of the animal. Gael. _broc_,

O. Celtic _broccos_. Cf. Murray, Dictionary, i. v.

[18] Bain’s ‘English Composition,’ p. 23.

[19] Similar instances are _Capability_ Brown, _Satan_ Montgomery.

[20] Cf. Rowland’s Grammar of the Welsh Language, 4th edition, (Wrexham,

Hughes), p. 23, § 132, where more instances, and also some from

Armorican, are cited.

[21] Raoul de la Patisserie: De la Psychologie du Langage. Paris, 1889,

pp. 22, 41.

[22] So again, ‘brung’ can often be heard from children, and in German,

‘gebrungen’ appears as a humorous form, probably in imitation of an

original blunder.

[23] Cf. Studies in Classical Philology, No. II., B. I. Wheeler:

Analogy, and the Scope of its Application in Language (Ithaca, N.Y.,

1887), p. 7. Much of what follows is taken from this little work, which

contains an admirable discussion of analogy, besides a highly useful

bibliography of the subject. See also Jespersen’s article in the

Internationale Zeitschrift für Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft, Zur

Lautgesetzfrage, (1886). Professor Wheeler, however, ranges under

‘Analogy-formation’ much that we should prefer to consider separately

under ‘Contamination.’

[24] The personal influence, or ‘magnetism,’ of the speaker or speakers

who engender the ‘mistake’ is also an important element in determining

its propagation. We, parrot-like, imitate the speech, like the manners,

of some more readily than of others.

[25] Cf. C. Goeders, Zur Analogiebildung im Mittel-und Neuenglischen.

(Kiel, 1884.) Dr. Goeders has collected an enormous mass of illustrative

material. Some of his examples, however, may not prove as new as he

thinks. Our posterity will be able to decide this point if Dr. Murray’s

Dictionary has made greater progress than at present. This apprehension,

however, does not detract from the value of Goeders’ work, nor from the

truth of the proposition which he illustrates.

[26] Henry, Étude sur l’Analogie en général et sur les Formations de la

Langue Grecque. Paris, Maisonneuve, 1883.

[27] Professor Almkvest kindly informs us that there are rules about the

grave accent in the Swedish, but that they are difficult to investigate.

The grave accent, as it occurs in Swedish, is quite peculiar, and

nothing similar exists in other languages.

For instance, the first syllable in _brä́der_ (pl. of _brä́de_ = board)

and _sånger_ (pl. of _sång_ = song) has the accent, but is musically

lower than the second syllable, which has a feeble secondary accent, and

is musically higher. This is different--in contradiction to _breder_

(pres. of _breda_ = to spread), where the first syllable has the accent,

and is musically higher than the second syllable, which is quite without

accent.

It is the first-named pronunciation, _brä́dè_, _brä́dèr_; _góssè_ (a

boy), _góssàr_, which has nothing corresponding to it in other

languages.

(_a_) Short treatises for practical use:--

_Sweet_: On Sounds and Forms of Spoken Swedish (1½ pp. about accent), in

_Transactions of the Philological Society_, 1877-79.

_Schwartz and Noreen_: Swedish Grammar: Stockholm, 1881; (4 pp. about

accent, mostly practical).

(_b_) Scientific works--

_Lythkius and Wulff_: About the Rules of Sounds and Signs in the Swedish

Language, and about the Accent; Lund, 1885; 460 pp. (in Swedish).

_Koch_: Philological Researches about Swedish Accent; Lund, 1878; 211

pp.

_Paul_: Grundriss der German. Philol., vol. i., abschn. 5, pp. 417,

etc.: Geschichte der Nordischen Sprachen, von Noreen (gives the

historical cause for, and explains the growth of the grave accent).

[28] Byrne, Principles of the Structure of Language, p. 475.

[29] Cf. Spencer, Philosophy of Style.

[30] On the sense in which the words _concrete_ and _abstract_ are here

used, see Chap. IV., p. 45.

[31] Mason’s English Grammar, p. 149, note.

