APPENDIX 253
Some Definitions: Habeas Corpus—The Initiative
and Referendum—The Recall—Injunction
and Abatement Act—The Tin Plate Ordinance—Prohibition,
High License, Local Option, the
Guttenburg Method of Controlling the Liquor
Traffic—The Single Tax—The House of Governors—Proportional
Representation—Workmen’s
Compensation Laws.
CHART OF OFFICIALS FOR WHOM YOU CAN VOTE 261
When Elections Are Held.
FOREWORD
It is one thing for women to win the vote and a totally different one
for them to know how to use that vote so that it will count to the
greatest good of the state. The keynote of woman’s long struggle for
the ballot has been her ardent desire for service. Now that she has
been given the vote, she is eager to learn how she can best render
that service.
Citizenship has been very lightly regarded by our country in the
past. It has been given to the immigrant without any ceremony, in the
midst of the sordid surroundings of a local court-room; it has come
to the boy of twenty-one without any special preparation on his part;
it has often been bought and sold. It remains now for women to treat
it with a new dignity and to give it the importance it deserves.
Civics should be taught in every school in the land. The ballot
should be regarded as a sacred trust. Every man and woman who grows
up under the protection of our flag should feel the obligation to
give of his and her best to make our democracy a better expression of
our ideals.
I hope that this book will help to start some new citizens in the
right way.
CARRIE CHAPMAN CATT.
PREFACE
There never seems to be just the right book on a topic that one has
very much at heart.
When the vote for New York women was an accomplished fact there came
a sudden and pressing need for a book on government that would give
the busy housewife or the overworked woman in the factory the simple
outline of her government and the officials for whom she was going
to vote, with the duties and requirements of their positions; but
that was not all. There are certain problems of government to-day
and certain departments of politics which have to do with things
which are of special interest to women. The protection and care of
human life has always been woman’s great business in life. So a book
on civics for women must include an outline of what the state is
doing for its children, for its poor, for working-women, for public
health and recreation; in short, for the same things in government
with which she is concerned in her individual capacity as a woman.
These are also the departments of government which seem to need her
attention the most. It is natural that men should have given the
greater care in government to business and material affairs. To
counterbalance this, woman’s work and votes are needed for the human
side.
To be an intelligent voter some knowledge of the structure of
government is needed. Also one must know the duties of an office
in order to judge of the qualifications of would-be candidates, so
Chapters II to VII give an outline of the different divisions of
government, beginning with the local offices, for which women will
cast their first votes, and going through the State to the National
Government. Chapters VII to X, inclusive, deal with the actual
casting of the ballot in the elections, the organization of political
parties, and the management of elections. The major part of the book
is then given to those departments of political affairs in which
women are undoubtedly most deeply concerned.
The substance of some of these chapters has been used as a
correspondence course in citizenship by the New York State Woman
Suffrage Party, and is published by special arrangement with them.
Through four years of continuous intensive educational work in the
State the Woman Suffrage Party has come closely in touch with many
thousands of women; it has learned to know their idealism, their
fervent belief in democracy, and their desire to make democracy more
effective. It knows also that there are many other women who have
never thought about voting, but who are equally conscientious and are
now eager to learn. It knows the problems of women as does probably
no other organization of women.
It also has a deep feeling of responsibility. It feels its obligation
to furnish all the help possible to the new women voters to meet
their new duties wisely. It hopes to bring home to women the human
side of government, to arouse a desire for further study, and
especially to encourage them to regard their vote as a trust to be
used not to advance partisan politics, but to further human welfare.
This is a book for amateur citizens written by an amateur citizen.
It may be found to differ from the others in that it deals with the
subject of civics from the standpoint of the woman voter.
GERTRUDE FOSTER BROWN.
=YOUR VOTE AND HOW TO USE IT=
YOUR VOTE AND HOW TO USE IT
I
POLITICS AND WOMAN’S INTERESTS
The average woman has never thought of politics as having an intimate
relation to her daily life. She has not realized that government has
a direct effect on the comfort and happiness of the family in the
home, on the successful upbringing of children, and on the health and
safety of men and women workers.
She has known vaguely that government controls the fundamental
question of war or peace; that it has to do with taxation; that it
handles the mail, but that it also plays a large part in domestic and
social life is a fact that she has only recently been learning.
With the rapid extension of the vote to women, especially the recent
granting of suffrage to the women of New York State, there is a new
and wide-spread interest in how government works, and a realization
of the importance of good government and the dire peril of bad
government. Women are conscientious; they are accepting their new
responsibilities with much seriousness. They are eager to learn how
to be good citizens. The war also has made everybody think. It has
made government seem a more personal affair.
WHAT IS GOVERNMENT?
=Government is the management of those common affairs of a people
which can be handled in a more effective and more economical way by a
community acting together than by each individual acting for himself.=
In a sparsely settled community government is less apparent than in
a city. Its functions are simple. Sometimes it does not seem very
important. But as people congregate closer together it becomes more
complicated and comes in closer and closer touch with the individual
and family life.
For example, a man living in the country may rely on himself to
protect his home and property; but in the city life and property are
better protected by a police force than if each individual citizen
had to provide his own protection. A woman in a pioneer country may
bring up her child as she pleases. She may teach him when and how she
chooses. But as population increases and government is established,
a large part of the child’s training is dictated by it. He must go
to school at a certain age; he must stay there so many hours a day;
he must study certain things in a certain way. He cannot be put to
work until he has reached a certain age. If he contracts a contagious
disease the city takes control of the case.
Directly and indirectly the government in a city affects a woman’s
life and interests in innumerable ways.
She is dependent on it for the light and sunshine that comes into her
home. Laws concerning housing and building and tenement departments
of government are very important to the health, comfort, and even
decency of the family. She is dependent on government for the safety
of the milk she has to feed her baby. The health of the family
depends as much on the city department of health as on the mother’s
care. It is of the utmost importance to the city mother that the
streets be kept clean, because they are usually the only place that
her children have in which to play. The street cleaning department,
therefore, touches her closely. It is of vital moment to her that the
streets be kept free of criminal influence, therefore the management
of the police department is of great importance to her. If the town
is run “wide open” it may mean that her husband’s wages may be
dissipated. The way in which the excise law and the laws against
gambling are enforced is a matter which deeply concerns her.
If she lives in the country the relation of government to her life
is not so varied, but she is still dependent on it for the education
of her child, for the socializing influences of the community, and
for much of the business prosperity of the farm. Are telephone
connections cheap, are the roads passable at all seasons, are good
market facilities provided? These are all questions that greatly
affect her welfare, and they depend largely on the government.
=It is the business of government to maintain peace and to provide
for the common defense.=
This is a function of government so fundamental as to need little
comment. It is the first essential to the safe existence of the home.
=It is the business of government to assure justice and equality of
treatment to all citizens.=
This becomes more difficult as population increases and life grows
more complicated. Nearly every human being to-day is dependent on
the work of other people for most of the necessities, as well as the
comforts and conveniences, of life. The food that we eat, the cotton
and wool in the garments we wear, the coal that heats our houses, we
owe to the toil of other people who in return may be dependent on us
for something that they use. It is a matter that concerns every one
of us that in producing these things that we use human life shall be
safeguarded, that living wages shall be paid, and that standards of
civilization shall be maintained and advanced.
As individuals we cannot control conditions even for ourselves,
as individuals we cannot control them for other people; but all
of us working together in government can secure these fundamental
necessities for every one of us.
Since government in a democracy is made by the people themselves, it
is a responsibility that every one should share to help secure these
common needs.
=It is also a function of modern government to raise the standard of
health, education, and living.=
Plato said, “Only that state is healthy and can thrive which
unceasingly endeavors to improve the individuals who constitute it.”
Society must be protected from vicious and destructive influence;
the intelligence and knowledge of all the people are needed for the
common good.
As human beings have become dependent on one another, the well-being
or the degradation of one individual or family does not stop there.
It strongly influences the welfare of other individuals and families.
For their own protection people have not only the right, but the
obligation to make a government that shall foster and advance the
common welfare.
_The basis of good government is the golden rule._ To help secure
for others the protection that you demand for yourself is part of
the obligation of good citizenship. The honesty and efficiency of
government in a republic like the United States depend on the voters;
on their sense of responsibility, and on the intelligence with
which they use their power. The feeling of responsibility of each
individual, for the public welfare, cannot be too highly developed.
Democracy can only be a success in the degree that the people who
make that democracy are determined that it shall deal with justice,
and that it shall offer opportunity to every one within its borders.
They must also be vigilant to see that it shall deal wisely with
their common problems as they develop.
To be a citizen of such a democracy and to have the power to help it
grow along these lines, to be able to serve one’s country loyally in
the full efficiency of citizenship, are great privileges.
II
TOWN AND COUNTY GOVERNMENT
=The United States is both a Democracy and a Republic.=
=A Democracy= means, literally, a government by the people.
=A Republic= is a democracy in which the people elect representatives
to carry on the government for them.
The United States is a federation of forty-eight States. For
convenience of government each State is subdivided into smaller units.
In every political division of the State there are three distinct
departments:
=The Legislative=, the part that makes the law.
=The Administrative=, the part that administers the law.
=The Judicial=, the part that interprets the law.
