Such is the _Exposicion_, such the experience, and such the views of a

patriotic and enlightened corporation, representing and ruling over one

of the most populous, wealthy, and industrially disposed districts of

Spain. Our object in prefacing at this length, and with seeming

irrelevance, perhaps, our review of the commercial policy of Russia,

with its bearings on the interests of Great Britain, is to show the

differing action of the same commercial system, in the present case of

the prohibitive and restrictive system in different countries, both in

respect of the mode in which the internal progress and industry of

countries acting upon the same principle are variously affected

themselves and in respect of the nature and extent of the influences of

such action upon those relations of interchange which they entertain, or

might otherwise entertain, with other countries where an opposite or

modified system prevails. In its broad features the system of Russia

varies from that of Spain only in being more rigorous and intractable

still. Both, however, are founded on the same exclusive principle, that

of isolation--that of forcing manufactures at whatever cost--that of

producing all that may be required for domestic consumption--of

exporting the greatest possible maximum--of importing the lowest

conceivable minimum. Starting from the same point, and for the same

goal, it will not be without interest or instruction to accompany and

observe the progress of the one, as we have already endeavoured to

illustrate the fortunes of the other--to present Russia, industrial and

commercial, side by side, or in contrast with Spain, as we have

described her. Your absolute theory men, your free-traders with one

idea, like Lord Howick, your performers in the economic extravaganza now

rehearsing in the Parliament-house under the style of "leave imports

free, and the exports will take care of themselves," may chance to meet

with many strange facts to confound their arbitrary theorems on the

banks of the Neva. Absolute of wisdom, however, as they arrogate to be,

and casehardened as they are, against assaulting results which should

destroy their self-willed principle--a principle, like the laws of the

Medes and Persians, proclaimed to be unchanged and unchangeable--in face

of which facts are powerless and adverse experience contumeliously

scouted, or mendaciously perverted, it is sufficiently obvious that

lessons in political economy will, less than from any quarter of the

globe, perhaps, be accepted from St Petersburg--they will fall upon

unwilling ears--upon understandings obtuse or perverted.

We are not of the number of those who would contend that, under all

times or circumstances, should a principle, or rather the system built

upon a principle, be rigorously upheld in its application intact, sacred

equally from modification on the one hand, as against radical revolution

on the other. It cannot be denied that, under the protective system,

have grown into their present gigantic proportions all the great

manufacturing interests of Great Britain. But, with customary hardihood

of assertion, maintain the economists--in whose wake follow the

harder-mouthed, coarser-minded Cobdens of the League--although

manufactures have flourished under such a system to an extent which has

constituted this country the workshop of the world, they have so

flourished in spite of the system; and, in its absence, left exposed to

free unrestricted competition from abroad, must inevitably have

progressed at a more gigantic rate of speed still. This is asserted to

be in the order of nature, but as nature is every where the same--as the

same broad features and first elements characterize all countries more

or less alike--we ask for examples, for one example only, of the

successful establishment and progress of any one unprotected industry.

