BOCCACCIO
We have hitherto discussed the development of poetry almost exclusively;
and this is justifiable, for in Italy, as in all other countries, the
development of prose as a form of literature comes after that of poetry.
Petrarch wrote no prose in Italian; and although Dante wrote his Banquet
and, in part, his New Life in prose, yet the former is couched in
scholastic phraseology and the prose portion of the latter is of small
compass. Giovanni Boccaccio, although not so great a poet as Dante, or
so great a scholar and master of form as Petrarch, is yet of high
importance in the history of Italian literature from a double point of
view, as the first great writer of prose and the founder of the modern
novel.
We can only give here a brief outline of his life and character, before
passing on to his works. He was born in Paris in 1313, the son of a
Florentine merchant and a young French gentlewoman. Going to Florence
with his father, he was sent to school and is said to have written
verses before the age of seven. His father, a merchant himself, wished
his son to follow the same career, and at the age of fourteen the boy
was taken to Naples with this purpose in view. In this "great, sinful
city" Boccaccio passed his youth, at first in business, then in the
study of law, both of which, however, he heartily disliked. Making the
acquaintance of some well-known scholars, he was inducted into a love
for study, and resolved to devote himself to a literary career.
About 1340 he left Naples and returned to Florence, which henceforth
became his residence, although he was frequently absent from it on
matters of business and pleasure. For he soon became known as a scholar
and poet, and, in accordance with the customs of the times, he was
honored by his city by being sent on frequent embassies. In this
capacity he went, in 1350, to Ravenna, to the daughter of Dante; in
1354, to Pope Innocent VI., at Avignon; and in 1351, to Petrarch at
Padua, in order to induce the great poet and scholar to reside in
Florence. This meeting with the great apostle of the New Learning was an
important event in Boccaccio's life, who from henceforth became an
enthusiastic admirer of Petrarch. He plunged still more eagerly into the
study of classic antiquity; and although not so great a scholar as
Petrarch, he accomplished some things which the latter had not been able
to do. Thus he learned Greek, imperfectly, however, and introduced to
the western world a knowledge of that language (unknown to the Middle
Ages) by bringing Leontius Pilatus to Florence as a professor in the
university. It was at the dictation of the latter that Boccaccio wrote
down his Latin translation of the Homeric poems, which, worthless as it
now seems, then excited widespread admiration.
Boccaccio differed from Petrarch in being an ardent admirer and
indefatigable student of Dante. Petrarch had once declared that he had
never read the Divine Comedy. The influence of Dante on Boccaccio is
seen on almost every page of his poetry, and it was in reward of his
services in promoting the study of the former's works that in 1373 he
was invited by Florence to lecture on the Divine Comedy (for the first
time in Italy) in the university.
Boccaccio's character was in many respects an attractive one; he was
honest, sincere, and modest; a faithful friend, a lover of true
literature; and, above all, of a lovable and gentle disposition;
_Giovanni della Tranquillita_, his friends called him--"John of the
quiet mind," as we may translate it. The gravest accusation made against
him, and one, alas! only too well founded, is his immorality. In his
early years, and even later in life, his manners were light, and the
effects thereof are too often reflected in his books. Before condemning
him too harshly, however, we must bear in mind the low state of morals
that marked all society at that time. Toward the end of his life
Boccaccio became converted by a strange event. It seems that a certain
Carthusian monk, Pietro de' Petroni--who, by the austerity of his life
and his religious exaltation, had won a reputation for holiness--died at
Siena, May 29, 1361. Fourteen days before his death he entered into a
trance, in which he had a vision of the saints in heaven and the damned
in hell. When he awoke he declared that he had been commanded by Christ
to warn a number of distinguished men of the error of their ways. Among
these was Boccaccio. Being too sick to go himself, Petroni sent his
disciple, Gioachino Ciani, to fulfill his commission. The latter came to
Florence, told Boccaccio of his master's vision, and then, in fiery
language, urged him to see to the salvation of his soul, and to
repudiate his immoral writings, else he would soon die and his soul be
lost forever. Boccaccio was deeply affected by this strange embassy. In
the first moments of depression he resolved to give up all study, burn
his books, write no more, and spend the rest of life in religious
exercises. From this violent action, however, he was saved by a sensible
letter from Petrarch. Yet the effect did not pass away. Ever after this
he was more serious and thought more of religious matters. He lost his
former zest in life; his gaiety and serenity of temper became clouded.
