Marching. Treatment of Animals. Water. Different methods of finding
and purifying it. Journadas. Methods of crossing them. Advance and
Rear Guards. Selection of Camp. Sanitary Considerations. Dr. Jackson's
Report. Picket Guards. Stampedes. How to prevent them. Corraling
Wagons.
MARCHING.
The success of a long expedition through an unpopulated country depends
mainly on the care taken of the animals, and the manner in which they
are driven, herded, and guarded. If they are broken down or lost, every
thing must be sacrificed, and the party becomes perfectly helpless.
The great error into which inexperienced travelers are liable to fall,
and which probably occasions more suffering and disaster than almost
any thing else, lies in overworking their cattle at the commencement of
the journey. To obviate this, short and easy drives should be made
until the teams become habituated to their work, and gradually inured
to this particular method of traveling. If animals are overloaded and
overworked when they first start out into the prairies, especially if
they have recently been taken from grain, they soon fall away, and give
out before reaching the end of the journey.
Grass and water are abundant and good upon the eastern portions of all
the different overland routes; animals should not, therefore, with
proper care, fall away in the least before reaching the mountains, as
west of them are long stretches where grass and water are scarce, and
it requires the full amount of strength and vigor of animals in good
condition to endure the fatigues and hard labor attendant upon the
passage of these deserts. Drivers should be closely watched, and never,
unless absolutely necessary, permitted to beat their animals, or to
force them out of a walk, as this will soon break down the best teams.
Those teamsters who make the least use of the whip invariably keep
their animals in the best condition. Unless the drivers are checked at
the outset, they are very apt to fall into the habit of flogging their
teams. It is not only wholly unnecessary but cruel, and should never be
tolerated.
In traveling with ox teams in the summer season, great benefit will be
derived from making early marches; starting with the dawn, and making a
"nooning" during the heat of the day, as oxen suffer much from the heat
of the sun in midsummer. These noon halts should, if possible, be so
arranged as to be near grass and water, where the animals can improve
their time in grazing. When it gets cool they may be hitched to the
wagons again, and the journey continued in the afternoon. Sixteen or
eighteen miles a day may thus be made without injury to the beasts, and
longer drives can never be expedient, unless in order to reach grass or
water. When the requisites for encamping can not be found at the
desired intervals, it is better for the animals to make a very long
drive than to encamp without water or grass. The noon halt in such
cases may be made without water, and the evening drive lengthened.
WATER.
The scarcity of water upon some of the routes across the plains
occasionally exposes the traveler to intense suffering, and renders it
a matter of much importance for him to learn the best methods of
guarding against the disasters liable to occur to men and animals in
the absence of this most necessary element.
In mountainous districts water can generally be found either in
springs, the dry beds of streams, or in holes in the rocks, where they
are sheltered from rapid evaporation. For example, in the Hueco tanks,
thirty miles east of El Paso, New Mexico, upon the Fort Smith road,
where there is an immense reservoir in a cave, water can always be
found. This reservoir receives the drainage of a mountain.
During a season of the year when there are occasional showers, water
will generally be found in low places where there is a substratum of
clay, but after the dry season has set in these pools evaporate, and it
is necessary to dig wells. The lowest spots should be selected for this
purpose when the grass is green and the surface earth moist.
In searching for water along the dry sandy beds of streams, it is well
to try the earth with a stick or ramrod, and if this indicates moisture
water will generally be obtained by excavation. Streams often sink in
light and porous sand, and sometimes make their appearance again lower
down, where the bed is more tenacious; but it is a rule with prairie
travelers, in searching for water in a sandy country, to ascend the
streams, and the nearer their sources are approached the more water
will be found in a dry season.
Where it becomes necessary to sink a well in a stream the bed of which
is quicksand, a flour-barrel, perforated with small holes, should be
used as a curb, to prevent the sand from caving in. The barrel must be
forced down as the sand is removed; and when, as is often the case,
there is an undercurrent through the sand, the well will be continually
filled with water.
There are many indications of water known to old campaigners, although
none of them are absolutely infallible. The most certain of them are
deep green cottonwood or willow trees growing in depressed localities;
also flags, water-rushes, tall green grass, etc.