The demand is surely limited, and reasonable enough. The mendacious

League, with the Brights and Cobdens of rude and riotous oratory, are

daily trumpeting it in the towns, and splitting the ears of rural

groundlings with the reiterated assertion that, of all others, the

cotton manufacture owes nothing to protection. What!--nothing? Were

general restrictive imposts on foreign manufactures no protection? Was

the virtually prohibited importation of the cotton fabrics of India no

boon? of India, root and branch sacrificed for the advancement of

Manchester? Why, there are people yet alive who can recollect the day

when Manchester cottons could not have stood one hour's competition with

the free, or even 100 per cent taxed fabrics of India.[40] How, indeed,

could competition have been possible, with the wages of weaving and

spinning in India at three-halfpence per day, whilst for equal

quantities and qualities of workmanship, the British weaver was earning

five shillings, and the spinner ten shillings per day on the average? In

1780, Mr Samuel Crompton, the ingenious inventor of the mule frame for

spinning, such as it exists to this day, and is the vast moving machine

of cotton manufacturing greatness, stated that he obtained _fourteen_

shillings per lb. for the spinning and preparation of No. 40 yarn,

twenty-five shillings for No. 60, and two guineas for No. 80. The same

descriptions of yarns are now profitably making at prices ranging from

about tenpence to twentypence per lb. At the same period common calicoes

were saleable at about two shillings per yard, which now may be

purchased for threepence. Will it be said that the Indian spinner and

weaver by hand could not, at the same epoch, have produced their wares

at one-half the price, had not importation, with unrelenting jealousy,

been interdicted? Was the rigid prohibition of the export of machinery

no concession, all exclusively and prodigiously in the interest of the

cotton manufacture, to the zealous promotion and ascendancy of which the

mining and agricultural interests are unhesitatingly, not to say

wantonly, prejudiced, if not absolutely perilled? We say wantonly,

because the free exportation of cotton yarn, tolerated at the same

moment, was an absurd and mischievous violation of the very principle on

which the prohibited exportation of machinery was alone and could be

justified. In face of these incontrovertible facts, of which hereafter,

and now that the record of them is consigned to that wide circulation

through the world which the pages of Blackwood only can afford,

misrepresentation remains without excuse on the question of that

fostering protection to which, in a larger degree, if not exclusively,

the cotton manufacture of Great Britain is indebted for its growth to

its present colossal, mammoth-like, and almost unwieldy grandeur. We do

not, however, whilst re-establishing facts in their purity, dream the

practical impossibility of confounding and disarming the ignorance of

men unfortunately so ill educated and unread, and with intellect so

incapable, apparently, of appreciating instruction, if not wilfully

perverse, as the Cobdens, or of restraining the less coarse but more

fluent flippancy and equally unscrupulous assurance of friend Bright,

from resort to that stock and stale weapon of vulgar minds which is so

readily drawn from the armoury of falsehood. To the end of the chapter

they will lie on, until doomsday arrive, and they sink, like the Henry

Hunts, _et id genus omne_, their at least as well-bred predecessors of

the popularity-hunting school, to their proper level in the cess-pool of

public contempt. Time, which executes justice upon all in the long run,

cannot fail to lay the ghost of cotton and anti-corn law imposture, even

in the troubled waters of the muddy Irk and Irwell, where first conjured

from. And now, having shown how the cotton manufacture of Great Britain

was from its birth cradled, rocked, and dandled into successful

progress; how it was fostered and fenced round with protection and

prohibitive legislation as against competition from abroad; we shall

proceed with our review of the rise and career of _protected_

manufactures in Russia. And we would counsel "one who has whistled at

the plough," whose "farming notes" in the _Morning Chronicle_, when

confined to such matters of practical detail as may be supposed to lie

within the scope of his own experience and comprehension, are not

destitute of interest and information, though with distorted and

exaggerated views, to ponder well before a next reiteration of the

random and absurd assertion that the "corn-law has done to agriculture

_what every law of protection has done for every trade that was ever

practised_--it has induced negligence, and, by its uncertain operation,

has obstructed enterprise." Instead of whistling at the plough, such a

writer almost deserves to be whipped at the cart's tail for so

preposterously dogmatic an assumption. It has yet to be demonstrated,

and the proof is challenged, that ever a great interest, whether

manufacturing or agricultural, was established in any part of the world,

since the creation, without the aids and appliances of legislative and

guernatorial patronage. The degree, the qualification the practical

limitations, which in the progress of time, with social and industrial

changes supervening at home and abroad, may be rendered expedient or

necessary in the application of the principle, constitute quite a

different question, which may be discussed and entertained without any