After a youth of enjoyment the evening of life came on gray and cold.
He died December 21, 1375, in Certaldo, not far from Florence.
Boccaccio, like Petrarch, wrote much in Latin, chief among such writings
being the historical or biographical compilations on Illustrious Women
and the Vicissitudes of Great Men, and especially his Genealogy of the
Gods, which for one hundred years and more became the standard hand-book
of mythology. In Italian poetry he was far more voluminous than
Petrarch. Among the best known of his poems are the Vision of Love;
Filostrato, which tells the story of Troilus and Cressida, afterwards
imitated by Chaucer and Shakespeare; and the Theseid, imitated by
Chaucer in his Knight's Tale. His Ninfale Fiesolana describes the
beautiful suburbs of Florence, while his pastoral poem, Ameto, is the
first example of that popular branch of poetry, which found its highest
development in Sannazaro's Arcadia, Tasso's Aminta, and Guarini's Pastor
Fido.
All these, however, are now almost forgotten. The one book by which
Boccaccio is known to-day, not only in Italy, but the world over, is his
Decameron, a collection of short stories in prose. In this book he
becomes epoch-making in a double sense, for it begins both Italian prose
and the modern novel. The name of the book is composed of two Greek
words, meaning "ten days," and is explained by the fact that there are
one hundred stories in all, told ten at a time, on ten successive days.
Neither the various stories themselves nor the idea of uniting them in a
framework is original with Boccaccio. The latter device was especially
popular in the Orient, and is illustrated in the Seven Wise Men, so
vastly popular in the Middle Ages. Chaucer imitated Boccaccio in this
respect in his Canterbury Tales. The sources of the stories in the
Decameron are various. Such tales were among the most popular kinds of
literature of the times, as may be seen in the Fabliaux in France and
the well-known collections, the Novellino and Cento Novelle, in Italy.
Boccaccio gathers them from all sides and adds many he had heard told
orally, especially anecdotes of his contemporaries. All these are
changed, however, by the alchemy of his own genius, and become original
in style, in delineation of character, and in local color.
The framework of the Decameron is as follows: During the terrible
pestilence which raged in Europe in 1348, a famous description of which
is given in the opening chapter of the book, seven young ladies and
three young men meet in one of the churches at Florence and agree to
forsake the plague-stricken city, retire to their villas in the country
and try to forget in pleasant converse the terrors that surround them.
The plan is carried out. Each day a leader is chosen, whom all must
obey. After breakfast they betake themselves to the garden, and here on
green lawns covered with flowers, beneath shady trees and beside
clear-running streams, they dance, play, and sing; and then, comfortably
seated on the soft grass, they pass the hours away in cheerful
conversation and story-telling.
Each one of these one hundred stories has an individual character of its
own. While reading them we see passing in picturesque procession before
our eyes the whole of Italian society of the times, kings and princes,
knights and peasants, merchant, artist, mechanic, priest, and monk.
There are not wanting earnest and serious stories, but the comic and
satirical element prevails; especially are the vices of the clergy
scourged, that fruitful source of all European medieval literature. The
avaricious and licentious priests and monks are everywhere held up to
the scornful laughter of his readers.
All this is expressed in an admirable prose style, with perfect
adaptation of local color, with excellent delineation of character and
insight into human nature, and with the inimitable skill in narration of
the born story-teller.
The popularity of Boccaccio was, and is still, enormous, in spite of the
immorality of certain of his stories. He is read to-day in the
elementary schools of Italy (in emendated editions), and his influence
on modern literature is incalculable. In English literature alone most
of the great writers have found subjects for poems, stories, and dramas
in the Decameron, among them Chaucer, Dryden, Shakespeare, Keats,
Tennyson, and Longfellow.
The following story, which I have translated with some slight
condensation, is not only the best and most famous of the Decameron, but
it illustrates on the one hand the vast antiquity of the short-story
(existing, as it does, not only in all European languages in the Middle
Ages, but running back its roots to the early antiquity of India), and
on the other hand, the influence of Boccaccio, "Patient Griselda" having
become almost a household word in modern literature, and having
furnished themes for poet, painter, and sculptor. John Addington Symonds
has declared that no Greek poem equals Boccaccio's story of Griselda for
tenderness.