The fresh tracks and trails of animals converging toward a common
centre, and the flight of birds and water-fowl toward the same points,
will also lead to water. In a section frequented by deer or mustangs,
it may be certain that water is not far distant, as these animals drink
daily, and they will not remain long in a locality after the water has
dried up. Deer generally go to water during the middle of the day, but
birds toward evening.
A supply of drinking water may be obtained during a shower from the
drippings of a tent, or by suspending a cloth or blanket by the four
corners and hanging a small weight to the centre, so as to allow all
the rain to run toward one point, from whence it drops into a vessel
beneath. India-rubber, gutta-percha, or painted canvas cloths answer a
very good purpose for catching water during a rain, but they should be
previously well washed, to prevent them from imparting a bad taste.
When there are heavy dews water may be collected by spreading out a
blanket with a stick attached to one end, tying a rope to it, dragging
it over the grass, and wringing out the water as it accumulates. In
some parts of Australia this method is practiced.
In traversing the country upon the head waters of Red River during the
summer of 1852, we suffered most severely from thirst, having nothing
but the acrid and bitter waters from the river, which, issuing from a
gypsum formation, was highly charged with salts, and, when taken into
the stomach, did not quench thirst in the slightest degree, but, on the
contrary, produced a most painful and burning sensation, accompanied
with diarrhoea. During the four days that we were compelled to drink
this water the thermometer rose to 104 deg. in the shade, and the only
relief we found was from bathing in the river.
The use of water is a matter of habit, very much within our control, as
by practice we may discipline ourselves so as to require but a small
amount. Some persons, for example, who place no restraint upon their
appetites, will, if they can get it, drink water twenty times a day,
while others will not perhaps drink more than once or twice during the
same time. I have found a very effectual preventive to thirst by
drinking a large quantity of water before breakfast, and, on feeling
thirsty on the march, chewing a small green twig or leaf.
Water taken from stagnant pools, charged with putrid vegetable matter
and animalculae, would be very likely to generate fevers and dysenteries
if taken into the stomach without purification. It should therefore be
thoroughly boiled, and all the scum removed from the surface as it
rises; this clarifies it, and by mixing powdered charcoal with it the
disinfecting process is perfected. Water may also be purified by
placing a piece of alum in the end of a stick that has been split, and
stirring it around in a bucket of water. Charcoal and the leaves of the
prickly pear are also used for the same purpose. I have recently seen a
compact and portable filter, made of charcoal, which clarifies the
water very effectually, and draws it off on the siphon principle. It
can be obtained at 85 West Street, New York, for one dollar and a half.
Water may be partially filtered in a muddy pond by taking a barrel and
boring the lower half full of holes, then filling it up with grass or
moss above the upper holes, after which it is placed in the pond with
the top above the surface. The water filters through the grass or moss,
and rises in the barrel to a level with the pond. Travelers frequently
drink muddy water by placing a cloth or handkerchief over the mouth of
a cup to catch the larger particles of dirt and animalculae.
Water may be cooled so as to be quite palatable by wrapping cloths
around the vessels containing it, wetting them, and hanging them in the
air, where a rapid evaporation will be produced. Some of the
frontier-men use a leathern sack for carrying water: this is porous,
and allows the necessary evaporation without wetting.
The Arabs also use a leathern bottle, which they call _zemsemiyah_.
When they are _en route_ they hang it on the shady side of a camel,
where the evaporation keeps the water continually cool.
No expedition should ever set out into the plains without being
supplied with the means for carrying water, especially in an unknown
region. If wooden kegs are used they must frequently be looked after,
and soaked, in order that they may not shrink and fall to pieces. Men,
in marching in a hot climate, throw off a great amount of perspiration
from the skin, and require a corresponding quantity of water to supply
the deficiency, and unless they get this they suffer greatly. When a
party makes an expedition into a desert section, where there is a
probability of finding no water, and intend to return over the same
track, it is well to carry water as far as convenient, and bury it in
the ground for use on the return trip.