disparagement of the soundness of the policy, as best adapted to

existing circumstances, of the system when first applied. The theory of

free trade may be, in its entirety, as plausibly it is presented to us,

founded on just principle; the abstract truth and perfection of which

are just as unimpeachable as that of the social theory propounded by

Rousseau in the Savoyard's profession of faith, or that of the "liberty,

equality, and community of property" (to say nothing of women) theory

preached, and practically developed to some extent, in the paganish

philosophies and New Harmony vagaries of the St Simonians, the

Fourierians, and of Robert Owen, in these our days. And yet, from the

beginning of time--whether from the world before the flood, or since the

reconstruction of the world after--never, to this present epoch, has one

single example come down to us of the sober realization of either the

economical abstraction or the social abstraction. Primeval chaos, chaos

existing before all time, could alone have represented the _beau-ideal_

of each. So far indeed as their own demesnes and domains, Laban and

Pharaoh were not without their practical proficiency in the elements of

economical science--for the one knew how to sell his daughters, as the

other his corn, in the "dearest market;" and each to buy his labour and

his money at the "cheapest." And never will these free-trade and social

day-dreams be accomplished to the end of all time; never until chaos

come again; never, unless perchance the Fitzwilliams and the Phillipses,

impregnated with the beatific reveries of socialist Robert Owen, should

throw open, the one, Wentworth hall, with its splendid parks and

spacious domains--the other, his Manchester mills, wonder-working

machinery, and million of capital stock, to joint-stock occupancy, with

common right of possession of the rural labourers who till the ground,

and the urban operatives who ply the shuttle--the producers, in fact, of

all their wealth--share and share alike; themselves, in future,

undertaking the proportion of daily task-work; driving the "teams

afield," or tenting the mule-frame. Should, perhaps, the Phalansterial

system of Fourier preferably suit their taste, they will be entitled to

enter into the "phalanx of harmony," and share _à des degrés différents,

dans la répartition des trots facultés--capital, travail, talent_, ...

with the enjoyment of such an apartment in the Phalansterial "palace"

for four hundred families, the minimum of the phalanx being eighty,

which may compare with the quality of _répartition_ corresponding to

them, as expounded by Madame Gatti de Gamond, the principal legatee of

Fourier and his system.

[40] The cotton piece goods of India were still subject, in

1814, to a duty on importation equal to 85 per cent. This duty

was reduced on the 5th of July 1819, but to L.67, 10s. per cent

only. Finally, in 1825 the duty was again reduced to 10 per

cent, at which it remains. The duty on cotton yarn imported from

India was at the same time subject to a duty of 10d. per lb.,

and so remained till 1831 at least. It must be borne in mind,

that India was the only country in the world which, before and

during the rise of the cotton manufacture in Great Britain, was,

or could be, an exporter of cotton fabrics and yarns.

In the course of the discussions which terminated in the treaty of

commerce and navigation with Russia, laid before parliament on the

opening of the session--the stipulations of which, however, chiefly bore

upon the extension of certain reciprocal rights of navigation--the

Emperor Nicholas, in answer to representations pressed upon him from

this country, for a liberal extension of the same principle to the

general commerce of Russia, to foreign imports as well as shipping and

exports--to let in a glimmer of the free-trade principle, in

fact--replied, as we observed in a former article, that "the system,

such as it was, he had received from his predecessors, and it was found

to work well for the interests of his empire." The Autocrat, despot as

he may be, was not singular in the opinion; for even our esteemed friend

Count Valerian Krasinski, distinguished no less for the solidity of his

literary attainments than for the liberality of opinion and the

patriotism which condemns him to the penalty of exile in a "dear

country's cause," who therefore will not be suspected of undue bias in

favour of Russian systems, had written and published in an able article

on Russia, treating _inter alia_ of the rise and progress of her

manufactures and commerce, to the following effect:--"The manufacturers

of Russia commenced, as in other countries, with the beginning of its

political importance, but have been chiefly indebted for their

encouragement and progress to the efforts of the Government ... The

(protective) system has been steadily adhered to with constantly

increasing energy, and _the most brilliant success_, up to the present

time." This was published in 1842. We shall proceed to test the merits

of the case by reference to documents of official origin, Russian and

British--both to the latest dates to which made up in a sufficiently

complete shape for the object in view, and the former in some instances

later than any yet published in this country, and, as believed,

exclusively in our possession. We shall have to deal with masses of

figures; but to the general reader in search of truth, they can hardly

fail to be more acceptable than whole pages of allegations and

assumptions unsupported by proof, however eloquently worked out to

plausible conclusions.