Even in a sparsely settled community people have certain interests in
common. Roads have to be made, schools established, the poor cared
for, and taxes levied. Who does these things? If a cow breaks into a
neighbor’s cornfield, or if there is an epidemic, whose business is
it to look after it?
THE TOWN GOVERNMENT
With the exception of the school district, which has to do only with
the public schools, the town[1] or township is the smallest division
of the State for purposes of government. The government of the town
is the nearest approach we have to a direct government by the people
themselves.
=The Town Meeting= brings people together to discuss their local
affairs, to elect officers, and to appropriate the money necessary to
carry out their plans. It is held in New York State every other year,
some time between February 1st and May 1st.
The business of the town meeting includes the disposal of town
property, the care of bridges and roads, the care of the poor, the
number of constables, matters concerning public health, and the care
of stray animals.
Any citizen has a right to bring up any suggestion he pleases for
the people to consider and debate in open meeting, and then to take
whatever action they choose. In a matter of taxation or incurring a
town debt, only taxpaying citizens can vote.
Where it exists at its best, the town meeting has an admirable
effect in stimulating interest in local affairs and in developing
public spirit. A special town meeting can be called by a petition of
twenty-five taxpayers, or at the request of certain officials.
The town meeting is a form of government particularly adapted to a
small community. With the increase in population it has been given up
in many counties, and the election of town officers now usually takes
place at the regular fall election.
=Town Officers=: =The Supervisor= is the chief executive officer of
the town, and is elected for two years. He receives and pays out all
money except that raised for public roads and the care of the town
poor. If the town roads are in bad condition or if the poor are not
properly cared for, he is responsible. The honesty and efficiency of
the administration of town affairs are in his hands. He represents
the town on the county board of supervisors.
=The Town Board= consists of the supervisor, town clerk, and at
least two justices of the peace. It meets regularly twice a year.
It is the business of the board to receive the accounts of the town
officers and examine them, to hear and decide claims against the
town. An appeal may be taken from their decision to the county board
of supervisors. They may also frame propositions to be submitted to
the voters, and may borrow money to meet appropriations made at the
town meeting. They may appoint a physician to aid as health officer
for the town.
=The Town Clerk= is the general secretary and bookkeeper for the
town. He records births, marriages, and deaths, chattel mortgages
and property notes. He keeps the records of the town meetings. He
posts election notices. He issues marriage licenses, permissions for
burial, hunting licenses, etc.
=The Superintendent of Roads= has charge of building and maintaining
the town highways, bridges, and culverts outside of the incorporated
villages. He is paid by the day, and may hire machines and horses or
purchase tools and material for road making. The opportunities for
dishonest money in this office have sometimes made it sought after. A
contract may contain a “rake-off,” bills may be padded, and materials
accepted which are different from specifications.
=Three Assessors and a Collector=: The assessors determine the value
of taxable property in the town, and divide the amount of taxes to
be raised among the owners of the property. If a property-owner is
dissatisfied with his assessment he may appear in August before the
assessors and “swear off” what he considers an exorbitant amount.
Assessment rolls are made out, and it is the duty of the collector
to collect the money. Town collectors are paid 1 per cent. on taxes
collected within thirty days after due, with increasing fees for
collecting taxes after that time. This is an encouragement to the
collector to be dilatory in his collections, and is a disadvantage to
the town. It has been suggested that penalties for delinquent taxes
should go to the town and not to the collector.
=The Town Constables= have the duty of keeping the peace and carrying
out the orders of the justice of the peace. They may arrest people
accused or suspected of crime. There may not be more than five in a
town.
=The Overseers of the Poor= are charged with the duty of looking
after persons who are destitute and have no relative to support them.
They may assist such persons in their own homes or send them to the
county poorhouse. This office often conflicts with that of county
superintendent of the poor, and it has been recommended that it be
abolished.
=The Justice of the Peace= is the judicial officer of the town. Each
town has four such officers, each elected for four years. The justice
of the peace may hear civil cases where the sum involved is not over
two hundred dollars. He may try petty offenses of all kinds, breaches
of the peace, drunkenness, and petty larceny. He may issue warrants
and may hold persons suspected of serious crime to await action by
the grand jury.
=Terms of Town Officials=: Each official is elected for two years,
except the justices of the peace and sometimes one or two assessors,
who are elected for four years.
=Pay of Town Officials=: Most of these officers are paid from two
to four dollars for every day of actual service. The town clerk,
justices of the peace, and constables are paid certain fees.
THE COUNTY
The county comprises a number of townships. It is a political
division created by the State to administer certain local affairs, to
act as agent for the State, to collect State taxes, and to enforce
State law. The county owns the court-house and jail; it can sue or be
sued.
In most of New York State the county has become more important
in administering local affairs than the town. New York State has
sixty-two counties, of which five are in Greater New York. They vary
in size from Richmond County (Staten Island), which has only 59
square miles, to St. Lawrence County, which has 2,880 square miles.
They vary also in population from Hamilton County, with 2,000 people,
to New York County with two million.
=Elected Officials=: =The Board of Supervisors= is the legislative
body of the county. This board is composed of the supervisors elected
by each township, and also one member from each ward of a city in the
county. They elect their own chairman.
The board of supervisors have the custody and control of the
court-house, jail, poorhouse, and all county property; they receive
and decide claims against the county; they direct the raising of
money by taxation to meet the expenses of the county and the county’s
share in State taxes; they fix salaries for county officials; borrow
money for county needs; they regulate laws for the protection of
fish and game; they open county highways, erect bridges, and may
provide hospitals for tuberculosis. They also act as a board of
canvassers to canvass the returns after an election.
=The Sheriff=, the executive officer of the county, is elected to
enforce the law. On him rests the security of life and property. He
must preserve the peace, arrest offenders against the law, and hold
them in custody. He must not allow fear or sympathy to interfere
with his enforcement of the law. He summons jurors and witnesses for
county lawsuits and executes the orders of the court. Until recently
the fees which he received made the sheriff’s office one much sought
after. These now go to the treasurer in many counties, and the
sheriff is paid a salary. He cannot serve two consecutive terms. He
may appoint an under-sheriff and deputy sheriffs.
=The District Attorney= is the public prosecutor for the county, and
brings suit “in the name of the people of the State.” He is also
the legal adviser for county affairs. It is his business to protect
the public against crime of all kinds. If corruption exists in any
department, it is his duty to bring it to light. The good order of
the community and the efficiency of government in the county depend
much on him. He determines what cases shall come before the grand
jury.
=The County Clerk= keeps all the important records for the county,
including deeds, mortgages, and maps, and makes out the election
certificates. Public documents must always be open for public
inspection. In some counties there is a recorder of deeds. The clerk
also acts as clerk of the county court. His office has an income
from fees which used to go to the clerk and made this office very
lucrative. In most counties the fees now go to the county treasurer,
and the clerk is paid a salary.
=The County Treasurer= receives and disburses all public moneys for
the county. He receives money from the town supervisor, collected
for county and State taxes, the latter of which he pays to the State
treasurer. He receives from the State money for the public schools,
which he in turn passes on to the towns. He must give a bond for the
safe-keeping of these public funds. He also chooses the bank in which
public funds are kept, and ought to give a careful accounting of the
interest which must go into the county treasury.
=The Superintendent of the Poor= disburses the money raised to
care for the poor of the county. The superintendents of all the
public charities in the county make their reports to him, and he is
responsible for them to the board of supervisors. He also makes an
annual report to the State Board of Charities.
=Coroners=: From one to four coroners may be elected in each county,
except those in Greater New York. Their duty is to investigate sudden
and suspicious deaths, and sometimes the cause of a suspicious fire.
They are often practising physicians or they may employ physicians to
conduct inquests or autopsies.
=The County Superintendent of Highways= is appointed by the board of
supervisors for four years.
=The County Judge= presides over the county court. His salary
varies and is fixed by State law, although paid by the county. This
office should be most carefully filled. The county judge is not
only important because of his decisions, but he is one of the most
powerful men politically in the county. Only a man of strict probity
should be elected to this office.
=The Surrogate= administers estates of persons deceased, controls the
probate of wills, and appoints guardians for the property of minors.
His term is six years. In counties with small populations the county
judge acts as surrogate.
The term of office for county officials is three years, except that
of the supervisors elected by the towns for two years, and the judges
elected for six years.
=Political Honesty=: The question is often asked, are these
local offices honestly managed? Are there possible loopholes for
corruption? The following answer to these questions was given
recently by one in a position to know:
“The impelling motive of most politicians is the enjoyment of a
sense of power and influence. The day laborer who loafs through his
political job and the salaried higher officer who neglects his work
and engages in private business are examples of the most usual and
formidable class of political grafters. The heads of departments and
higher elected officers are apt to do their work as well as they
can, in order to qualify themselves for re-election. The days when a
man could dishonestly make a fortune in one political term are past
in this country, and waste, favoritism, and stupidity are the only
dangerous elements which we must look for.
“The greatest waste in expenditure of moneys by boards of supervisors
is usually on county roads and highways, where in some years
hundreds of thousands of dollars are lost by unscientific building
and upkeep. This also is an easy way for a dishonest supervisor to
reward political supporters by paying them for work on the road which
they do not do. The same things obtain in the matter of purchase of
supplies and the county printing. The cure for this is to have all
expenditures beyond a nominal amount made on public bids.