"Captain Sturt, when he explored Australia, took a tank in his cart,
which burst, and, besides that, he carried casks of water. By these he
was enabled to face a desert country with a success which no traveler
had ever attained to. For instance, when returning homeward, the water
was found to be drying up from the country on all sides of him. He was
at a pool, and the next stage was 118 miles, at the end of which it was
doubtful if there remained any water. It was necessary to send to
reconnoitre, and to furnish the messenger with means of returning
should the pool be found dry. He killed a bullock, skinned it, and,
filling the skin with water (which held 150 gallons), sent it by an ox
dray 30 miles, with orders to bury it and to return. Shortly after he
dispatched a light one-horse cart, carrying 36 gallons of water; the
horse and man were to drink at the hide and go on. Thus they had 36
gallons to supply them for a journey of 176 miles, or six days at 30
miles a day, at the close of which they would return to the ox
hide--sleeping, in fact, five nights on 36 gallons of water. This a
hardy, well-driven horse could do, even in the hottest climate."[2]
[2] F. Galton's _Art of Travel_, p. 17 and 18.
JOURNADAS.
In some localities 50 or 60 miles, and even greater distances, are
frequently traversed without water; these long stretches are called by
the Mexicans "_journadas_," or day's journeys. There is one in New
Mexico called _Journada del Muerto_, which is 78-1/2 miles in length,
where, in a dry season, there is not a drop of water; yet, with proper
care, this drive can be made with ox or mule teams, and without loss or
injury to the animals.
On arriving at the last camping-ground before entering upon the
journada, all the animals should be as well rested and refreshed as
possible. To insure this, they must be turned out upon the best grass
that can be found, and allowed to eat and drink as much as they desire
during the entire halt. Should the weather be very warm, and the teams
composed of oxen, the march should not be resumed until it begins to
cool in the afternoon. They should be carefully watered just previous
to being hitched up and started out upon the journada, the water-kegs
having been previously filled. The drive is then commenced, and
continued during the entire night, with 10 or 15 minutes rest every two
hours. About daylight a halt should be made, and the animals
immediately turned out to graze for two hours, during which time,
especially if there is dew upon the grass, they will have become
considerably refreshed, and may be put to the wagons again and driven
until the heat becomes oppressive toward noon, when they are again
turned out upon a spot where the grass is good, and, if possible, where
there are shade trees. About four o'clock P.M. they are again started,
and the march continued into the night, and as long as they can be
driven without suffering. If, however, there should be dew, which is
seldom the case on the plains, it would be well to turn out the animals
several times during the second night, and by morning, if they are in
good condition, the journada of 70 or 80 miles will have been passed
without any great amount of suffering. I am supposing, in this case,
that the road is firm and free from sand.
Many persons have been under the impression that animals, in traversing
the plains, would perform better and keep in better condition by
allowing them to graze in the morning before commencing the day's
march, which involves the necessity of making late starts, and driving
during the heat of the day. The same persons have been of the opinion
that animals will graze only at particular hours; that the remainder of
the day must be allowed them for rest and sleep, and that, unless these
rules be observed, they would not thrive. This opinion is, however,
erroneous, as animals will in a few days adapt themselves to any
circumstances, so far as regards their hours of labor, rest, and
refreshment. If they have been accustomed to work at particular periods
of the day, and the order of things is suddenly reversed, the working
hours changed into hours of rest, and _vice versa_, they may not do as
well for a short time, but they will soon accustom themselves to the
change, and eat and rest as well as before. By making early drives
during the summer months the heat of the day is avoided, whereas, I
repeat, if allowed to graze before starting, the march can not commence
until it grows warm, when animals, especially oxen, will suffer greatly
from the heat of the sun, and will not do as well as when the other
plan is pursued.
Oxen upon a long journey will sometimes wear down their hoofs and
become lame. When this occurs, a thick piece of raw hide wrapped around
the foot and tied firmly to the leg will obviate the difficulty,
provided the weather is not wet; for if so, the shoe soon wears out.
Mexican and Indian horses and mules will make long journeys without
being shod, as their hoofs are tough and elastic, and wear away very
gradually; they will, however, in time become very smooth, making it
difficult for them to travel upon grass.
A train of wagons should always be kept closed upon a march; and if, as
often happens, a particular wagon gets out of order and is obliged to
halt, it should be turned out of the road, to let the others pass while
the injury is being repaired. As soon as the broken wagon is in order,
it should fall into the line wherever it happens to be. In the event of
a wagon breaking down so as to require important repairs, men should be
immediately dispatched with the necessary tools and materials, which
should be placed in the train where they can readily be got at, and a
guard should be left to escort the wagon to camp after having been
repaired. If, however, the damage be so serious as to require any great
length of time to repair it, the load should be transferred to other
wagons, so that the team which is left behind will be able to travel
rapidly and overtake the train.