[32] Cf. Zumpt, Lat. Gr., § 609.

[33] But cf. _Quisnam hoc fecit?_ in Latin, by the side of _Si quis hoc

fecit_.

[34] Thus, in French: _Ma fille l’aimerait?_ (Duval); _Vous n’avez nul

remords?_ (Delavigne); _Ces messieurs viennent de Paris?_ (Picard).

Latin: _Clodius insidias fecit Miloni?_ (Cicero, pro Mil., xxii.).

[35] Thus, in French: _Richard député, pourquoi pas?_ (Dumas); _Rien de

Monsieur le duc de Richelieu?_ (Dumas).

[36] Similarly, in French: _Quoi tu connais l’amour et tu n’es pas

humain!_ (Ducis).

[37] We must not forget that these terms are here used in the very

widest sense, and not in the limited meaning of ordinary grammar.

[38] See pp. 119, fol.

[39] This symbol is somewhat different from the one employed by

Professor Paul, which is (_a_ + (_b_) + _c_). Though we think the one we

have chosen is rather more simple, the other is not difficult to

understand, as symbolising the result of combining (_a_ + _b_) with (_b_

+ _c_). If, instead of two similar sets of brackets, different ones were

used, say {_a_ + [_b_} + _c_], the meaning of what now appears as (_b_)

might be clearer still. Professor Paul uses _a_, _b_, and _c_ as

indicating three different _parts_; we use three letters for three

parts, but make two letters alike, because two of the three parts have

the same _function_. Cf., later on, for our symbol of the second case,

page 119.

[40] Paul (_a_ + _b_) + _c_. See note on p. 110.

[41] Not to be understood as if it were English: _A couple, who lived

... vexed_. See the next example.

[42] See Skeat, s.v. _book_.

[43] A good collection of examples will be found in Sweet’s Anglo-Saxon

Reader, introd., p. lxxxvii.

[44] Cf. Mätzner, iii. 202.

[45] Cf. Koch (ii., p. 95), who cites a number of examples.

[46] See Vocabulary to Beowulf, by Heine, under _standan_, _gangan_,

_lácan_, etc., and their compounds. Also Koch, ii., p. 3, verbs from

A.S. which are transitive and intransitive, e.g., _winnan_, to fight;

_fleogan_, to fly; etc.

[47] See King and Cookson, Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin, p.

177.

[48] Mason’s Grammar, p. 107.

[49] See Zumpt, § 428.

[50] Fiedler and Sachs, ii. 273.

[51] Numerous instances are given in Hodgson, p. 105, and in Mätzner,

vol. iii., p, 80.

[52] A strict attention to this difference would involve the

transference of some of Professor Wheeler’s examples, in his admirable

pamphlet on Analogy, to the head of ‘Contamination.’

[53] ‘Synonymous’ must here be understood in a wide sense, embracing

sets of words which, though really distinct in meaning as well as

origin, become confused, and consequently become synonymous merely by

misunderstanding (see our first example).

[54] Skeat, Principles of English Etymology, p. 357.

[55] Skeat, Principles of English Etymology, p. 361.

[56] Cf. ibid., p. 368.

[57] Cf. Gröber, p. 630.

[58] Gröber, p. 524.

[59] Ibid., p. 629.

[60] Skeat’s Etymological Dictionary, p. 363.

[61] Cf. ibid, s.v.

[62] As in the case of many other verbs: cf., e.g., _make_ with _match_;

_bake_ with _batch_; _wake_, _watch_; _break_, _breach_; _speak_,

_speech_; _stick_, _stitch_. Cf. Murray, Dictionary, s.v. _ache_, upon

which the discussion of the above example is based.

[63] Of course, Anglo-Saxon is not _derived_ from Gothic. The

Anglo-Saxon forms are of common origin and cognate with Gothic, but not

derived from them.

[64] Quoted by Hodgson, Errors in the Use of English.

[65] See Abbott’s Shakespearian Grammar, p. 297.

[66] See note at end of chapter.