“Another opportunity of abuse is the payment of supervisors in fees.
Many counties still adhere to the old rule of fees: $4 per day for
attending board meetings; 8 cents per mile for going and returning;
$4 per day while actually engaged in any investigation or any other
lawful duty. For copying the assessment roll and extending taxes on
the tax roll supervisors receive commissions which, in some counties,
run into thousands of dollars. The remedy for the numberless evils
which accompany the fee system is to put the supervisors on a salary
basis.
“The sheriff has charge of the prisoners in the jail. Therein lies
his opportunity for dishonesty and extortion. Sheriffs should
receive salaries and not fees, and every county should have a
well-organized board of women visitors to inspect the jails and
lockups at least every two weeks.
“The district attorney has an opportunity for dishonesty in the
expenditure of the contingent fund, which is always provided for
him, and which he can pay out with little or no check. Fortunately,
however, most men elected to the office of district attorney are of
high enough caliber to make the percentage of dishonesty almost _nil_.
“If the county clerk is paid by fees it is difficult to expect an
absolute, ethical fulfilment of his duty, and probable that he will
be working for himself rather than the county.
“The duties of the county superintendent of the poor are in continual
conflict with those of the overseers of the poor. The opportunity to
waste and misappropriate county funds without detection is not as
great as it used to be, because of the close supervision of the State
Board of Charities; but the county superintendent has wide discretion
in giving alms and caring for the county poor, and the office is,
therefore, usually sought by a minor political leader, who, by virtue
of his office, can provide for his dependent supporters, which he
usually does in the sincere belief that he is properly dispensing
charity. In no case, however, is any great amount wasted, and on the
whole the work is fairly well done.
“Justices of the peace and constables and town clerks usually receive
fees. They should be put on a salary basis.
“Overseers of the poor have opportunities for fees and
misappropriation of small amounts because they are allowed liberal
discretion in selecting objects of the town’s bounty. The office
should be wiped out, the distinction between town and county
poor abolished; all the work should be done through the county
superintendent of the poor, who should be responsible to the State
Board of Charities.”
=The Relation of Country to City, State, and Nation=: While the
problems of government in rural districts are simple and few, the
close relations of city and country have made the wise management
of country affairs of great importance to those who live in cities.
On the other hand, the handling of the more complex and difficult
city problems are of equally grave importance to country dwellers.
Comfortable, prosperous life in a rural community is dependent not
only on local conditions, but also on State and National government.
Good roads are equally important to city and country, and they
depend largely on the State. The kind of education that the village
or country school gives will determine the intelligence and earning
capacity of many of the coming generations of city dwellers, and this
instruction is determined both by the State and by the local school
boards.
Low telephone rates and good interurban car lines will put the woman
on the farm in close touch with her neighbors, and so will stimulate
her interest in outside affairs. Healthy community life and rural
amusements will keep the young people content at home and help
prevent the drift toward the city. The farmer’s produce is handled
by city shops and markets, and the manufactured articles of city
factories go into the homes of every rural district.
Not only are city and country dependent on each other, but also one
part of the country is dependent on some other part, far distant, for
some of the necessities of life. Our cotton comes from the South,
wheat comes from the West, sugar may come from Colorado or Cuba.
The whole country is linked together in trade relationship, and
freight rates and interstate commerce are controlled by the Federal
government.
The good citizen, then, has a vital interest not only in his
supervisor and local affairs, but in both State and National
government. When he realizes that the size of his income, the comfort
of his family life, the welfare of his children, and their getting on
in life, depend to an appreciable degree on government, he and she
will begin to take a livelier interest in politics. The discussion
of these affairs in the home will serve to stimulate the interest of
the entire family in what is, after all, an important part of their
business.
A small community has one problem all its own. If there is some
offense against the public welfare, no one wants to complain. It
may be something merely disagreeable, or it may be a serious menace
to public health; but every one is slow to make a fuss about it
because he cannot hide his identity, and he is afraid he might become
unpopular. This fear is usually groundless because it is likely that
most of his neighbors agree with him in wanting to have the condition
changed. A country community needs fearless, public-spirited
citizens.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] The word town as used in New York does not mean a village or
city, but a political division.
III
THE INCORPORATED VILLAGE AND CITY GOVERNMENT
As population grows government needs increase. When people establish
their homes close together and form a populous community within
a limited area, it becomes necessary to have streets opened up,
sidewalks made, the streets lighted, protection from fire, and other
things that the township does not provide.
A territory of not over one square mile, having a population of
at least two hundred people, may be incorporated as a village.
On a petition of the taxpayers they may vote on the proposition,
whether or not they shall become an incorporated village, and have a
government of their own distinct from that of the town. Even if they
incorporate they still remain a part of the town, and take the same
part in town government as before.
=There Are Four Classes of Villages=: First class, those with a
population of 5,000 or over; second class, with a population between
3,000 and 5,000; third class, with a population of between 1,000 and
3,000; fourth class, with a population of less than 1,000. In many
Western States a village of one or two thousand inhabitants usually
becomes a city. In New York State there are villages of more than
15,000 population.
=The Village President=, who serves one year, is the chief executive,
and serves without pay. He is the head of the village board of
trustees, and in small villages is the head of the police. Local
order, peace, health, and sanitation depend on him.
=The Board of Trustees= consists of from two to four men in villages
of the third and fourth class; from two to six men in villages of
the second class, and from two to eight men in villages of the first
class, elected for two years, half of them elected each year. They
serve without pay. They make ordinances for the government of the
village and administer its affairs. They decide where sidewalks
shall be built, whether streets shall be paved, how garbage shall
be handled; they provide light and a water-supply; they provide for
the raising of money by taxes; if a sewerage system is needed it
must be done under the supervision of the State Board of Health.
Propositions relating to the large expenditure of funds must be
submitted to the taxpayers.
Questions of police, water-supply, fire protection, lights, sewers,
are sometimes handled by the board of trustees, or if the village
is large enough there may be separate boards or commissioners
established for some of these things.
A Fire Department, with fire house, hose and wagon, exists in most
villages, voluntary in small places, and a paid force in the larger
villages. The fire company is a popular department of public service,
because of the social pleasure involved and because firemen are
exempt from jury duty.
=A Treasurer, Assessors, a Collector, and a Village Clerk=,
are usually elected and sometimes =a Street Commissioner=. Not
infrequently the latter office is considered a sinecure, and streets
littered with waste paper and other refuse are common in the average
village. The commissioner should be held up to his duty by all the
voters.
=A Board of Health= of from three to seven members must be appointed
by the trustees to work in connection with the State Board of Health.
This board elects a health officer, who must be a physician. The
business of the board is to watch over drains, cesspools, to prevent
nuisances and contagion from disease. Health officers should be
vigilant and morally courageous, otherwise the community will pay in
illness.
=A Police Justice=, elected for four years, handles cases involving
violations of village ordinances. The board of trustees may appoint a
village attorney to represent them in case of lawsuits.
=The Annual Village Election= usually takes place the third Tuesday
in March. A special village election, similar to a town meeting, may
be called for taxpaying citizens to vote on special questions, such
as the removal of garbage at public expense, or the purchase of water
or lighting plants.
A water-supply is usually furnished by a village of any size. An
abundant supply is necessary, not only for homes, but for fire
protection and for any sewerage system. New York villages and cities
are very well lighted. Whether there should be public or private
ownership of public utilities is a question which is much discussed.
While the water-supply is usually owned by the municipality, the
lighting system more often belongs to a private company.
Sewage disposal is a matter which has to be taken up sooner or later
by a village as it grows in population. For too long our villages
have polluted the convenient stream. They have been slow to study the
question, and to dispose of sewage and garbage in a way that is both
satisfactory and economical. Foreign cities often make a profit out
of the disposal of their refuse, whereas it usually costs us money.
These questions need more intelligent consideration than is usually
given them.
* * * * *
As a community grows larger it outgrows the simple form of village
government and needs one more adapted to its complex and growing
needs.
The growth of cities in the past hundred years is phenomenal. In
1820, 83 per cent. of the people of the United States lived on farms;
in 1910 only 32 per cent. The problems that a city government has to
meet are many and difficult, especially in the cities of New York
State, where a large proportion of the people are foreign-born, and
where there is often a large floating population without civic pride
or interest. In smaller communities, where every one is known, the
fear of public opinion acts as a restraining influence which is not
felt in a city where the individual identity is often submerged.
=A CITY GOVERNMENT= works under a charter granted by the State, which
limits its powers. These charters used to be made out separately for
each city, and the legislature interfered with the management of the
local affairs of a city in a way that caused a demand for “Home rule”
for cities. This has been partially granted, and cities in New York
State now have large power to provide public works and to control
public education, health, safety, recreation, and charities, although
they are still occasionally interfered with by the State legislature.
The city is a direct agent of the State, and does not work as the
village does, through the town and county.
=Three Classes of Cities=: First-class cities have a population of
175,000 or over. Second-class cities have a population of 50,000
to 175,000; third-class cities are all those with a population of
less than 50,000. The object of this division is to enable the
State to legislate for the needs of groups of cities instead of
individual ones. The mayor of a city may veto a measure passed by the
legislature, but if approved by the legislature and signed by the
governor, it may become law in spite of his veto.