A long time ago there lived a certain marquis of Saluzzo, named
Walter, who spent his time chiefly in hunting, with never a
thought of marriage. His vassals not liking this state of
affairs often urged him to take to himself a wife, so that in
case of death, he might not be without an heir, nor they without
a master. To all this Walter made answer as follows: "My
friends, you urge me to do that which I had resolved not to do,
considering how difficult it is to find a proper mate, and how
hard is the life of him who finds one not suited to him. Yet
since it pleases you to bind me with these chains, I will
agree--on this condition, however, that I choose my wife myself,
so that if evil come to me, I may have no one to blame but
myself. But bear this in mind: if you do not honor her as
becomes your lady, you shall prove to your cost how grievous a
thing it is to have forced me to wed against my own desire."
Now for some time past Walter had been much attracted by the
gentle manners of a poor but beautiful village maiden, who lived
near his castle; and it seemed to him that with her he could be
happy. Hence without seeking further he sent for her father, and
agreed with him to take his daughter as his wife. This being
settled, Walter called together his friends and vassals and said
to them: "Friends, it has pleased you to ask me to take to
myself a wife, and I have yielded, more to please you, however,
than through any desire of my own. You will remember that you
agreed to be satisfied and treat as your lady whomsoever I
should choose. The time has now come when I intend to keep my
promise, and I desire that you keep yours. I have found a young
lady to my liking whom I intend to marry, and I shall bring her
home in a few days. See to it that the wedding feast be a fair
one and that you receive her honorably." The good men, all
rejoicing, answered that they were indeed pleased, and that
whoever his bride might be, they would honor her in all things
as their lady.
After this Walter prepared a bountiful wedding feast and invited
thereto his many friends and relatives and all the gentle folk
round about. He had many rich and beautiful gowns made fit to
adorn the figure of the young girl whom he proposed to wed; and
likewise rings, and girdles, and a fair rich crown, in short all
things that a new bride might require.
Now when the day fixed for the wedding had come, Walter mounted
his horse and said to his followers: "Gentlemen, it is time to
go for the bride." And setting out with all his company he came
to the village, and the house of the young girl's father, where
they found her returning in great haste from the fountain, in
order that she, with the other women-folk of the village, might
go and see the coming of their lord's bride. When Walter saw her
he called her by name--that is, Griselda--and asked her where
her father was; to whom she answered shamefacedly, "My lord, he
is in the house." Then Walter dismounted, and ordering his
followers to remain outside, went alone into the humble cottage,
where he found her father--whose name was Giannucolo--and said
to him: "I have come to wed Griselda; but first I wish to ask
her something in your presence." And he asked her if she would
always try to please him, if he took her for his wife; and if
she would promise not to be angry, whatever he might say or do;
and many other similar things; to all of which she made answer:
"Yes, my lord."
Then Walter, taking her by the hand, led her outside, and having
called for the gowns he had prepared, he had her clothed
therewith, and upon her head he placed a crown, and then as all
present marveled mightily, he said: "My lords, this is she whom
I intend shall be my wife"; and then turning to her who stood
blushing and full of wonder, he said: "Griselda, will you take
me for your husband?" To which she answered as before, "Yes, my
lord." "Then," said he, "I will take you for my wife"; and in
presence of all he wed her, and setting her upon a palfrey, he
led her home.
The young bride was, as we have already said, beautiful in face
and person, and withal so attractive, pleasing, and
gentle-mannered, that she did not seem to have been a
shepherdess, but the daughter of a noble lord; so that she made
all those who had known her before, to marvel greatly. Moreover,
she was so obedient to her husband, and so attentive to his
comfort, that he held himself the happiest man in the world. In
similar manner she was so kind and gracious towards her
husband's subjects that they loved and honored her one and all,
always praying for her health and happiness.
Shortly after the birth of his first child, a daughter, a
strange fancy entered the mind of Walter, and he resolved to
prove the patience and obedience of his wife, by subjecting her
to many cruel trials. In the first place, he wounded her spirit
by harsh words, feigning to be much disturbed in mind, and
declaring that his vassals were ill-content with her on account
of her low birth, and especially now that they saw that she bore
children; wherefore they were sullen and did nothing but murmur.
Hearing which words, Griselda, without changing countenance,
said: "My lord, do with me as you think best for your own honor
and happiness, and I will be content; for I know I was not
worthy of all this honor to which you, by your courtesy, have
brought me." This answer was very pleasing to Walter, who thus
saw that her new honors had not puffed her up with pride.