If the broken wagon is a poor one, and there be abundance of better
ones, the accident being such as to involve much delay for its repair,
it may be wise to abandon it, taking from it such parts as may possibly
be wanted in repairing other wagons.
ADVANCE AND REAR GUARDS.
A few men, well mounted, should constitute the advance and rear guards
for each train of wagons passing through the Indian country. Their duty
will be to keep a vigilant look-out in all directions, and to
reconnoitre places where Indians would be likely to lie in ambush.
Should hostile Indians be discovered, the fact should be at once
reported to the commander, who (if he anticipates an attack) will
rapidly form his wagons into a circle or "_corral_," with the animals
toward the centre, and the men on the inside, with their arms in
readiness to repel an attack from without. If these arrangements be
properly attended to, few parties of Indians will venture to make an
attack, as they are well aware that some of their warriors might pay
with their lives the forfeit of such indiscretion.
I know an instance where one resolute man, pursued for several days by
a large party of Comanches on the Santa Fe trace, defended himself by
dismounting and pointing his rifle at the foremost whenever they came
near him, which always had the effect of turning them back. This was
repeated so often that the Indians finally abandoned the pursuit, and
left the traveler to pursue his journey without farther molestation.
During all this time he did not discharge his rifle; had he done so he
would doubtless have been killed.
SELECTION OF CAMPS.
The security of animals, and, indeed, the general safety of a party, in
traveling through a country occupied by hostile Indians, depends
greatly upon the judicious selection of camps. One of the most
important considerations that should influence the choice of a locality
is its capability for defense. If the camp be pitched beside a stream,
a concave bend, where the water is deep, with a soft alluvial bed
inclosed by high and abrupt banks, will be the most defensible, and all
the more should the concavity form a peninsula. The advantages of such
a position are obvious to a soldier's eye, as that part of the
encampment inclosed by the stream is naturally secure, and leaves only
one side to be defended. The concavity of the bend will enable the
defending party to cross its fire in case of attack from the exposed
side. The bend of the stream will also form an excellent corral in
which to secure animals from a stampede, and thereby diminish the
number of sentinels needful around the camp. In herding animals at
night within the bend of a stream, a spot should be selected where no
clumps of brush grow on the side where the animals are posted. If
thickets of brush can not be avoided, sentinels should be placed near
them, to guard against Indians, who might take advantage of this cover
to steal animals, or shoot them down with arrows, before their presence
were known.
In camping away from streams, it is advisable to select a position in
which one or more sides of the encampment shall rest upon the crest of
an abrupt hill or bluff. The prairie Indians make their camps upon the
summits of the hills, whence they can see in all directions, and thus
avoid a surprise.
The line of tents should be pitched on that side of the camp most
exposed to attack, and sentinels so posted that they may give alarm in
time for the main body to rally and prepare for defense.
SANITARY CONSIDERATIONS.
When camping near rivers and lakes surrounded by large bodies of timber
and a luxuriant vegetation, which produces a great amount of
decomposition and consequent exhalations of malaria, it is important to
ascertain what localities will be the least likely to generate disease,
and to affect the sanitary condition of men occupying them.
This subject has been thoroughly examined by Dr. Robert Johnson,
Inspector General of Hospitals in the English army in 1845; and, as his
conclusions are deduced from enlarged experience and extended research,
they should have great weight. I shall therefore make no apology for
introducing here a few extracts from his interesting report touching
upon this subject:
"It is consonant with the experience of military people, in all ages
and in all countries, that camp diseases most abound near the muddy
banks of large rivers, near swamps and ponds, and on grounds which have
been recently stripped of their woods. The fact is precise, but it has
been set aside to make way for an opinion. It was assumed, about half a
century since, by a celebrated army physician, that camp diseases
originated from causes of putrefaction, and that putrefaction is
connected radically with a stagnant condition of the air.