The needs of government in a city are those of the village multiplied
in size; they include police protection, care of the public health,
a pure water-supply, inspection of food-supplies, supervision of
weights and measures, adequate housing inspection, economic and
satisfactory garbage and sewage disposal, fire protection, gas
and electric lighting, good paving, clean streets, the care of
dependents, maintenance of hospitals and libraries, good educational
facilities, transportation, and many other activities.
The general plan of government for cities is the same in all the
classes. Cities of the first class are New York City, Buffalo, and
Rochester (see Greater New York).
=Cities of the Second Class=: =The Mayor=, who is elected for two
years, is the chief executive officer. He has as important and
responsible a position as any man at the head of a big corporation.
The management of the city is in his hands. The health and welfare
of its dwellers depend on him. While the city council legislates
for the city, it is his business to see that laws and ordinances
are enforced. He may veto an ordinance passed by the city council,
although they may pass it over his veto by a two-thirds vote. The
mayor has the power of appointing the heads of most of the important
departments of the city’s business. Sometimes the city council has
to confirm an appointment, and an official can only be removed for
good cause, and he must be given a hearing and an opportunity to
answer charges. To elect to the position of mayor and to put the
entire responsibility of all the complex problems of city government
on a man of no training or fitness for the position, is to invite
extravagance, incompetence, and corruption.
For purposes of convenience in government a city is divided into
subdivisions called _wards_, and for elections, into certain voting
precincts called _election districts_.
=The Board of Aldermen or The Common Council= consists of one
alderman chosen from each ward and a president of the board. They
are elected for two years, and are to the city about the same
that the board of trustees are to the village. Their powers are
limited by the city charter. In general, they may pass ordinances
relating to streets, sewers, parks, public buildings, amusements,
grant franchises, regulate traffic, levy taxes, and borrow money
under certain restrictions for the use of the city. An alderman has
power over many local interests in his district. It is an important
position which in the main has been disregarded; it should be filled
by a man chosen for fitness as a local representative and not as a
reward for party service. No man should be elected to this board whom
you would not trust as the custodian of your own property or the
guardian of your children, because in a public sense that is what he
is.
=The Board of Estimate and Apportionment= is one of the most
important departments of city government. It has large control over
the city’s finances, and determines its policies in all financial
matters, franchises, privileges and permits, and makes the city
budget. It consists of the mayor, comptroller, corporation counsel,
president of the common council, and the city engineer.
=The Department of Contract and Supply= lets contracts for material
and work required by the city. With the constant growth of city
departments and city business, in which supplies and materials of
many kinds are needed, this is also an important committee.
Other elected officers are comptroller, treasurer, president of the
common council, and assessors.
The department of finance is managed by the comptroller and the
treasurer.
The department of assessment and taxation, which makes the
assessment rolls, consists of four assessors, elected two at a time,
for four years each.
The department of law is presided over by a corporation counsel,
appointed by the mayor. The mayor also appoints the city engineer and
the heads of the following departments:
The department of public works, which controls the water-supply,
streets, sewers, buildings, and public markets; the department of
public safety, which includes the bureaus of gas and electricity;
departments of police, health, charities and correction, and the
board of education.
Cities of the third class are not uniform in their government, but
the general outline is the same as for cities of the second class.
=City Elections= are held in the odd-numbered years. State officials
are elected in the even-numbered years. The purpose of setting
a different time for these elections is to keep city politics
independent of State political machines. Party issues have little to
do with the problems of a city. It is evident that the government of
a large city is a very important and complicated business. There are
several offices which demand as great executive ability as would be
required of a man at the head of a large business corporation. But
city offices are usually given to men not for fitness, but because
of party affiliation. Public sentiment is beginning to ask why high
standards of competence and efficiency should not be as much demanded
in public as in private business.
=The Budget=: The heads of the various departments decide how much
money will be required to run each department for the ensuing year.
The Board of Estimate and Apportionment considers these requests and
fixes the tax-rate necessary to raise the money needed (see Chapters
IV and XI).
=Franchise Rights=: A city has many sources of revenue of its own.
Public utilities which furnish such necessities as transportation,
water, gas, and electric light, earn enormous profits. In some places
some of these things are owned by the city and the revenues go to
the city. In others, the right to build and operate such a public
business is given to a private corporation through a franchise. It is
evident that these franchise rights are extremely valuable and should
not be given away without adequate compensation to the city, as well
as the insuring of good service. The rates that are charged, and
the service rendered, are matters of vast importance to the people
of a city. Municipal ownership of such utilities has never been as
extensive in this country as abroad, but the sentiment in favor of it
is growing. Franchise rights used to be given for long terms, even in
perpetuity, but public sentiment now demands that they be subject to
revision at reasonable intervals. Most cities to-day own their own
water-supply, and some of them have their own lighting plants.
=Commission Form of Government=: So many officials are needed to
manage the complex affairs of a city that even if well qualified
men are put up for office, with so many candidates to be elected,
it is impossible for the voters to know the merit of them all.
City government has been the weakest spot in our political life.
In an effort to meet its defects, a number of cities have adopted
the policy of doing away entirely with the form of government as
outlined, and electing on a non-partisan ticket several commissioners
(sometimes headed by a mayor), each one of whom is put in charge of a
division of the city’s administration, and made responsible for the
work of this department.
The fact is being recognized that skill and expert training are
needed in public officials; that the power should be given to a few
men, and that they should be held responsible for the success of
their work.
Buffalo now has a commission form of government.
=The City Manager Plan= gives the management of a city to one man,
who is engaged by the city, and held responsible for the conduct of
city affairs, in the same way that a large business enterprise would
engage a manager. A city manager should be a man who has made a study
and profession of city government.
IV
GREATER NEW YORK
The city of New York includes five counties: New York, Kings, Queens,
Bronx, and Richmond. In one hundred years, the population of New York
City grew from 50,000 to 4,000,000 people. It now has a population
of nearly 6,000,000, which is about one-half the population of the
State, and it is the second city in size in the world.
The government of the city is strictly prescribed by its charter; for
any improvement that it desires outside of the provisions of that
charter, the city must go for permission to the State Legislature.
For convenience in government the city is divided into five boroughs:
Manhattan, Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens, and Richmond (Staten Island).
=The Mayor= is the chief executive of the city. He is elected for
four years and has a salary of $15,000. He has powers of appointment
and removal over a vast number of important positions, including the
heads of the big city departments. Like the Governor of the State
and the President of the United States, he initiates legislation by
sending once a year a message to the Board of Aldermen containing a
general statement of the government and financial condition of the
city, and recommending such measures as he deems advisable. He may
ask for special legislation at any time.
All ordinances and by-laws passed by the Board of Aldermen go to the
Mayor for approval. If he vetoes a measure, the Board of Aldermen may
pass it over his veto by a two-thirds or three-fourths vote, with
the exception of the granting of franchise rights, where his veto is
absolute.
=The Comptroller= is at the head of the financial affairs of the
city. His term of office is four years, and salary $15,000. He
may appoint three deputies at $7,500 each, an assistant deputy at
$3,000, besides other heads of the various divisions of the finance
department; but the minor positions are under the Civil Service.
=The President of the Board of Aldermen= is elected for the same term
as the Mayor, and receives a salary of $7,500. He takes the Mayor’s
place in case of absence or death.
=The Presidents of Manhattan, Bronx, and Brooklyn Boroughs= receive
$7,500 a year; of Queens and Richmond Boroughs, $5,000. They are
elected for four years, and each president has general oversight
over streets, bridges, sewers, and buildings in his borough. He may
appoint a commissioner of public works, and a superintendent of
buildings for his borough, and local school boards. In Queens and
Richmond the borough presidents have charge of street-cleaning.
=The Board of Aldermen= is the legislative body of the city. It
consists of seventy-three men elected from Aldermanic districts.
They serve for a term of two years, and receive a salary of $2,000
each. This board makes the ordinances for the government of the
city. It makes and enforces police, fire, building, health, and
park regulations; it makes by-laws for the regulation of public
markets, streets, public buildings, docks; for inspection of weights
and measures; regulating places of amusement, height of buildings;
licensing cabs, truckmen, and pawnbrokers, and regulations for the
suppression of vice. A city clerk and a clerk of the board at a
$7,000 salary each, are appointed by the board.
=The Board of Estimate and Apportionment= is the most important of
the city boards. It frames the city budget, which has to be adopted
by the Board of Aldermen. It also passes on bills granting franchise
rights. It represents the whole city, and consists of the Mayor,
Comptroller, President of the Board of Aldermen, each with three
votes; Presidents of Manhattan and Brooklyn Boroughs, with two votes
each; and Presidents of Bronx, Richmond, and Queens Boroughs, with
one vote each.
Among the important appointive positions of the city which are in the
hands of the Mayor are the following:
=The Corporation Counsel=, with a salary of $15,000 a year, is the
head of the law department of the city, and is the city’s legal
adviser. He has over fifty assistant counsels to appoint, with
salaries ranging from $3,000 to $10,000 a year, and a host of deputy
and junior assistants.