A short time after, having said to his wife that his subjects
could not endure her daughter, he sent one of his servants to
her who, with mournful countenance, said, "My lady, if I would
not die, I must do that which my lord commands me. He has
ordered me to take your little daughter and to----" and he said
no more. The lady, hearing these words, and seeing the face of
the servant, and remembering the words of her husband, believed
that the servant had been ordered to kill her child; whereupon
quickly taking the little one from the cradle, she kissed and
prayed over it, with unchanged countenance, in spite of the
great sorrow she felt in her heart; and placing it in the arms
of the servant, said: "Here, do what thy lord and mine has
commanded thee to do. But see to it that the child be not
devoured by birds or wild beasts, unless indeed he commands thee
so to do."
The servant took the girl and reported to Walter what the lady
had said. He, marveling greatly at her constancy, sent both
servant and child to a certain lady in Bologna, a relative of
his, begging her to bring it up and educate it carefully,
without, however, revealing its parentage.
Some years after this Griselda gave birth to a son, to the great
joy of Walter. But not being satisfied with what he already had
done, he wounded Griselda's feelings still more, saying to her
one day, "My lady, since this our child was born, I have not
been able to live with my subjects, so bitterly do they rebel
against the thought that some day a grandson of Giannucolo shall
rule over them. Wherefore, if I do not wish to be driven out, I
shall have to leave you and take another wife." Griselda heard
these words with patient mind, and only answered: "My lord, do
you think how you may best satisfy your own pleasure; have no
thought concerning me, for I desire only to see you happy."
A few days after, Walter sent for the son as he had done for the
daughter before, and feigning again to have it slain, he sent
it to Bologna to be brought up together with his daughter. At
all of which Griselda made no other sign, nor said anything more
than she had done when her daughter had been taken away. And
once more Walter marveled to himself and declared that no other
woman could do what she did, for he knew well that she loved her
children dearly. His vassals, believing that he had put his
children to death, blamed him strongly as a most cruel man, and
had great compassion on their lady. She, however, never
complained, but said always to those who condoled with her on
the loss of her children, that what seemed good to their father
seemed good to her.
Many years after the birth of his daughter, Walter, thinking it
time to make a final test of Griselda's long suffering, declared
openly that he could endure her no longer as his wife, and that
he had acted as a foolish boy when he had taken her. Wherefore
he would now make overtures to the pope for leave to divorce
her, and take another wife. The lady, hearing these things, and
foreseeing that she should have to return to her father's house,
and perchance keep sheep as before, seeing another woman married
to him whom she loved so much, grieved deeply in her heart.
Nevertheless, as in the other blows of fortune, she disposed
herself to bear this also with firm countenance.
Not long after, Walter caused false letters to come from Rome,
and told his subjects that the pope had granted him a
dispensation to leave Griselda and take a new wife. Then calling
her before him in the presence of many others, he said to her:
"Griselda, by special dispensation granted me by the pope, I am
able now to leave you and take another wife; and inasmuch as my
ancestors have been great gentlemen and lords of this country,
while yours have always been laborers, I intend that you shall
no longer be my wife, but shall return to your father's house,
bearing with you the dowry which you brought." Hearing these
words, Griselda, with the greatest difficulty, kept back her
tears, being in this stronger than the common run of women, and
answered: "My lord, I have always known that my humble condition
was in no wise suited to your exalted rank; and what I have been
to you, I recognize as coming from God and your courtesy. Nor
have I ever regarded all these honors as given to me, but only
loaned. If it please you then to take them back, it is my duty
to be willing to give them up. Here is the ring with which you
married me; take it."
Walter, who had more desire to weep than anything else, stood
there with hard face and said: "Go, but see to it that you take
with you one garment only." Whereupon she, dressed in a single
garment, barefooted and bareheaded, left her husband's castle,
and returned to her father, followed by the tears and compassion
of all who saw her. Giannucolo, who had never been quite able to
believe that Walter could be content to take his daughter as his
wife, and who expected her return every day, had kept her
clothes which she had put off on the morning of her marriage.
Now Griselda put them on again and gave herself up to the little
duties of her father's house, bearing the cruel assaults of
hostile fortune with firm mind.