[67] Cf. Skeat, Etymological Dictionary, s.v. _behalf_.

[68] See other instances in Hodgson, p. 74.

[69] Numerous other instances are given in Hodgson, p. 195.

[70] Cf. Zumpt, § 424.

[71] Numerous other examples are given in Hodgson, p. 72.

[72] Quoted by Crombie, Etymology and Syntax, p. 256.

[73] Zumpt, § 340.

[74] See Hodgson, p. 215, where more instances are given.

[75] Cf. Morris, p. 106.

[76] Cf. Berliner Wochenschrift, No. 52, p. 1622.

[77] Chevallet, vol. i., p. 40.

[78] See other instances in Abbott, § 406.

[79] Abbott, § 406 and § 408.

[80] Cf. also such sentences as _Il n’écrit pas mieux cette année ci

qu’il_ N_’en faisait l’année passée_; and _Il faut plus d’esprit pour

apprendre une science, qu’il_ N_’en faut pour s’en moquer_.

[81] Cf. Skeat, Etymological Dictionary, p. 761.

[82] In O.Fr. we find _baer_, Prov. _badar_, ‘to open the mouth,’

properly speaking to ‘utter the sound _ba_;’ _bouffer_, from a French

interjection _buf_. The word _piquer_ comes from an interjection

representing the sound uttered on giving a prick, _pic!_ Other examples

are O.Fr. _glapir_, ‘to bark;’ _ronfler_, _miauler_, _chuchoter_,

_caqueter_, _toutouer_, _vonvonner_, _pouf_.

[83] Heb. _hóshí’ a_, ‘to save,’ hiphil (_i.e._ active causative) of

_yásha’_; and _ná_, a particle signifying entreaty. (Skeat, Etymological

Dictionary, s.v.)

[84] _Halelú_, ‘Praise ye,’ (from verb _halal_,) and _jáh_, short form

of _Jahve_ = _Jehovah_. See ibid., s.v.

[85] The relation of sound to meaning in _gee-gee_ is, _for infants_, no

clearer than between _horse_ and its meaning. This offers the best proof

of the conventionality of much nursery talk.

[86] See also an article of S. Mallery on Gesture Language among

Savages, in Techmer’s Internationale Zeitschrift, vol. i., p. 193.

[87] The latter, the formation of new groups, forms the subject of the

next chapter.

[88] I.e. the _sound_ of _g_ was replaced by the _sound_ of the (vowel)

_y_; the _spelling_ varies, as is shown by the given instances.

[89] The _á_ and _í_ have here the acute accent to indicate _length_ of

the vowel, not the _stress_ or ‘accent.’

[90] Mätzner, i., p. 380.

[91] Cf. Fr. _chez_ = (in) casis.

[92] We choose this term in preference to ‘reaction,’ which, in the

physical sciences, has a specific meaning not applicable here.

[93] And by the expectation thus created of the regular occurrence of

such differentiation between past singular and past plural, even where

this ablaut did not show different vowels.

[94] Thus says Professor Skeat, Etymological Dictionary, s.v.; others

maintain that it is due to Northumbrian preservation of _a_, which in

the South became _o_.

[95] Professor Skeat (Principles of English Etymology, p. 411) draws a

useful distinction between _homographs_ and _homophones_, or words

spelled alike and those sounded alike. For our purpose, as students of

the spoken language, the homophones alone are of importance. A homograph

is commonly, but not invariably, a homophone; cf. ‘I _read_ now’ and

‘Yesterday I _read_.’ We need not here further consider such vagaries of

English spelling.

[96] It is unnecessary to point out in the text that we must bear in

mind that French nouns or adjectives are almost always derived from the

accusative case as representative of the oblique cases. For the full

explanation of this see Brachet’s Grammaire Historique, Introd.

[97] See Skeat, Etymological Dictionary, s.v. _settle_; Stratman, s.v.

_sahtlen_.

[98] Skeat, Principles of English Etymology, p. 410.