We commence with laying the foundation for a comprehension of the

industrial progression of Russia, by a comparative statement of the

average imports of a few of the chief articles of consumption, raw

materials of manufacture, and manufactures, for two series, of three

years each; the first series being the earliest for which official

records can be cited, or were perhaps kept. Accidental circumstances,

and the special influences which, favourably or unfavourably, may act

upon particular years, producing at one time a feverish excess of

commercial movement, and at another, a reacting depression as unnatural,

are best corrected and balanced by taking averages of years. Thus, the

mean term of imports for 1793, 1794, and 1795, may be thus contrasted

with that for 1837, 1838, and 1839, of the following commodities:--

Annual imports, 1793-95 1837-9

Sugar, 341,356 poods 1,675,806 poods

Olive oil, 42,239 ib. 345,455 ib.

Machines and Instruments

of all kinds, for 111,300 silver rubles 1,025,264 silver rubles

Woollen cloths for 3,978,000 ib. 570,000 ib.

Raw cotton, 10,000 poods 315,000 ib.

Cotton-yarn, 50,000 ib. 600,000 ib.

Cotton fabrics for 2,600,000 silver rubles 3,866,000 ib.

During the first triennial period, a large proportion of the sugars

imported was in the refined state, the number of sugar refineries being

then very limited; in the second period, the imports consisted

exclusively of raw sugar for the numerous existing refining

establishments, which consumed besides 125,000 poods of beet-root sugar,

the produce of the beet-root works established in Southern Russia.

Woollen manufactories have so rapidly and extensively increased, that,

whereas, comparatively a few years past only, the manufacture of

woollens was confined almost exclusively to the coarser sorts for army

use, whilst the better qualities for the consumption of the more easy

classes, and for export to Asia, were imported from abroad, chiefly from

Great Britain; for the fifteen years preceding 1840 the case has been

completely altered. The import of foreign woollens has almost altogether

ceased for internal consumption in Russia, whilst no woollens but of

Russian make are now exported to Asia, and especially China. The export

of these home-made woollens figures far above two millions of rubles

yearly in the tables of Russian commerce with eastern countries. It will

be seen that while the imports of cotton yarn, in the space of forty-two

years, had increased in the proportion from 1 to 12 only, that of raw

cotton had advanced in the proportion from 1 to 32. The facts are

significant of the growing extension both of spinning factories and the

cotton manufactories. It is difficult to understand or credit the

increased imported values of cotton fabrics here represented, knowing,

as we do, the decreased export to Russia in our own tables of values and

quantities. But we shall have occasion hereafter, perhaps, to notice

some peculiarities in the Russian official system of valuations, which

may probably serve to clear up the ambiguity. But although importing

foreign cottons for internal consumption, Russia is moreover an exporter

of domestic fabrics, to the value of about one million of silver rubles,

on the side of Asia. In order to avoid as far as possible the

multiplication of figures by the accompanying reduction of the moneys

and weights of Russia into English quantities, it may be convenient to

state, that the silver ruble is equal to 37-1/2d. sterling, and, in

commercial reckoning, the pood answers to 36 lbs. avoirdupois.

Limiting our views for the present to the trade in cottons, as the

manufacture of cottons is of much more recent growth in Russia than

woollen and other manufactures, we find that the exact imports,

quantities, or values, of cotton and yarn, are thus quoted in Russian

official returns for the three last years to which made up _seriatim_.

1839. 1840. 1841.

Raw cotton, 354,832 398,189 314,000 poods.

Cotton yarn, 535,817 519,189 560,799 ...

The depressed state of the cotton trade in 1841 in this country, with

the very low prices of yarn, from consignments pushed, in consequence,

for sale at any rates against advances, were doubtless the cause of the

increased imports of yarn, and the decrease in raw cotton, exhibited in

the returns for 1841. Otherwise, the import of raw cotton has been

comparatively much more on the increase than cotton yarn for some years

past. Thus, beginning with 1822, when the cotton industry began more

rapidly to develope itself, but omitting the years just given, the

imports stood thus:--

1822. 1830. 1838.