=The City Chamberlain= receives and pays out all moneys for the
city—salary $12,000. He may appoint a deputy at $5,000 a year. The
abolishment of the office of Chamberlain as being unnecessary was
recommended by a recent incumbent; but it is too large a plum to be
lightly discarded.
=The President of the Department of Taxes and Assessments= receives
$8,000 a year. Six other tax commissioners are appointed with
salaries of $7,000 each, two of whom must be of the opposing party.
The Commissioners of Accounts, of Correction, of Docks and Ferries,
and of Health, the Fire Commissioner, Police Commissioner,
Commissioner of Licenses, of Plants and Structures, of Public
Charities, the Street-cleaning and Tenement House Commissioners,
Commissioner of Water Supply, Gas and Electricity, and the chairman
of the Parole Commission, all receive $7,500 a year; the Commissioner
of Weights and Measures, $5,000 a year.
There is a new Commissioner of Public Markets, and a Supervisor of
the _City Record_, a city publication which must print all ordinances
which involve the spending of city money, granting a franchise, or
making a specific improvement, before they are passed by the Board of
Aldermen.
There are many other less important offices to be filled, and the
Borough Presidents have still further appointments.
=The Board of Education= has been reduced from forty-six to seven
members, of whom two are now women. In addition there are forty-six
local school boards in the various school districts, each consisting
of five members appointed by the Borough President and the District
Superintendent of the local school district. These have now been
divided among the seven members of the new School Board.
=The Board of Elections= consists of four commissioners, two
Republicans and two Democrats, appointed by the Board of Aldermen for
two years, with a salary of $5,000 each. This board determines the
election-district boundaries, chooses about 2,000 polling-places,
and appoints about 17,000 election officials. Since 1915 the city
has allowed school-houses and other public buildings to be used as
polling-places, and at the last election nearly 1,000 districts were
supplied in this way.
=Local Improvement Boards=: The city is divided into twenty-five
districts, in each of which there is a Local Improvement Board,
consisting of the Borough President and the Aldermen of the
Aldermanic districts included in the local improvement district.
=County Government Within the City=: Each county included in the
city of New York has a separate county government, independent of
the city, with its sheriff, county clerk, district attorney, and
its county court in every county but New York. The office of Sheriff
in New York County has been one of the highest paid offices in the
State, because of its fees. These have amounted to from $80,000 to
$100,000 or more a year, and the county and Sheriff have divided
them. The county now receives all the fees, and the Sheriff a salary
of $12,000 a year; but he cannot be re-elected, and the term of
office has been increased from two to four years.
=Courts=—=Supreme Courts=: The first judicial department, and the
first judicial district of the State are formed by New York and Bronx
Counties. Brooklyn, Queens, and Richmond form the second. The Special
and Trial terms of the Supreme Court try both criminal and civil
cases with and without a jury, as in other counties.
=County Courts= are held in Kings, Queens, Bronx, and Richmond
Counties, and each of them except Richmond has a _Surrogate’s Court_.
New York County elects two Surrogates, for a term of fourteen years
each, at a salary of $15,000 a year. In place of the County Court,
New York County has a _City Court_, which tries civil suits and is
a naturalization court, and a _Court of General Sessions_, which
tries criminal cases. The _Court of Special Sessions_, with a chief
justice and fifteen assistant justices appointed by the Mayor,
tries cases of misdemeanors, and offenders sent to them by the City
Magistrates. One division of this court is the Children’s Court, with
one presiding justice and five associate justices, with a court in
each borough. These justices hold office for a term of ten years.
=Magistrates’ Courts= are held by a large number of magistrates,
appointed by the Mayor, and a chief magistrate who has general
supervision of them. _Municipal Courts_ are held in various parts of
the city to try small civil suits. There are forty-five Municipal
Court districts, in each of which there is a judge elected by the
people of the district for a term of ten years.
There are separate Night Courts for both men and women, a Domestic
Relations Court, which deals with cases of non-support of wives and
children, and poor relations, and a Traffic Court, which deals solely
with violations of the traffic laws.
* * * * *
To even mention the various institutions in the city of New York
which are engaged in improving the health and social welfare of the
people would take many pages. There is great need among them of
a more clean-cut division of activities, and less overlapping of
authority.
_The Commissioner of Public Charities_, appointed by the Mayor, is
responsible for the care of the city’s dependents. In 1915, 350,362
free lodgings were given to dispossessed families and needy men and
women. There are 329 institutions receiving money from the city
for the care of dependent children, and 22,753 children were in
their charge on January 1, 1916. The care which these children have
received has been severely criticized. The conflicting authority of
the State Board of Charities and the City Board of Inspection of
Charitable Institutions, is said to be responsible for this. In the
future, the city is to conduct its own inspections. Widows’ pensions
are administered for all of Greater New York by one _Child Welfare
Board_ of nine members appointed by the Mayor, of whom two must be
women. They serve for a term of eight years without salary.
_The Tenement House Department_ looks after the 103,882 tenement
buildings of the city, and has a force of 193 inspectors, of whom
eight are women. There are still about 9,000 dark rooms in the old
tenements, built before the law was passed requiring a certain
amount of light and air, which have not been made over to meet the
new requirements.
_The Street-cleaning Department_ employs regularly about 5,400 men at
salaries ranging from $720 to $860 a year.
_The Board of Inebriety_ was organized to take charge of persons who
are chronic addicts to alcohol or drugs, to treat them as victims
of disease, and send them to a farm where treatment looking toward
a cure is combined with farm work, truck gardening, etc. The great
needs of this work cannot be met until further accommodations are
made for patients.
=The Municipal Civil Service Commission=, consisting of three members
appointed by the Mayor, maintains a regular staff of examiners of
applicants for city positions. The regular payroll of the city
includes nearly 85,000 persons, of whom about 30,000 are not under
the jurisdiction of the Civil Service. There are also about 20,000
others who are employed part of the time.
There is a free _public employment bureau_ which is growing
steadily and is placing over two thousand applicants a month, and a
Commissioner of Weights and Measures.
The management of each one of the large departments of city
government requires special and technical training. A corporation
manager would search the country for the best man to be found for
each particular department.
School-teachers and school superintendents are chosen because of
their training and experience. Minor city employees are appointed
from Civil Service lists; but the custom of American cities is to
appoint men at the heads of city departments who have distinguished
themselves for party service.
=The Budget for Greater New York= is made up, beginning in June,
and being adopted November 1st. Estimates of the needs of each
department for the coming year are submitted to the Board of Estimate
and Apportionment, and are studied by sub-committees who conduct
public hearings, when the representatives of each department and
the official examiners report on their estimates and each item
may be examined and discussed. A tentative budget is printed for
public use and the last week in October public hearings are held. By
November 1st the budget must be adopted by the Board of Estimate and
Apportionment and sent to the Board of Aldermen for their approval.
“Pay as you go” was a financial policy adopted in 1914 to relieve the
tremendous piling up of future indebtedness of the city for permanent
improvements of the non-revenue producing class. During the years
1914-1918 an annually increasing proportion of the cost of these
improvements was to be included in the tax budget, and by 1918 the
entire cost was to be met by taxation, and thereafter no bonds were
to be issued for this class of improvement. Every dollar borrowed at
4½ per cent. interest on a fifty-year bond costs $1.69 in interest
charges. While taxes are higher for a time under the pay-as-you-go
plan, the actual cost of improvements to the city is much less.
The Mayor of New York City is the head of a corporation whose
budget of expenditure, in 1916, was $212,000,000. Before the war
the general expenses of the United States Steel Corporation were
about $34,000,000 a year. The salary of the president of the Steel
Corporation, or of any one of the largest business corporations of
the country, would be from $50,000 to $100,000 a year. The Mayor of
New York City receives $15,000 a year. But a business corporation
would insist on having for president a man whose training and
business experience had made him peculiarly fitted for the job,
while our practice in choosing a man for mayor is to give little
consideration to special training and experience in the work of city
administration.
V
STATE GOVERNMENT
The State has such large powers over its people, and over all
political divisions within it, that it is often called the “Sovereign
State.” The State regulates the ownership and transfer of property;
it punishes murder and other crimes; it regulates business relations;
it prescribes the form of marriage and the reasons for divorce; it
authorizes the levying of taxes; it makes its own election laws and
provides for education; until recently it has controlled railroads
operating within its borders.
=The State Constitution=, adopted by a majority of the voters of the
State, is the fundamental law of the State. It can only be changed by
a constitutional convention or by the adoption of a constitutional
amendment, which is done with considerable difficulty.
A constitutional convention is an assemblage of men chosen by the
voters to revise the constitution. The result of their deliberation
is then submitted to the voters, who can accept or reject it. The
last revision took place in 1915 and was overwhelmingly defeated at
the polls. The law now provides for a revision every twenty years if
the voters desire it.
An amendment to the constitution can be proposed in the Legislature.
It has to pass both houses of the Legislature during two different
but successive sessions (a new session of the Legislature comes only
every other year, when a new Senate is elected), and must then be
submitted to the voters of the State for their approval. A majority
vote makes it a law.
=The Legislature= has authority under the State constitution to make
laws for the State. It meets every year on the first Wednesday in
January at the Capitol in Albany, and remains in session until its
business is completed, usually about April 1st. It is composed of two
divisions or “houses,” the Assembly and the Senate.