[99] Or rather Fr. _(je) cesse_. Just as, in the French language, we

must explain most nouns from the Latin accusative form, so in English

most of the verbs which we owe to French can only be explained by the

‘strong’ forms, _e.g._ first person singular of the present tense; as

_complain_ from _je complain_, and not from _complaindre_; _to despise_,

O.Fr. _tu despis_, not infinitive _despire_; _to prevail_, _je prévail_,

not _prévaloir_; _to relieve_, _je (re)lieve_, not from _relever_; _to

acquire_, _j’acquier_, not from _acquérir_.

[100] See Skeat, s.v.

[101] It appears that this, and not _Billy ruffian_, is the form used by

sailors. It would thus seem that _Billy ruffian_ is a further popular

etymology, due to ‘scholars.’

[102] See Palmer, Folk Etymology, s.v.

[103] This derivation is given in a certain well-known SCHOOL edition of

Milton’s Comus: _liquorice = something which makes one lick one’s lips!_

[104] Braune, Goth. Gram., § 135-137.

[105] For similar interchanges of _r_ and _z_ (_s_), cf. Latin _Venus_,

_Veneris_ for *_Venesis_; _arbos_, _arboris_ for *_arbosis_, etc.

[106] Braune, Alt-Hochdeutsche Gram., § 260 sqq.

[107] The term _umlaut_ is more convenient than ‘modification of the

vowel sound.’

[108] Noreen, Altisl. Gram., § 266, 299, 307.

[109] So, indeed, is our present nom. sing. fem. _she_.

[110] Murray, Dictionary, s.v. 29 c.

[111] Cf. Murray, s.v.

[112] Murray, s.v.

[113] Ibid., s.v.; and Skeat, Etymological Dictionary, s.v.

[114] Used very often in a sense quite distinct from _the Liberal ones_;

_the Conservative ones_, etc.

[115] Cf. King and Cookson, Principles of Sound and Inflexion, p. 285.

[116] This last ungrammatical form, like the singular _his self_ (now a

vulgarism), testifies to the confusion of dative and genitive.

[117] Cf. Roby, Latin Syntax, p. xxiii., and §§ 1069, 1073.

[118] Morris, Historical Outlines, p. 6.

[119] See Roby, Syntax, p. 51.

[120] Nay, we even find the suffix _-pse_ attached to other parts of

speech; cf. _sirempse_, Plaut., Amphit., Prol. 73.

[121] See Mätzner, vol. ii., p. 313, 314, etc.

[122] Cf. Skeat, Etymological Dictionary, s.v.

[123] See Clédat, Grammaire de la Vieille Langue Française, p. 261.

[124] Clédat, p. 253.

[125] See Dräger, Historische Syntax, vol. ii., p. 436.

[126] Cf. Mason, English Grammar, p. 64.

[127] Cf. Murray’s Dict., _-ble_ and _-able_.

[128] That ‘carriageable’ is a very unusual word does not matter at all,

the point is that it _is_ formed and that it _cannot_ be derived from a

verb.

[129] What follows is almost entirely taken from the article in Murray’s

Dictionary dealing with the suffix. Our excuse for reproducing it is the

unavoidably high cost of the work, which places it beyond the reach of

the ordinary student, so that a mere reference to it would be useless;

and, secondly, that we believe that in Murray’s otherwise admirable

treatment of the subject, one not unimportant side of the question has

been overlooked. To avoid misunderstanding, we ought perhaps to assure

the reader that what we give is not simply a copy of the article in

question; this will appear to any one who will take the trouble to

compare the two. Our object being different, we lay more stress upon

some points which are less material to Dr. Murray; we, however, use his

facts, and wish to acknowledge our indebtedness.

[130] The number in brackets behind these words gives the date of the

earliest quotation found for their use in Murray’s Dictionary.