Raw cotton, 55,838 116,314 326,707 poods

Cotton-yarn, 156,541 429,736 606,667 ib.

Now, it will not be denied that the cotton manufacture in this country

has enjoyed supereminent advantages over that of any other in the world,

whether we look at the protective scale of duties maintained for half a

century in its favour against foreign competition, or regard those

glorious inventions and improvements in machinery, of which rigorous

prohibitive laws against export, during the same period in force, long

secured it a strict, and, even to a more recent period, a _quasi_

monopoly, and gave it a start in the race, which seemed to leave all

chance of foreign concurrence, or equal ratio of progression, out of the

question altogether. Neither for spinning nor weaving could Russia, in

particular, possess any other than machinery of the rudest kind, with

hand labour, until perhaps subsequently to 1820. Her tariffs, even by

special treaty of commerce, in 1797, were entirely favourable to the

entrance and consumption of British fabrics. The prohibitory, or

Continental system of Bonaparte, was indeed substituted after the treaty

of Tilsit; but in 1816 a new tariff was promulgated, modifying the

"prohibiting system of our trade," as the Emperor Alexander, in his

ukase on the occasion, expressed it. By this tariff, cotton fabrics of

all kinds were taxed twenty-five per cent in value only; cotton yarn,

seven and a half copecs per cent; fine woollens, 1 ruble 25 copecs per

arschine; kerseymeres and blankets, twenty-five per cent on value;

flannels, camlets, druggets, cords, &c., fifteen per cent. How, then,

has Russia, subject to all these disadvantages and drawbacks, and so

late in the field, fared in comparison with this country, so long and so

far before her? Let us take the Russian data first given for the two

triennial periods, and ascertain the issue.

The mean annual imports of cotton taken for consumption into Great

Britain, deducting exports, may be thus stated in round numbers for the

two terms, 1793-4-5 and 1837-8-9.

Annual imports, 1793-5. 1837-9.

Raw cotton, 22,000,000 lbs. 391,830,000 lbs.

The ratio of progress of the manufacture, therefore, from one term to

the other, of the forty-four years, was not far from eighteenfold.

Reducing the quantities of cotton-yarn imported into Russia into the

state of raw cotton, by an allowance of about three ounces in the pound,

or nearly seven pounds per pood, for waste in the operations of

spinning, we have the following approximate results:--

Annual imports, 1793-5. 1837-9.

Raw cotton, 69,700 poods. 1027,500 poods.

The ratio of increase from term to term being thus the greater part of

fifteenfold.

But as the cotton manufacture, from circumstances referred to of

favourable tariffs for importation--comparatively free-trade

tariffs--did not begin fairly to shoot forth until 1822, it will be only

right to try the question of comparative increase by another list,

namely, as between the returns of the consumption of cotton respectively

in the two countries for that year, and one of the later years, 1839,

1840, or 1841; but say rather an average of the three. We are unable,

however, to strike a corresponding average three years forward from, but

inclusive of 1822, for want of the corresponding Russian official

returns for two of the years. On the other hand, to take the one year of

1839, when the quantity of cotton taken for consumption in this country

was at a low ebb, would be like straining for an effect, which the

impartial seeker after truth can have no object in doing, whilst the

return for 1840 would be as much in excess the other way. Thus the total

quantities of raw cotton taken for consumption in Great Britain were--

For the year 1822, 144,180,000 lbs.

Average of the three years 1839, 1840, 1841, 440,146,000 ib.

The ratio of progression in Great Britain, for the term of eighteen

years, was somewhat more than threefold.

The imports of raw cotton, and of cotton-yarn, rendered into cotton by

an allowance in addition, at the rate of about three ounces per lb. for

waste, or nearly seven pounds per pood, stand thus for Russia in round

numbers:--

For the year 1822, in the shape of raw cotton, 55,838 poods.

... ... Cotton yarn calculated into about 186,900

-------

Total cotton, 242,738

Average raw cotton imports of 1839-40-41 355,673

Id. of cotton yarn calculated into cotton, 643,300

-------

Total cotton, 998,973

The ratio of increase in the cotton manufacture of Russia, for the same

term of eighteen years, was therefore considerably more than fourfold.