Every ten years, in a year ending with the figure five, a census is
taken of the people of the State, and on this basis there is a new
apportionment of Senators and Assemblymen.
=The Senate= at present is composed of fifty-two members, elected
from certain divisions of the State known as Senatorial Districts. In
general, each fiftieth of the population of the State is entitled to
one Senator. (This rule is not followed mathematically, for a county
may not be divided except to form two or more districts within it;
no one county may have more than one-third of all the Senators, and
no two counties may have more than one-half of the total number.
This is intended as a check to a congested district having an undue
representation.)
If a county which already has three or more Senators shows a
sufficient increase in population to entitle it to another one,
the additional Senator adds one more to the fifty Senators already
provided for.
=The Assembly= is composed of one hundred and fifty members, and,
roughly speaking, every one hundred and fiftieth part of the
population of the State is entitled to one Assemblyman. In practice
the rural county of small or medium size which does not contain
a large city is one Assembly District. Chautauqua, Dutchess,
Schenectady, Niagara, Orange, Rensselaer, St. Lawrence, Steuben,
Richmond, Suffolk, and Broome have each two Assembly Districts.
Albany, Oneida, and Onondaga have three each; Queens has six;
Westchester and Monroe, five; Bronx and Erie, eight; Kings and New
York, twenty-three each; Hamilton and Fulton counties have only
one between them. Nassau County has recently been divided into two
Assembly Districts. This division is made by the County Board of
Supervisors.
The presiding officer of the Senate is the _Lieutenant Governor_. The
presiding officer of the Assembly is elected by its members, and is
called the _Speaker_. He appoints the standing committees, and has
much control over legislation. He usually belongs to the political
party which is in the majority in the Assembly. This party also
elects a majority leader to control legislation on the floor. The
choice of the other party is called the _leader of the minority_, and
he is recognized as the leader of this party in the Legislature. The
Senate also has majority and minority leaders.
Assemblymen are elected for one year, and Senators for two years.
Both receive $1,500 salary and an allowance of ten cents a mile
traveling expenses once during the session.
=How to Get a Law Passed by the Legislature=: A bill may be
introduced by any member, beginning, “The People of the State of New
York, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact,” etc.
It may be introduced into either the Senate or the Assembly, or it
can be introduced in both houses simultaneously. It has a first
reading and is referred to a committee. The committee may pigeonhole
it and never report, or it may report it too late in the session for
action by the Legislature, or it may report it favorably, or with a
recommendation that it be rejected. If it is reported favorably it
is put on the calendar to await its turn for consideration. It then
comes up for a second reading, when it may be amended and sent back
to the committee; after a third reading a vote is taken. If it is
passed in one house it then goes to the other house, where it goes
through the same procedure. If it is passed by the second house,
it then goes to the Governor for his signature. If it is a bill
concerning the government of a city it goes to the mayor of the city
for his approval.
If either house changes the bill it has to go back to the first house
for action in its amended form. The Governor has the power to veto a
bill, but it can be repassed over his veto by a two-thirds vote.
=The Governor= is the chief executive officer of the State. It is
his business to enforce the laws, through his appointive officers.
He has control of the military forces of the State, which must
consist of not less than twenty thousand men, of whom two thousand
must be a naval militia. He has the power to grant pardons. He is
elected for two years, and receives a salary of $10,000 and the use
of the Executive Mansion. He may also initiate legislation. At every
regular session of the Legislature his duty is to send a “message,”
telling the Legislature about the condition of public affairs and
recommending measures for their consideration. He may also, at any
time, ask for special legislation, and may call the Legislature
together in an extra session. He has the power of many important
appointments to State positions, but subject to the approval of the
Senate.
=The Lieutenant Governor=, with a salary of $5,000 a year, takes the
Governor’s place in case of need. He presides over the Senate.
=The Secretary of State= has charge of all public documents and
records. He grants certificates of incorporation, and has charge of
elections and the taking of the census. His salary is $6,000 a year.
=The Comptroller= must sign every warrant for payment of State
funds. He acts as auditor for the State, reports to the Legislature
concerning State funds, and superintends the collection of State
taxes. He designates the banks in which State money shall be
deposited. His salary is $8,000 a year.
=The State Treasurer= is the custodian of State funds, and pays them
out only on order of the Comptroller. His salary is $6,000 a year.
=The Attorney-General= is the general legal adviser of the State. He
prosecutes and defends all actions in which the State is interested.
His salary is $10,000.
=The State Engineer and Surveyor= must be a practical engineer. He
has charge of the canals, and the surveying and mapping of all the
public lands of the State.
=Appointive Offices=: Among these are two _Public Service
Commissions_, each with five members. The first has jurisdiction
over Greater New York, and the second over the rest of the State.
In general, they have power to regulate railroads and street-cars,
to establish rates, and to compel adequate service. They also
control express companies, gas and electrical companies, telephone
and telegraph lines. No company can raise its rates without their
consent. Their business is to see that the needs of the public are
adequately served, and also to protect the companies from unjust
treatment. These commissions are considered so important that the
salary of each commissioner was made $15,000 a year.
=The State Tax Commissioners= have general supervision of the methods
of raising taxes throughout the State. There are three of them
appointed for three years, and they must visit every county in the
State at least once in two years. Their salary is $6,000 a year each.
=The State Board of Equalization=, which consists of the tax
commissioners and commissioners of the land office, has to equalize
the assessments in each county, and fix the amount on which the State
tax is to be levied.
=The Superintendent of Banks= controls the banks, trust companies,
building and loan associations, which make reports to him quarterly,
from which he in turn makes a report to the Legislature annually. His
salary is $10,000, and his term three years.
=The Superintendent of Insurance= has control over all the insurance
companies and reports annually to the Legislature. His salary is
$10,000, and term three years.
=The Commissioner of Health= must be a physician. He has general
oversight of the health of the State, and supervises the registration
of births, marriages, and deaths in the towns and cities. His salary
is $8,000, and he has a four-year term.
=The Commissioner of Excise= issues tax certificates for the sale of
liquor and collects the excise tax, of which the State gets one-half,
and the city or town in which the liquor is sold gets one-half. His
salary is $7,000, term five years.
=The Commissioner of Agriculture= appoints the directors of farmers’
institutes, watches over the sale of food products that might be
injurious to health, and has general care of the agricultural needs
of the State. His salary is $8,000, term three years.
=The Commissioner of Highways=, who is in charge of State roads and
improvements, serves for two years with a salary of $12,000 a year.
=The Department of Labor=, which is a very important branch of the
State government, works to improve the conditions of labor. There
are five commissioners who serve six years, each with a salary of
$8,000. In this department are several bureaus: _viz._, Inspection,
Employment, Workmen’s Compensation, Mediation and Arbitration,
Statistics and Information, Industries, and Immigration.
=The Conservation Commissioner= controls departments for preserving
and propagating fish and game, for protecting lands and forests, and
the control of inland waters. He appoints a head for each division.
(Forests owned by the State must be kept wild. They may not be
loaned, sold, or exchanged, and no wood may be cut.) He serves six
years, with a salary of $8,000 a year.
=The Civil Service Commission= consists of three commissioners who
have the duty of determining the rules with which to test the fitness
of applicants for employment under the civil service laws. The civil
service is intended to prevent the appointment of men to government
positions through partisan politics or personal “pull.” Positions are
classified, competitive examinations are held, and appointments made
in order of merit. The custom has usually been to have separate lists
made out of men and women, and it has been complained that preference
has been given to the men’s lists.
There is a _Superintendent of Public Works_, with a salary of $8,000;
a _Superintendent of Prisons_, salary of $6,000, and a _State
Commission of Prisons_ of seven members who get $10 a day each for
each day of service; a _State Board of Charities_; a _State Hospital
Commission in Lunacy_ of three members, the president of which is
paid $7,000, and other members $5,000.
There is also a _State Food Commission_ of three members who serve
without pay, appointed only for the period of the war, and a recently
created _Farms and Markets Council_.
While most of the heads of the administrative departments of the
State government are appointed by the Governor, the terms of office
of many of them are longer than the term of the Governor who
appoints them. As a consequence, a Governor may be in office, and
important departments like the Excise Commission, the Public Health
and Public Service, and Industrial Commissions, may be in the hands
of appointees of a preceding Governor. They can be removed from
office only by preferring charges and after a hearing. Also certain
other important State officials, including the Comptroller and
the Secretary of State, are elected by the people, and may differ
radically from the Governor on questions of public policy. They may
even belong to a different political party.
It is by some considered a weakness in the management of the affairs
of the State, that the conduct of some of the most important
departments of an administration may be out of the control of the
Governor who is responsible for them.
The business of the State requires about 17,500 regular employees,
and the payroll is about $22,250,000. It is probable that some of
these public officials in the service of the State might be dispensed
with if they were required to work as many hours a day and as many
days a year as they would be obliged to do in any private business.
VI
NATIONAL GOVERNMENT
The sovereign power of the United States is vested in the National
government, the federal union of all the States, each self-governing,
but all uniting for certain purposes. The Constitution of the United
States is the supreme law of the land.
The National government, like that of the State and municipality,
has three distinct divisions: the legislative, the executive, and
the judicial. The legislative power rests with Congress, which is
composed of the House of Representatives and the Senate.