[131] It will help us to realise the strength of the ties which united

these groups, if we remember that the modern pronunciation of the

ending, _tion_ as _shun_ is really quite modern, _i.e._ that, formerly,

the _ti_ was in such words pronounced as _tea_ and not as _sh_. The verb

_abject_ consisted therefore of the first two syllables of the noun

abjection, WITHOUT ANY ALTERATION.

[132] A carefully compiled list of _all_ forms in _ation_, past

participles in _ate_, verbs in _ate_, found in Dict. Murray, sub. let.

_A._, has given the following results:--

Forms in _ation_ 219. Of these the first instance belongs to the

fourteenth century in 11, fifteenth in 26, sixteenth in 49, seventeenth

in 76, eighteenth in 23, nineteenth in 34 cases.

Among the 219, the form in _ation_ is the _only_ one in 89 cases,

distributed over the same centuries as follows,--fourteenth, 2;

fifteenth, 9; sixteenth, 10; seventeenth, 31; eighteenth, 15;

nineteenth, 22.

There are 138 verbs in _ate_, 20 of which stand alone. Distribution:

fourteenth century, 0; fifteenth, 4; sixteenth, 53 + 7; seventeenth, 53

+ 13; eighteenth, 13; nineteenth, 15.

Of all cases where we find both the noun in _ation_ and the verb in

_ate_, the noun is older in 74 and the verb in 34 cases. It seems plain

therefore that we may say that in English the verbs in _ate_ are in very

many cases formed from the nouns in _ation_, and that both are chiefly

due to the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries.

[133] Vol. i., p. 433.

[134] Goeders, p. 9.

[135] Cf. Abbott and Seeley, English Lessons for English Readers, p. 55.

[136] Vol. ii., p. 446, 467, Figures and Metaphors (Kenningar) of Old

Northern Poetry.

[137] See Brachet, Dictionnaire des Doublets, Appendice. Paris, 1868.

[138] Other works on doublets are _Romanische wortschöpfung_, by

Caroline Michaelis, Leipzig, 1876. _Latin doublets_, by M. Bréal, in the

_Mémoires de la Société de Linguistique de Paris_, i. 162, sqq. (1868).

For German, O. Behagel, _Die Neuhochdeutschen Zwillingswörter,

Germania_, 23, 257, sqq. For English doublets, cf. Mätzner, _Englische

Grammatik_, i. 221; and Skeat, _Principles of English Etymology_, p.

417; besides the appendix to his Lexicon.

[139] See Mätzner, Fr. Gr., p. 223.

[140] Page 28.

[141] _Shoal_, the substantive from A.S. _scólu_, meaning either ‘a

school’ or ‘a multitude’ (see Skeat, s.v.), seems to have been used

convertibly with _school_, and indeed, the meaning of _shoal_ has

survived in the fisherman’s phrase a ‘school of mackerel;’ while the

adjectives _shoal_ and _shallow_ likewise had the same meanings; but

they have become so far differentiated that the latter form alone can be

employed metaphorically; as when we say, ‘a man of shallow intellect.’

[142] See Meyer’s German Grammar, paral. series, p. 18.

[143] See Trench, Select Glossary, p. 129, numerous other instances may

be found in this work.

[144] Cf. Sayce, Principles of Comparative Philology, p. 268 (3rd

edit.).

[145] See Gröber, p. 788.

[146] Vol. i., p. 250.

[147] Mätzner, vol. ii., p. 143 (edit. 1864).

[148] In Hungarian, the plural ending is _-k_. But many nouns are

thought of as collectives, and have no plural. And if the noun be

preceded by a numeral, or by an adjective or pronoun of quantity, it

does not take the plural form unless the number embraces the whole; as,

_tiz apostol_ (ten apostles), but _á tizenket apostolok_ (the _twelve_

apostles). In the former case, the individuals are thought of

_indefinitely_, and so the sense of the individual is weak; in the

latter case, _definitely_, and therefore it is strong. Byrne, Principles

of the Structure of Language, vol. i., p. 435.

[149] Accius apud Non., iii. 65.

[150] Cf. Roby, vol. ii., p. 183.