And this steady but extraordinary superiority of Russian progression

took place in the face of all those prosperity years, when, from 1833 to

1838, the British cotton manufacture was stimulated, and bloated to

excess, with the high prices resulting from the flash bank-paper and

loan system of the United States, and the mad joint-stock banking freaks

of Lancashire.

The average import and consumption of raw cotton in Russia, and of yarn

calculated into cotton, was at the rate, on the average of the three

years cited, of about, 35,963,000 lbs. per annum;

Which approximates the position of the Russian with that of the cotton

manufacture of France as existing in the year 1818, when the consumption

of raw cotton is officially stated at, 16,974,159 kilogrammes;

And with that of the cotton manufacture of the United States in 1828,

when the quantity consumed at home was stated at about, 35,359,000 lbs.

It will still be insisted, doubtless, as all along it has never failed

to be the cuckoo-note of unreflecting theorists, that the manufactures

of Russia have flourished, and are flourishing, in spite of protection;

that the only effect of protection is to repress their growth and mar

their perfection. The assertion stands ready-made, and ever the stock on

hand; it is a rash and blindfold speculation upon chance and futurity,

at the best; a building without a corner stone; a _chateau-d'Espagne_

nowhere to be found. Where, except in the glowing fictions of

Scheherezade, may the personification of such a phantom be detected?

History, whether ancient or modern, may be ransacked in vain for one

footprint of the realised existence and miraculous economical prodigies

worked upon the absolute free-trade principle, in the spontaneous

creation, the progress unrivalled, the prosperity Pactolean, of

ingenious manufactures. The El-Dorado region has yet to be discovered;

will Cobden, like another Columbus in search of new worlds, adventure

upon the desperate enterprise, and furnish the writer of romance with

apt materials for the frights and freaks of another "phantom ship" on

the wide ocean? If so inclined, indeed, we may commend him to an

undertaking now, at this present writing, in actual progress, as we

learn from assured sources and high quarters, in Paris. A goodly ship of

substantial proportions is now preparing in a French port, richly

freighted for an interesting voyage with the products of French

industry, with destination for the great sea-river of the Amazons, for

navigating its thousands of miles of unploughed course, and exploring

those realms untold of, those interminable wastes recorded, and those

numberless nations as yet unknown, if existing, which coast the vast

expanse of its waters to the utmost limits of Brazil, and the very

confines of Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia. The King of the French is

himself the patron and promoter of this great enterprise. Hasten, then,

friend Cobden, erratic and chivalrous as Quixote of old, to "swell the

breezes and partake the gale" of an expedition so glorious; for know,

that on the banks of the noble Amazons itself, the magnificent

queen-river, most worthy in the world of such distinction, have poets,

romancers, and chroniclers, undoubting, from all time, sung of and

planted the resplendent empire of the El-Dorado itself.

Our design being to demonstrate, by the force of example and contrast,

the sophistical absurdity of absolute theories, that, however naturally

and harmoniously their parts may be made to correspond in thesis and

system as a whole, according to which the same consequences, upon a

given principle, should inevitably flow from certain causes, yet that,

practically, it is found the same causes do not produce the same

effects, even when circumstances are most analogous; that, for instance,

the protective, or restrictive system of industry, under the rule of

which Spain languishes, notwithstanding the abundant possession of the

first materials for the promotion of manufacturing, and the prosperity

of agricultural interests, proves, at the other extremity of Europe, the

spring of successful progress and industrial accumulation, and renders

Russia prosperous, though proportionally not more largely gifted with

those natural elements of wealth and production which consist in

fertility of soil, in mines of the precious metals, of coal, iron, &c.