In the meantime Walter declared to his vassals that he had
chosen for his wife the daughter of a certain count of Panago
(who was the husband of the lady in Bologna, to whom he had sent
his children); and ordering great preparations for the wedding
to be made, he sent for Griselda, and when she had come, he
said: "I am about to bring home the lady whom I have chosen for
my wife. You know that I have no one here who can arrange all
the things needful for so great a feast. Wherefore do you put
everything in order, and call in to help you the women you think
best, and receive them as if you were still the lady here. Then
after the wedding is all over you may return home."
Although these words were like so many stabs to the heart of
Griselda, who could not lay aside her love for him as easily as
she had laid aside her good fortune, she answered: "My lord, I
am ready." And dressed in her peasant costume, she entered the
house, whence she had shortly before gone forth, and began to
sweep and put in order the rooms, and to prepare the food,
setting her own hands to everything as if she were but a common
servant of the house. Nor did she rest till all was properly
arranged and prepared for the wedding. And then, inviting in
the name of Walter all the ladies of the country round about,
she began to prepare the feast, and when the wedding day had
come, although she was dressed in coarse garments, she received
all the ladies who came with ladylike bearing and smiling face.
Walter, who had caused his children to be diligently brought up
in Bologna in the house of his relative, wife of the count of
Panago (his son being six years old and his daughter twelve, the
latter being the most beautiful creature ever seen), had sent to
the count of Panago, begging him to bring his children to
Saluzzo, and to say to all that the girl was to marry Walter.
The count did as he was requested, and with the two children and
a noble company arrived about noon at Saluzzo, where all the
peasants and neighbors from round about were waiting for the new
bride. She was received by the ladies, and Griselda, dressed as
she was, came forward to meet her cheerfully, saying: "Welcome
to my lady."
Walter, who now thought he had sufficient evidence of the
long-suffering of his wife, called her to him, and in the
presence of all, said to her: "What think you of our bride?" "My
lord," said Griselda, "she seems fair indeed to look upon; and
if she is as wise as beautiful, which I well believe, I doubt
not that you will live with her the happiest gentleman in the
world. But I beseech you for one thing: do not wound her spirit,
as you have that of your other wife. For I do not believe she
can stand it, young as she is, and so delicately brought up."
Walter, seeing that she firmly believed the girl was to be his
wife, and that yet she spoke thus kindly of her, set her down
beside him, and said: "Griselda, it is time now that you receive
the rewards of your patience, and that those who have reputed me
cruel, may know that what I did was to teach you how to be a
wife, and to prepare for myself a life of perpetual peace and
quiet with you as my loving and faithful companion. Therefore
take with joyful mind this girl, whom you thought to be my
bride, and her brother, for your children and mine. These are
they whom you and many others long have thought I had cruelly
slain. I am your husband, who love you above all things else;
and I indeed can boast that no other man has so great reason to
be content with his wife as I;" and thus speaking he embraced
and kissed her, and raising her who was now weeping for joy, he
led her to where the daughter sat, listening in amazement to all
these things, and embraced her and her brother tenderly. Then
all the ladies, rejoicing greatly, rose from the table and went
with Griselda to her room, and dressed her in a rich gown, such
as befitted a lady, which she ever seemed, even in her rags, and
led her back again to the hall, and then all, rejoicing,
continued the feast. The count of Panago went back to Bologna,
and Walter, taking Giannucolo from his work-shop, kept him in
state as his father-in-law, so that he lived in great comfort
and honor to the end of his life. And the marquis himself,
having found his daughter a noble husband, lived long and
happily with Griselda, holding her ever in love and esteem.
SUMMARY AND QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW
Development of Italian prose later than that of
poetry--Boccaccio its founder (1313-75)--Friendship for
Petrarch--Service in introducing Greek language into Western
Europe--His influence upon Chaucer and Shakespeare--The
Decameron--He founds Italian prose style and the modern novel.
1. Which is usually developed first, prose or poetry?
2. Give sketch of the life of Boccaccio.
3. Describe his character.
4. Tell the story of his conversion.
5. Give a list of Boccaccio's chief works in Latin and
Italian.
6. Which one is his greatest work?
7. What is the general framework of the Decameron?
8. Its popularity and influence.
9. Tell briefly the story of patient Griselda.
10. What is your opinion of this story?
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Owing to the immorality of some of the stories of the Decameron
the English translations of the whole book are not to be
recommended. A selection, however, fit for the general public
has been made by Joseph Jacobs, and published by John Lane.