[151] On ‘abstract’ v. ‘concrete,’ see p. 45.

[152] Accordingly, in Welsh, the noun is invariably in the singular when

preceded by a numeral.

[153] On ‘abstract’ v. ‘concrete,’ see p. 45.

[154] In a sentence like _I am going out; I thought you were_, even the

past tense refers to future.

[155] Cf. Storm, p. 217, for other instances, such as _Sit you down_

(Shakespeare, Measure for Measure, 366), etc.

[156] Cf. Earle (Philology of the English Tongue, p. 536), who cites

these phrases as provincialisms to be heard in all classes of society in

Yorkshire. Every careful speaker will agree with him in deeming them

“one of the finest of our provincialisms.”

[157] Cf. Cor., II. i. 217; Rich. II., III. iv. 13; 1 Hen. VI., I. i.

82.

[158] Skeat, Principles of English Etymology, p. 468.

[159] See Mätzner’s Fr. Gr., p. 176, for more examples.

[160] It is altogether unimportant that, in the case of such a sentence

as the one which we took for our example, the ultimate result, as far as

the understanding of the meaning goes, makes practically very little, if

any, difference. Thus, we teach a child that three times five and five

times three are the same, because the ultimate result of bringing

together three fives or five groups of three each is identical. Still,

no one will deny that, for correct conception of the operation, there is

an important difference between--

..... ..... .....

and-- ... ... ... ... ...

or maintain that the understanding of this difference is of no

importance for the theory. Nay, even in practical life there would be a

great difference between going thrice, _e.g._, to fetch five apples at a

time, and making five journeys for three apples each time. Yet every one

admits that 3 × 5 = 5 × 3 is a ‘truth’ generally quite ‘true enough.’

[161] _Is_ rather than _am_ here, to symbolise the sense of _I_ as

predicate.

[162] It would be worth investigating--a question which only the most

extensive statistical collection of earlier examples of this

construction could decide--whether the very extensive use of this

construction in English is not due to, or has not been at least promoted

by, the existence of the so-called pronominal prepositions in Welsh, and

their construction. The personal pronouns are used in Welsh as suffixes

to the prepositions: _e.g._, prep. _at_ = to; _ataf_, ‘to me;’ _atat_,

‘to thee;’ _ato_, ‘to him;’ _ati_, ‘to her;’ _atom_, ‘to us;’ _atoch_,

‘to you;’ _atynt_, ‘to them;’ _imi_, ‘to me;’ _iti_, ‘to thee;’ _iddo_,

‘to him;’ _iddi_, ‘to her;’ _ini_, ‘to us;’ _ichwi_, ‘to you;’ _iddynt_,

‘to them;’ etc. (Rowland’s Welsh Grammar, §§ 374-381). These forms were

used especially in relative clauses; _e.g._, instead of--

Y cyfaill at yr hwn yr afonais lythyr,

_The friend_ _to whom I-sent letter_,

we might say more elegantly--

Y cyfaill yr hwn yr afonais lythyr ato.

_The friend whom I sent letter to (him)_.

Similarly--

Efe yw’r gwr yr ysgrifenaist ato.

_He is the man thou wrotest_ _to (him)_.

Rhoddwch i’r hwn y cymmerasoch oddi arno.

_Give_ _to whom you took_ _from (him)_.

Even the present occasional (and vulgar) repetition of the pronoun is

found:--

AR yr hwn y gwelwch yr ysbryd yn disgyn ac yn

ON _whom you see the spirit (in) descending and (in)_

aros arno

_remaining_ ON (_him_).

A careful study of the translations here given will enable even one who

has never seen any Welsh to judge of what is at least a possibility;

viz., that our construction began with the relative clauses, and is,

even in its present more extensive use, a remnant of Celtic origin.

[163] The grammatical and the psychological distribution, however,

differs. Grammatically: subject, ‘I;’ predicate, ‘asked;’ etc.

Psychologically: subject, ‘I asked him;’ predicate, ‘after his health.’