"As streams of air usually proceed along rivers with more certainty and
force than in other places, and as there is evidently a more certain
movement of air, that is, more wind on open grounds than among woods
and thickets, this sole consideration, without any regard to
experience, influenced opinion, gave currency to the destructive maxim
that the banks of rivers, open grounds, and exposed heights are the
most eligible situations for the encampment of troops. They are the
best ventilated; they must, if the theory be true, be the most healthy.
"The fact is the reverse; but, demonstrative as the fact may be,
fashion has more influence than multiplied examples of fact
experimentally proved. Encampments are still formed in the vicinity of
swamps, or on grounds which are newly cleared of their woods, in
obedience to theory, and contrary to fact.
"It is prudent, as now said, in _selecting ground for encampment_, to
avoid the immediate vicinity of swamps and rivers. The air is there
noxious; but, as its influence thence originating does not extend
beyond a certain limit, it is a matter of some importance to ascertain
to what distance it does extend; because, if circumstances do not
permit that the encampment be removed out of its reach, prudence
directs that remedies be applied to weaken the force of its pernicious
impressions.
"The remedies consist in the interposition of rising grounds, woods, or
such other impediments as serve to break the current in its progress
from the noxious source. It is an obvious fact, that the noxious cause,
or the exhalation in which it is enveloped, ascends as it traverses the
adjacent plain, and that its impression is augmented by the
adventitious force with which it strikes upon the subject of its
action.
"It is thus that a position of three hundred paces from the margin of a
swamp, on a level with the swamp itself, or but moderately elevated, is
less unhealthy than one at six hundred on the same line of direction on
an exposed height. The cause here strikes fully in its ascent; and as
the atmosphere has a more varied temperature, and the succussions of
the air are more irregular on the height than on the plain, the
impression is more forcible, and the noxious effect more strongly
marked. In accord with this principle, it is almost uniformly true,
_coeteris paribus_, that diseases are more common, at least more
violent, in broken, irregular, and hilly countries, where the
temperature is liable to sudden changes, and where blasts descend with
fury from the mountains, than in large and extensive inclined plains
under the action of equal and gentle breezes only.
"From this fact it becomes an object of the first consideration, in
selecting ground for encampment, to guard against the impression of
strong winds on their own account, independently of their proceeding
from swamps, rivers, and noxious soils.
"It is proved by experience, in armies as in civil life, that injury
does not often result from simple wetting with rain when the person is
fairly exposed in the open air, and habitually inured to the
contingencies of weather. Irregular troops, which act in the advanced
line of armies, and which have no other shelter from weather than a
hedge or tree, rarely experience sickness--never, at least, the
sickness which proceeds from contagion; hence it is inferred that the
shelter of tents is not necessary for the preservation of health.
Irregular troops, with contingent shelter only, are comparatively
healthy, while sickness often rages with violence in the same scene,
among those who have all the protection against the inclemencies of
weather which can be furnished by canvas. The fact is verified by
experience, and the cause of it is not of difficult explanation. When
the earth is damp, the action of heat on its surface occasions the
interior moisture to ascend. The heat of the bodies of a given number
of men, confined within a tent of a given dimension, raises the
temperature within the tent beyond the temperature of the common air
outside the tent. The ascent of moisture is thus encouraged, generally
by a change of temperature in the tent, and more particularly by the
immediate or near contact of the heated bodies of the men with the
surface of the earth. Moisture, as exhaled from the earth, is
considered by observers of fact to be a cause which acts injuriously on
health. Produced artificially by the accumulation of individuals in
close tents, it may reasonably be supposed to produce its usual effects
on armies. A cause of contagious influence, of fatal effect, is thus
generated by accumulating soldiers in close and crowded tents, under
the pretext of defending them from the inclemencies of the weather; and
hence it is that the means which are provided for the preservation of
health are actually the causes of destruction of life.
"There are two causes which more evidently act upon the health of
troops in the field than any other, namely, moisture exhaled direct
from the surface of the earth in undue quantity, and emanations of a
peculiar character arising from diseased action in the animal system in
a mass of men crowded together. These are principal, and they are
important. The noxious effects may be obviated, or rather the noxious
cause will not be generated, under the following arrangement, namely, a
carpet of painted canvas for the floor of the tent; a tent with a light
roof, as defense against perpendicular rain or the rays of a vertical
sun; and with side walls of moderate height, to be employed only
against driving rains. To the first there can be no objection: it is
useful, as preventing the exhalations of moisture from the surface of
the earth; it is convenient, as always ready; and it is economical, as
less expensive than straw. It requires to be fresh painted only once a
year."