We shall pursue our task to its completion before we proceed to draw and

sum up those conclusions which must follow from the premises

established, before we enter in order upon the analysis and dissection

of the one absolute principle or theory, by which, in the conceit of

certain sage travellers on the royal railroad to wisdom, eager for the

end and impatient of the toil of thinking, the economical destinies of

all nations should be cut, carved, and adjusted _secundum artem_, with

mathematical precision and uniformity, according to the rule invariable

of robber Procrustes, the ancient founder of the sect, who constructed a

bed--that is, a system of certain proportions of size--that is, upon a

certain principle--upon which he laid his victims; those found too short

to fit the dimensions of the pallet, he stretched and tortured into the

length required; those too long he fitted by decapitating the

superabundance of head and shoulders, or by squaring off the legs and

feet; just as economists would sever nations with their invariable

system; just as, with their selfish and one-sided, sordid idea, the

junta of Leaguers, rule and plummet in hand, would deal with the British

empire, with its vast possessions in every clime, on which the sun never

sets, peopled by races numerous and diverse of origin as of interests,

multifarious, complicated, often conflicting. "_L'etât_," said Louis le

Grand, "_c'est moi_." "The British empire"--bellows Syntax Cobden--"'tis

_me_ and printed calicoes." "The British government and

legislature"--exclaims Friend Bright--"'tis I and Rochdale flannel."

It is a strange, and, with our qualified and not exclusive opinions, not

less a discouraging complication of affairs with which we have to deal,

that, look among the great nations where we will, we find, to a great

extent, that the protective system of commerce, where in force, or where

it has superseded a _quasi_ free-trade system before in force, has

conduced, in no small degree, to the advancement of material interests.

The Germanic Customs' Union, that peculiar handicraft creation of Lord

Palmerston, is there to confirm the fact, no less than Russia, than

France, than Belgium, and other lands. The League themselves

ostentatiously proclaim it, whilst pretending to impugn the retention of

the very shadow of a shade of the same principle, for the country, above

all others, which has grown to greatness under it--the very breath of

whose nostrils it has been, during the struggles of infancy and progress

to that full-blown maturity, when assuredly it seeks, (and need seek

only,) willingly proffers, and readily accepts, equality of

condition--reciprocity of interchange, with all the world. "The

Manchester manufacturer"--the false _nom-de-guerre_ of a calico printer,

who was not a manufacturer at all, and could scarcely distinguish a

calico from a cambric at the time of writing, who erst was, is yet,

perchance, the trumpeter of Russian policy, Russian principles, and

Russian progress in the East and elsewhere--must be grateful for the

information we have already afforded on the full careering ascendency of

Russian material interests also. His gratitude will expand as he

accompanies these pages.

Peter the Great laid the foundations of Russian manufactures, as of the

Russian empire itself. He founded manufactories in all the larger

cities. But with his death they fell into decay until the reign of

Elizabeth. With that epoch began their revival, and the more rigorous

revival also of the prohibitory system. Their present imposing

appearance and magnitude date, however, from the peace of 1815, the

great parent and promoter of all continental manufactures. In 1812 no

more than 2,332 manufacturing establishments in the whole empire were in

existence, employing 119,000 work-people; in 1835 the number of the

former had reached to 6,015, and of the latter to 279,673, the half of

the free labourers. At the beginning of 1839, says the report of the

department of manufactures and internal commerce--the last which,

hitherto, has been made up or come to our hands--the number of factories

and manufactories had risen to 6,855, an increase over the year

preceding of 405, whilst the number of workmen employed in them was

412,931, an increase over the year before of 35,111. Thus, in the space

of three years, from 1835 to the end of 1838, 810 new establishments had

been organized, and the number of workmen augmented by one-half. These

industrial establishments were non-inclusive of mining works, iron

works, &c., and the people employed in them. They were classed as

follows:--

Woollen manufactories, 606

Silk ib. 227

Cotton ib. 467

Linen ib. 216

Tanneries, 1918

Tallow works, 554

Candle ib. 444

Soap ib. 270

Hardware ib. 486

The seat of Russian manufactures is principally in the central portion

of the empire, in its ancient capital Moscow, and the surrounding

provinces. The progress of Moscow itself may be thus briefly sketched,

after remarking that in the beginning of 1839 there existed in the

government, of which it was the capital city, 1058 manufactories,

employing 83,054 work-people. In the 315 manufactories of the

neighbouring province of Vladimir, 83,655 work-people were employed; in

the equally adjacent province of Kalouga, 164 manufactories gave work to

20,401 workmen. The population of Moscow, the Manchester of Russia,

amounted in 1825 to 241,514; in 1827 it had risen to 257,694; in 1830 to

305,631; in 1833 to 333,260; in 1840 to 347,224. The principal

manufactories were thus classed for the latter year.