[164] Compare ‘the tother,’ _e.g._ in Wycliffe, Matt. vi. 24; ‘love the

tother,’ which took its rise from ‘that other.’ The word ‘ewt’ also

survived under the form _eft_.

[165] See Roby, Lat. Gr., vol. ii., p. 28.

[166] Cf. Dræger, § vii. 4.

[167] Cf. Ziemer, p. 71.

[168] Roby, vol. ii., p. 23.

[169] See Roby, vol. ii., p. 145.

[170] Cf. Ziemer, p. 96: Madvig Kl. Schr.

[171] Cf. Mätzner, ii. 147; Abbott, § 335; Hodgson, p. 142.

[172] Cf. Hodgson, p. 131.

[173] See Mätzner, vol. ii., p. 141.

[174] See Dräger, § 113, for more examples.

[175] Cf. Mätzner, vol. ii., p. 152.

[176] Another instance is furnished by Hebrew, where the root _pakad_ is

conjugated 1st _pakadti_, 2nd masc. _pakadta_, 2nd fem. _pakadt_, 3rd

masc. _pakad_, 3rd fem. _pakdah_, 1st plur. _pakadnu_. 2nd masc.

_pekadtem_, 2nd fem. _pekadten_, 3rd _pakdu_. (Cf. any Hebrew grammar.)

[177] A fuller list is given in Mätzner, ii. p. 18.

[178] For other examples, see Mätzner, vol. ii., p. 151.

[179] Dræger, vol. i., p. 178.

[180] See Abbott, p. 166.

[181] For other instances, see Abbott, p. 281.

[182] See other instances in Abbott, p. 269.

[183] Hodgson, p. 81.

[184] Abbott, p. 293.

[185] Hodgson, p. 189.

[186] For a full list, see Roby, p. 26.

[187] Cf. Minto.

[188] Cf. Abbott, p. 262.

[189] See Mätzner, Fr. Gr., p. 446, for more examples.

[190] Cf. Mätzner, p. 92, vol. ii.

[191] On _groom_, see the excellent article in Skeat’s Etymological

Dictionary.

[192] Cf. Skeat, Prin. Eng. Etymol., p. 395, from which and from his

Dictionary most of these ‘obscured’ compounds are taken.

[193] Forms like _fur-booted_, _blackeyed_, etc., do not, of course,

belong here. They are derived, with the suffix _ed_, from compounds or

groups like _fur-boot_, _black eye_, _eagle eye_, _cone-shape_, etc., or

formed by analogy to such derivatives. Some, indeed, are true compounds,

but then the second element is an adjective and not a past participle.

In that case they should be ranged under the compound formed from two

adjectives.

[194] The great importance of this distinction will be shown later on,

see page 324.

[195] It will be noticed that most of these formulative groups are

alliterative.

[196] See Skeat, Etymol. Dict., s.v. _Jack_.

[197] A blackbird may be an albino and we still call it a blackbird.

[198] For the disputed derivation, see Whitney and Skeat, s.v.

[199] The student should note the difference: in the Old High German the

article is _nominative_; in our English translation it is _genitive_:

‘the man’s son’ = ‘_a_ son of _the_ man.’

[200] It is, of course, not intended to say that this very combination

was thus formed. It is an example to illustrate the process, and no

more.

[201] Quoted by Earle, p. 493.

[202] Cf. M. Müller, Sanscr. Gram., § 249, which we here transcribe: The

comparative is formed by _tara_ or _îyas_; the superlative by _tama_ or

_ishtha_. These terminations, _tara_ and _tama_, are not restricted in

Sanscrit to adjectives. Substantives such as _nri_, ‘man,’ form

_nritamah_, ‘a thorough man;’ _strî_, ‘woman,’ _strîtarâ_, ‘more of a

woman.’ Even after case-terminations and personal terminations, _tara_

and _tama_ may be used. Thus, from _pûrvâhne_, ‘in the forenoon,’

_pûrvâhnetare_, ‘earlier in the forenoon.’ From _pachati_ ‘he cooks,’

_pachatitarâm_, ‘he cooks better,’ _pachatitamâm_, ‘he cooks best.’