=The House of Representatives= is elected every two years by the
voters of the States. After the census, which is taken every ten
years, Congress determines what the total number of Representatives
shall be. These are then apportioned among the States according to
population. After the census of 1910 the House of Representatives
was increased to 435 members, which gave one member for every
211,877 inhabitants. New York has 43 Representatives, the largest
number from any State in the Union. Every State is entitled to at
least one Representative, although it may not have the requisite
population. _The Congressional District_ from which a member is
elected is determined by the State Legislature. Greater New York has
23 Congressmen.
=Qualifications for Representatives to Congress=: A man must be
twenty-five years old and have been a citizen of the United States
for at least seven years, and be a resident of the State from which
he is chosen. The salary is $7,500 a year, with an allowance for a
clerk, for stationery, and for traveling expenses.
=The Senate= is composed of ninety-six members, two members from
every State in the Union, elected for a term of six years. In order
that there shall always be experienced men in the Senate, only
one-third of that body is elected at a time. The Senate is divided
into three classes, and the men belonging to one of the three classes
are elected every two years.
A Senator may be re-elected as many times as a State chooses, and
many Senators have served twenty years or more. This makes the Upper
House of Congress a very conservative, stable body of men. Senators,
as well as Representatives, receive a salary of $7,500 a year. The
_Vice-President_ of the United States is the presiding officer of the
Senate.
The election of Senators was formerly a prerogative of the State
Legislature. The Seventeenth Amendment to the National Constitution,
passed in 1913, provides that they shall be elected by direct voice
of the voters of the States.
=Qualifications of Senators=: A candidate for the Senate must be
thirty years old and have been a citizen for at least nine years.
=Sessions of Congress=: A new Congress comes into existence on the
fourth day of March every odd year, although it does not meet in
regular session until the following winter. The long session begins
the first Monday in December in the odd-numbered year, and usually
lasts until spring or summer. The short session begins the same time
in the even-numbered year and lasts until the following March 4th,
when the new Congress, elected the previous November, comes into
existence, although it does not meet until the following December,
unless the President calls an extraordinary session. A Congressman,
therefore, is elected more than a year before he takes his seat. The
Sixty-fifth Congress will end March 4, 1919. The members of the Lower
House of the Sixty-sixth Congress will be elected in November, 1918.
=Congressional Committees=: The work of Congress is largely done
through committees. The House of Representatives, as constituted
to-day, is an unwieldy body. It is obvious that four hundred and
thirty-five men is too large a number to work effectively as a whole.
Every bill, even a recommendation from the President, is referred to
an appropriate committee. It is only because of these many committees
that it is possible to transact the very large amount of business
that comes before Congress every year.
=How a Bill Is Passed=: The procedure in Congress is similar to that
in the State Legislature. A bill may be introduced by any member in
either house, and must pass through both houses.
=Powers of Congress=: Congress has absolute power to levy and collect
taxes. Revenue bills must originate in the House of Representatives.
Congress has the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and
support an army and navy, and to regulate commerce. It controls
naturalization laws and immigration; it establishes post-offices;
grants patents and copyrights. It has the power to coin and to borrow
money. It also governs the District of Columbia and the Territories.
=An Amendment to the Constitution of the United States= must be
passed by a majority of two-thirds of the votes cast in both houses
of Congress. It is then submitted to the States for ratification by
the State Legislatures. When the Legislatures of three-fourths of the
forty-eight States have ratified such an amendment by a majority vote
of their members it becomes law.
=The Executive=: The President of the United States has greater
powers than have the heads of many other nations. He is the
Commander-in-chief of the Army and Navy; he conducts official
business with foreign nations and makes treaties with them, subject
to the approval of the Senate; he appoints, with the consent of the
Senate, ambassadors, ministers, high officials of Army and Navy,
justices of the Supreme Court, and a vast number of other officers.
He may veto measures passed by Congress, but they can be passed over
his veto by a two-thirds vote.
The President has power to initiate legislation by sending a message
to Congress, giving them information about important affairs and
recommending legislative measures for their consideration. The degree
to which he can force legislation through Congress depends both on
the strength of the party in Congress to which he belongs, and on
the personal power and prestige of the President himself. President
Wilson is the first President, for more than a century, to appear in
person before a joint session of Congress and read his message.
=Election of the President=: The President is chosen by presidential
electors, elected by the voters of the various States, the number
of electors for each State being the same as the total number of
Representatives and Senators in Congress from that State. The
electors of a State meet at the State Capitol on the second Monday of
January following the election, to cast their votes for President.
The electors are merely machines to register the vote of the State,
and usually the entire electoral vote of a State goes to one
candidate, although the majority of the popular vote for him may have
been small. This system makes the presidential election virtually
an election by States. A State “goes” Republican or Democratic. The
struggle is concentrated in a few doubtful States. To win or lose
them may mean to win or lose the election. It has happened that
one candidate has actually received a larger popular vote than his
opponent, and yet has not been elected, because the number of votes
in the electoral college from the States that gave him a majority was
smaller than the number of electoral votes from the other States.
There is a movement toward the abolition of the electoral college and
direct nomination and direct election of the President by the voters.
=The Vice-President= must be eligible to the office of President. He
is elected for the same term, and his salary is $12,000 a year. His
only duty is to preside over the Senate and to succeed the President
in case of need.
=The Cabinet= consists of ten officials appointed by the President
with the consent of the Senate to conduct for him certain departments
of public business. The salary of a Cabinet member is $12,000.
Cabinet members have no vote in either House of Congress, and are not
responsible to it in any way. Like the President himself, they may
belong to the party which is in the minority in Congress. The Cabinet
is an advisory body to the President, but its members have no legal
standing in that way, and he may ignore them if he chooses. Each
Cabinet officer is the administrative head of his department.
The Secretary of State heads the Department of State, and is
responsible for all official negotiations and relations with foreign
governments. He is the medium of communication between the President
and the Governors of the States.
The Secretary of the Treasury manages national finances, administers
revenue, currency, and national banking laws.
The Secretary of War has charge of all matters of national defense,
river and harbor improvements, and is responsible for the maintenance
of the Army.
The Attorney-General is the legal adviser of the President and the
National government.
The Postmaster-General conducts the affairs of the United States
Post-Office Department and the transportation of the mail.
The Secretary of the Navy has charge of the Navy and its equipment,
yards, and docks.
The Secretary of the Interior and his department have charge of
public lands and Indian affairs. He has the granting of pensions and
patents.
The Secretary of Agriculture has for his business the improvement of
agriculture in the United States. He also has charge of the Weather
Bureau, animal and plant industry, and the forest service.
The Secretary of Commerce must aid and develop the commercial
interests of the country, including mining and transportation. He
takes the census every ten years.
The Secretary of Labor and the Department of Labor are designed to
protect the welfare of the wage earners. To this department belong
the Bureau of Immigration and the Children’s Bureau.
The tendency of the past few years has been to enlarge the powers
of the National government. With the rapid increase of means of
transportation distant parts of the country have been brought close
together. Sectionalism is diminishing. To “States’ rights” is being
added a national pride. In the administration of the business of the
nation, State boundaries can often no longer be considered without
a distinct loss of economy and efficiency. To give one example: the
State control of railroads resulted in obstructive and entirely
different requirements being made by neighboring States, on the same
railroad passing through several of them. The power of separate
States to control, independent of each other, such things as marriage
and divorce laws, has resulted in the deplorable situation that a
couple may be legally married in one State and the marriage may not
be recognized in another.
It is evident that with the growth in influence and importance of the
United States, the National government is gradually assuming many
functions which formerly were left to the separate States.
VII
WHO CAN VOTE
There is one way in which the government of a republic like the
United States differs from other forms of government—_viz._, in
a republic _the source of all power rests with the people_. They
choose the men to whom they give the right to speak for them and to
represent them.
The right to vote for the man who is to represent you, who is to make
the law for you and to enforce that law, is the most sacred right of
a free country.
The success or failure of government in the United States, and in
every political division of the State, rests with the men and women
who have the power of the vote.
One of the great dangers of a democracy is the carelessness and
indifference of the voter. If a government “by the people” is to
be a success, the people themselves must see to it that honest,
responsible, and efficient officials are chosen.
=Every Person in the State Is Either a Citizen or an Alien.
Citizenship Is Conferred by the National Government and the State Has
No Power to Confer or Withhold It.=
=A Citizen= is defined in the Constitution of the United States: “All
persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the
jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the
State in which they reside.” Native-born Indians who have had land
allotted them and have given up their tribal life are citizens. All
persons born out of the country of citizen parents are also citizens,
except where the father has never resided in the United States.
=Naturalization=: Congress makes uniform laws of naturalization for
all the States.
=An Alien= is a person born in a foreign country who lives here but
is still a subject of some other country.
=An Alien May Become a Citizen= of the United States, and thus
of New York State, after he has lived in the country five years
continuously, and in the State one year. He must be able to write his
own language, to read and speak English, and be of moral character.