The effect of crowding men together in close quarters, illy ventilated,
was shown in the prisons of Hindostan, where at one time, when the
English held sway, they had, on an average, 40,000 natives in
confinement; and this unfortunate population was every year liberated
by death in proportions varying from 4000 to 10,000. The annual average
mortality by crowded and unventilated barracks in the English army has
sometimes been enormous, as at Barrackpore, where it seldom fell far
short of one tenth; that is to say, its garrisons were every year
decimated by fever or cholera, while the officers and other
inhabitants, who lived in well-ventilated houses, did not find the
place particularly unhealthy.
The same fact of general exemption among the officers, and complete
exemption among their wives, was observed in the marching regiments,
which lost by cholera from one tenth to one sixth of the enlisted men,
who were packed together at night ten and twelve in a tent, with the
thermometer at 96 deg.. The dimensions of the celebrated Black Hole of
Calcutta--where in 1756, 123 prisoners out of 140 died by carbonic acid
in one night--was but eighteen feet square, and with but two small
windows. Most of the twenty-three who survived until morning were
seized with putrid fever and died very soon afterward.
On the 1st of December, 1848, 150 deck passengers of the steamer
Londonderry were ordered below by the captain and the hatches closed
upon them: seventy were found dead the next morning.
The streams which intersect our great prairies have but a very sparse
growth of wood or vegetation upon their banks, so that one of the
fundamental causes for the generation of noxious malaria does not, to
any great extent, exist here, and I believe that persons may encamp
with impunity directly upon their banks.
PICKET GUARDS.
When a party is sufficiently strong, a picket guard should be stationed
during the night some two or three hundred yards in advance of the
point which is most open to assault, and on low ground, so that an
enemy approaching over the surrounding higher country can be seen
against the sky, while the sentinel himself is screened from
observation. These sentinels should not be allowed to keep fires,
unless they are so placed that they can not be seen from a distance.
During the day the pickets should be posted on the summits of the
highest eminences in the vicinity of camp, with instructions to keep a
vigilant lookout in all directions; and, if not within hailing
distance, they should be instructed to give some well-understood
telegraphic signals to inform those in camp when there is danger. For
example, should Indians be discovered approaching at a great distance,
they may raise their caps upon the muzzles of their pieces, and at the
same time walk around in a circle; while, if the Indians are near and
moving rapidly, the sentinel may swing his cap and run around rapidly
in a circle. To indicate the direction from which the Indians are
approaching, he may direct his piece toward them, and walk in the same
line of direction.
Should the pickets suddenly discover a party of Indians very near, and
with the apparent intention of making an attack, they should fire their
pieces to give the alarm to the camp.
These telegraphic signals, when well understood and enforced, will tend
greatly to facilitate the communication of intelligence throughout the
camp, and conduce much to its security.
The picket guards should receive minute and strict orders regarding
their duties under all circumstances, and these orders should be
distinctly understood by every one in the camp, so that no false alarms
will be created. All persons, with the exception of the guards and
herders, should after dark be confined to the limits of the chain of
sentinels, so that, if any one is seen approaching from without these
limits, it will be known that they are strangers.
As there will not often be occasion for any one to pass the chain of
pickets during the night, it is a good rule (especially if the party is
small), when a picket sentinel discovers any one lurking about his post
from without, if he has not himself been seen, to quietly withdraw and
report the fact to the commander, who can wake his men and make his
arrangements to repel an attack and protect his animals. If, however,
the man upon the picket has been seen, he should distinctly challenge
the approaching party, and if he receives no answer, fire, and retreat
to camp to report the fact.
It is of the utmost importance that picket guards should be wide awake,
and allow nothing to escape their observation, as the safety of the
whole camp is involved. During a dark night a man can see better
himself, and is less exposed to the view of others, when in a sitting
posture than when standing up or moving about. I would therefore
recommend this practice for night pickets.