[203] Cf. also the (unusual) construction: ‘Geoffrey was not a religious

when he wrote this play’ (Ward, Hist. Drama, p. 5, note), and ‘one more

unfortunate’ (Hood).

[204] Mätzner, iii. p. 222.

[205] It will be noted that in these examples, the more they are usual

the more they appear as compounds, and the less clearly and definitely

we feel the force of the first noun as adjectival; cf. a _maiden over_

with a _maiden speech_.

[206] Mätzner, Fr. Gr., 157, sqq.

[207] Quoted by Storm, Englische Philologie, p. 332.

[208] Modern English spelling has been ably treated of by Skeat,

Principles of English Etymology, p. 294, sqq. Clarendon Press.

[209] Cf. Spelling Reform, by J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S. (Macmillan);

Pitman’s Plea for Spelling Reform; and Max Müller’s Essay on Spelling

(Selected Essays, vol. i., pp. 252-299. Longmans, 1881).

[210] Page 27, u.s.

[211] Pitman, u.s., p. 8.

[212] See Storm, Die lebende Sprache, p. 259, sqq.

[213] Cf. Dilke’s Problems of Greater Britain, ch. ii., p. 53, where ‘Je

n’ai pas de change’ is cited as usual.

[214] See Skeat’s Principles of English Etymology, p. 14; also Peile’s

Primer of Philology, p. 80.

[215] Cf. Peile, p. 41.

[216] Quoted by Peile, Primer of Philology, p. ii., from Gavin Douglas’s

translation of the Æneid.

[217] Vol. i., p. 53.

[218] Schuchardt Romanisches und Keltisches, p. 280, sqq.

[219] A good instance of this is seen in the ‘Somersetshire Man’s

Complaint,’ dating from the seventeenth century, as against the ‘Exmoor

Scolding,’ published at Exeter, in 1778: both are published by Elworthy

in the ‘Specimens of English Dialects’ (1879). In the former of these

the aspirate is fairly maintained; in the latter, it is frequently

dropped.

[220] _Atlantic Monthly_, vol. xli., 495.

[221] See Sweet, Elementarbuch des gesprochenen Englisch, p. xxxi.

[222] John G. Whittier, in a poem entitled The Landmarks, _Atlantic

Monthly_, vol. xliii., p. 378.

[Transcriber’s Note:

Obvious printer errors corrected silently.

Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.

Page xiii, Errata has been incororated into text.

Page 78, Footnote 21: “Footnote 21: Raoul de la Passerie: De la

Psychologie du Langage” changed to read “Raoul de la Patisserie: De la

Psychologie du Langage”.

Page 84, Footnote 23: “Zur laut-gesetz-frage” changed to read “Zur

Lautgesetzfrage”.

Page 90, Footnote 25: “Zur Analogie-bildung im mittel-und

neu-englischen” changed to read “Zur Analogiebildung im Mittel-und

Neuenglischen”.

Page 127: ðAES changed to read ÐAES and ÓðRES changed to read ÓÐRES as

characters within uppercase string should all be uppercase.

Page 150, line 1: “(Vergil, Aneid, ii. 103)” changed to read “(Vergil,

Æneid, ii. 103)”.

Page 208, line 12: ment changed to read -ment.

Page 214, Missing footnote anchor, 124, added after _par trop_.

Page 222, Footnote 131: “The verb _abject_ consisted therefore of the

first two syllables of the noun objection,” changed to read “The verb

_abject_ consisted therefore of the first two syllables of the noun

abjection,”.

Page 249, Footnote 148: “_tiz apostol_ (ten apostols)” changed to read

“_tiz apostol_ (ten apostles)”.

Page 359, first line: “The adverb differs formally from the adverb in”

was changed to read “The adjective differs formally from the adverb

in”.]

Introduction to the study of the history of language · 第 16 / 16 章