His first step is to go to a Federal court, or a court of record,
and swear that it is his intention to become a citizen and renounce
his allegiance to any foreign power. He is then given his “first
papers.” Not less than two years, or more than seven years later, he
must appear again with two witnesses to swear to his good character
and loyalty, and file a petition. After ninety days his application
is heard by the court and he is examined by the judge and renews
his oath of allegiance. If the judge is satisfied he is given his
certificate of naturalization which makes him a citizen. Fees
amounting to five dollars are now charged.
=Only White Persons and Negroes May Become Naturalized=: Chinese,
Japanese and East Indians cannot become citizens unless born in the
United States. Polygamists are excluded.
=An Unmarried Woman= can take out papers of naturalization and become
a citizen in the same way as does a man.
=A Married Woman= is only a citizen if her husband is a citizen.
Under the present law, she cannot become naturalized by herself.
Also, under a strict interpretation of the law, she has the residence
of her husband and must vote from the same place.
=A Woman Born= in the =United States= who =marries= an =alien=,
although she may never leave her own country, =ceases to be an
American citizen= and becomes a subject of the country to which
her husband belongs. Therefore, the wife of a man not a citizen of
the United States cannot vote in this country.[2] If a resident of
the United States, she resumes her citizenship at the death of her
husband, or if she is divorced. =A foreign-born woman= who =marries=
a =citizen becomes= a =citizen=. Children under age become citizens
with their parents.
An American-born man may live abroad many years and not lose his
citizenship.
A naturalized citizen is considered as losing his citizenship if he
returns to his native country and resides there two years.
A citizen has the right to withdraw from the United States, renounce
his allegiance, and acquire citizenship in another country.
An alien enjoys the same protection of the law as does the citizen.
The government extends its protection to the native-born and the
naturalized citizen alike. A naturalized citizen is protected while
abroad, even in his native country, by our government in exactly
the same degree as a native-born citizen would be. A naturalized
citizen may fill any office in the land with the exception of that of
President.
=A Citizen Is Not Always a Voter=: Women were citizens of New York
State before they were given the right to vote, if (1) they were
born in the United States, (2) were married to citizens, or (3) if,
unmarried, they had taken out their own naturalization papers.
=The State Confers the Right to Vote and Fixes the Qualifications for
Voters.=
=Who May Vote=: “Every citizen of the age of twenty-one years who
shall have been a citizen for ninety days, an inhabitant of the State
for one year, and a resident of the county for four months, and a
resident of the election district for thirty days, has a right to
vote” (Act II, Sec. I, Constitution of New York State). Foreign-born
women whose husbands are citizens must live in the country five
years before they can vote. In time of war soldiers and sailors may
vote wherever they are, and their ballots are counted in their home
districts.
It is reasonable that a certain length of residence should be
required before a person is permitted to vote, in order that he may
have a chance to become familiar with the interests of a community,
and acquainted with the qualifications of the candidates.
=Who May Not Vote=: A naturalized citizen who has not been
naturalized for at least ninety days before election; a person whose
name and address is not registered with election officials at least
ten days before an election; a person convicted of bribery or an
infamous crime; a deserter from the Army or Navy. A person who bets
on an election is disqualified for voting at that election.
The Governor may restore citizenship to a person who has lost it.
=The State Cannot Interfere with the Rights of Citizens=: While
the State prescribes the qualifications for suffrage for its own
citizens, by the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the National
Constitution, the Federal government prohibits any State from
abridging the privileges and immunities of citizens of the United
States, and declares that the State in making the qualifications for
the suffrage cannot discriminate because of _color_ or _race_.
The Fourteenth Amendment further provides that when the right to
vote is denied to any of the male citizens of a State, its basis of
representation shall be reduced in proportion.
Several of the Southern States have restricted the suffrage by
educational and property qualifications, but have excluded from these
qualifications those who were voters in 1867 (before the negroes
were enfranchised) and their descendants. This discrimination of
the so-called “grandfather” clause was held unconstitutional by
the Supreme Court of the United States in 1915, but the reduction
in representation has never been enforced. Massachusetts has an
educational qualification and Pennsylvania a tax qualification, which
also exclude many male citizens; but the Fourteenth Amendment has
never been seriously enforced in either case.
=The National Amendment for Woman Suffrage=: An amendment to the
Federal Constitution is pending which provides that the _right to
vote shall not be denied on account of sex_.
While New York State has given the vote to its women, this permission
does not extend beyond its borders. New York women lose their vote
if they go to Pennsylvania, New Jersey, or any adjoining State.
Twelve States have given women full suffrage, and nineteen States
have given them the right to vote for President. The Woman Suffrage
Amendment, when passed by Congress and ratified by three-fourths of
all the States, will secure the right to vote to all the women of the
United States.
FOOTNOTES:
[2] A bill is now before Congress to change this law and make it
possible for a married woman to choose her country for herself, as a
man does, and to require that she be obliged to go through the same
process of naturalization that a man does, including the oath of
allegiance. It is only through a Federal law that this change can be
made.
VIII
POLITICAL PARTIES
A political party is a group of voters organized for the purpose
of putting certain policies into effect, to elect certain men to
office, and to control the machinery of government. Under a popular
government, where public officials are chosen by the people and
political policies are formulated by them, political parties have
seemed the most expedient device as yet discovered to accomplish
these ends.
The political party was not originally a part of the government;
but as the country developed and government needs and opportunities
multiplied, party machinery grew more complex, and its powers
increased to such a dangerous degree that for the sake of its own
integrity, the State was forced to regulate it. Party conventions,
primaries, and much of the party machinery are now controlled by law.
=Two Parties=: The United States has always had two principal
parties. They have had different names, and under the same name they
have advocated different principles. The first parties were the
Federalists, who believed in a strong central government that should
exercise all the powers that the Constitution could be interpreted
to permit, and the Anti-Federalists, who believed in limiting the
functions of the Federal government and reserving as much power as
possible to the States.
=The Republican and Democratic Parties=: It is difficult to define
the difference between the present principal parties. The Republican
party is the successor of the Federalists. It was formed shortly
before the Civil War to prevent the extension of slavery. In
general it has believed in a liberal interpretation of the Federal
Constitution, and has wished to see the powers of the National
government extended. The Democratic party has advocated “States’
rights,” the right of the individual States to settle their own
affairs. It has held to a strict interpretation of the Constitution,
and has believed in limiting the power of the National government.
Besides the doctrine of States’ rights, the principal difference
between the Republican and Democratic parties has been the tariff.
The Republican party has advocated a high tariff, and the Democratic
party a tariff “for revenue only.” While these have been the two
issues most discussed between the two parties, even on these
questions the lines have often been confused. Democratic members
of Congress have advocated measures which distinctly contradicted
the principles of States’ rights, and the Republican party as often
has adopted them for its own purposes. The Democratic party has not
always stood on its low-tariff platform, and Republicans have often
been against protection. Even before the present war old party lines
had begun to fade. With the dangers threatening the country, which
war has brought, these lines have been almost obliterated. What they
will be when the war is over no one can predict with certainty.
The Republican party came into power in 1860, when it elected
Abraham Lincoln President, and until 1913 it controlled the National
government, except for two terms of four years each when Grover
Cleveland was President.
In general the Southern States are Democratic, preserving a “solid
South.” The Northern States are apt to be Republican.
=The Progressive Party= was organized in 1912 as the result of a
split in the Republican ranks, by men who wanted more progressive
measures than those advocated by either the Republican or Democratic
party. It advocated public ownership of mines, forests, and water
power; a larger measure of justice for the working-classes and
suffrage for women. It has disintegrated, but it had a large effect
in liberalizing both the older parties, and many of its policies have
been adopted by them.
=The Prohibition Party= was organized in 1872 to bring about complete
prohibition of alcoholic drinks. It has elected candidates to the
Legislature and has secured an ever larger measure of local option
and even State-wide prohibition.
=The Socialist Party=, organized in 1900, advocates government
ownership of land, railroads, telegraph and telephones, mines,
and all vital industries. It has become largely the party of the
industrial workers.
Minor parties have come and gone, but they have usually left a
lasting effect on the dominant parties.
In New York State, any organization is considered “a party” which
polled at least 10,000 votes for Governor at the last election.
=Party Organization=: The individual voter, or group of voters, is
helpless to change conditions or to elect a man. It is only through
the organization of many men who want the same thing that they become
effective. Political parties are organized for National, State, and
local campaigns.
The great work of the political parties is the nomination and
election of a President every four years. For this purpose there must
be a national party organization.
=The National Committee= of each party is composed of one member from
each State. It organizes the National Convention of the party, which
is held early in the summer before the presidential election, and at
which party policies are formulated, and candidates for President
and Vice-President are nominated. In the spring the chairman of the
National Committee calls a meeting of this committee to decide where
and when the convention shall meet.
Besides nominating candidates for President and Vice-President, the
convention adopts a “platform” in which is set forth the principles
which the party holds and its attitude on important public questions.
A new National Committee is appointed to carry on the campaign and
to act until the next convention.
The platform adopted by the party at its National convention is an
expression of the principles for which the party stands. A “plank”
may be put in simply to catch votes; on some question the plank may
not be explicit, but may “straddle” the issue. While in the main the
National platform sets forth the principles to which the party is
committed and its proposals for future action, the speech or letter
of acceptance of the candidate for the presidency usually contains a
more reliable statement of the policies which he would advocate if
elected.