Horses and mules (especially the latter), whose senses of hearing and
smelling are probably more acute than those of almost any other
animals, will discover any thing strange or unusual about camp much
sooner than a man. They indicate this by turning in the direction from
whence the object is approaching, holding their heads erect, projecting
their ears forward, and standing in a fixed and attentive attitude.
They exhibit the same signs of alarm when a wolf or other wild animal
approaches the camp; but it is always wise, when they show fear in this
manner, to be on the alert till the cause is ascertained.
Mules are very keenly sensitive to danger, and, in passing along over
the prairies, they will often detect the proximity of strangers long
before they are discovered by their riders. Nothing seems to escape
their observation; and I have heard of several instances where they
have given timely notice of the approach of hostile Indians, and thus
prevented stampedes.
Dogs are sometimes good sentinels, but they often sleep sound, and are
not easily awakened on the approach of an enemy.
In marching with large force, unless there is a guide who knows the
country, a small party should always be sent in advance to search for
good camping-places, and these parties should be dispatched early
enough to return and meet the main command in the event of not finding
a camping-place within the limits of the day's march. A regiment should
average upon the prairies, where the roads are good, about eighteen
miles a day, but, if necessary, it can make 25 or even 30 miles. The
advance party should therefore go as far as the command can march,
provided the requisites for camping are not found within that distance.
The article of first importance in campaigning is grass, the next
water, and the last fuel.
It is the practice of most persons traveling with large ox trains to
select their camps upon the summit of a hill, where the surrounding
country in all directions can be seen. Their cattle are then
continually within view from the camp, and can be guarded easily.
When a halt is made the wagons are "corraled," as it is called, by
bringing the two front ones near and parallel to each other. The two
next are then driven up on the outside of these, with the front wheels
of the former touching the rear wheels of the latter, the rear of the
wagons turned out upon the circumference of the circle that is being
formed, and so on until one half the circle is made, when the rear of
the wagons are turned in to complete the circle. An opening of about
twenty yards should be left between the last two wagons for animals to
pass in and out of the corral, and this may be closed with two ropes
stretched between the wagons. Such a corral forms an excellent and
secure barricade against Indian attacks, and a good inclosure for
cattle while they are being yoked; indeed, it is indispensable.
STAMPEDES.
Inclosures are made in the same manner for horses and mules, and, in
case of an attempt to stampede them, they should be driven with all
possible dispatch into the corral, where they will be perfectly secure.
A "stampede" is more to be dreaded upon the plains than almost any
disaster that can happen. It not unfrequently occurs that very many
animals are irretrievably lost in this way, and the objects of an
expedition thus defeated.
The Indians are perfectly familiar with the habits and disposition of
horses and mules, and with the most effectual methods of terrifying
them. Previous to attempting a stampede, they provide themselves with
rattles and other means for making frightful noises; thus prepared,
they approach as near the herds as possible without being seen, and
suddenly, with their horses at full speed, rush in among them, making
the most hideous and unearthly screams and noises to terrify them, and
drive them off before their astonished owners are able to rally and
secure them.
As soon as the animals are started the Indians divide their party,
leaving a portion to hurry them off rapidly, while the rest linger some
distance in the rear, to resist those who may pursue them.
Horses and mules will sometimes, especially in the night, become
frightened and stampeded from very slight causes. A wolf or a deer
passing through a herd will often alarm them, and cause them to break
away in the most frantic manner. Upon one occasion in the Choctaw
country, my entire herd of about two hundred horses and mules all
stampeded in the night, and scattered over the country for many miles,
and it was several days before I succeeded in collecting them together.
The alarm occurred while the herders were walking among the animals,
and without any perceptible cause. The foregoing facts go to show how
important it is at all times to keep a vigilant guard over animals. In
the vicinity of hostile Indians, where an attack may be anticipated,
several good horses should be secured in such positions that they will
continually be in readiness for an emergency of this kind. The herdsmen
should have their horses in hand, saddled and bridled, and ready at an
instant's notice to spring upon their backs and drive the herds into
camp. As soon as it is discovered that the animals have taken fright,
the herdsmen should use their utmost endeavors to turn them in the
direction of the camp, and this can generally be accomplished by riding
the bell mare in front of the herd, and gradually turning her toward
it, and slackening her speed as the familiar objects about the camp
come in sight. This usually tends to quiet their alarm.