Silk manufacture, 68 looms, 2217

Cotton ib. 139 ib. 7252

Woollen cloth ib. 51 ib. 2960

Other woollen stuff ib. 16 ib. 579

Shawl ib. 17 ib. 282

In thirteen of the chief factories there were 263 spinning machines;

three cotton factories alone contained 138. Besides these larger

establishments, 3122 workshops, not considerable enough to be ranked as

manufactories, employed alone 19,638 work-people; and 142 industrial

establishments, such as founderies, breweries, distilleries, tallow and

soap works, &c., gave bread to thousands more.

The consumption of the principal raw materials of manufacture is thus

stated as an average of that and recent preceding years.

Cotton for the twenty spinneries of Moscow, 100,000 poods per an.

Cotton yarn, 300,000 ...

Dyed cotton yarn 200 ...

Raw silk, 30,000 ...

Dye woods, 100,000 ...

Madder, 250,000 ...

The machinery for the manufactories is made for the most part in the

founderies and machine-works of Vladimir, Tamboff, Kalouga, and Riazan,

but, above all, in the city of Tula and the village of Parlovo. In

McCulloch's _Statistical Dictionary_, the number of steam-engines in the

government of Moscow is stated, for 1830, at about 100--in 1820, two

only being in existence. On what authority the statement is given does

not appear; our own documents, to 1841 inclusive, are silent on that

head. For Moscow, with its immediate environs, the total number and the

produce of the cotton looms are thus given:--

Cotton loom, 17,000

Producing annually, 450,000 pieces of calico

Do. 400,000 do. of nankeen

Do. above, 2,000,000 do. of handkerchiefs

In the whole, inclusive

of other goods, such as

muslins, velvets, &c., &c.,

equal to above, 40,000,000 arschines of fabrics

Valued at 7,500,000 silver rubles.

The arschine is about twenty-eight English inches. The silk manufacture,

of recent establishment only in Moscow, presented the following results,

for that city and the surrounding districts:--

Number of common looms, 10,000

Jacquard, more than 5,000

Producing annually, 15,000,000 arschines of st

Valued at 10,000,000 silver rubles.

The woollen manufactories of Moscow, inclusive of the environs, employed

apart smaller loom shops:--

Looms, 5,139

Producing yearly, 30,000 pieces of superior quality

Do. more than 50,000 do. ordinary for the army

And do. 700,000 arschines of light cloths for China.

The values not given. The imports of merchandise from Moscow by water,

of which alone exact and detailed particulars are stated, amounted in--

1837, to 22,881,000 rubles assignation

1838, 22,074,563 ...

1839, 17,467,391 ...

1840, 28,283,877 ...

Three and a half rubles assignation, are equal to one silver ruble.

Moscow enjoys the advantage of being an internal bonded port, or port of

intrepôt, a privilege now seeking by Manchester, so that importers of

foreign merchandise are not called upon for the payment of duties until

the moment when, withdrawing their imports, or any other portion of them

as occasion requires, the payment becomes necessary. Formerly the duties

had to be paid in the frontier ports, and often in bulk. The customhouse

revenue resulting, amounted in--

1837, to 637,074 rubles assignation

1838, 614,464 ...

1839, 626,764 ...

1840, 776,021 ...

1841, 898,398 ...

These returns are proof indisputable of industrial and social progress.

It is unnecessary further to remark upon the great and growing

importance of other branches of industry in Moscow, or to extend the

limits of this notice so far as to comprise a review of the iron and

hardware manufactories, and the numerous tanneries of Tula and Perm. The

active movement of internal commerce, may, however, be inferred from the

returns of products exhibited and sold at twelve fairs held annually,

with one thrice, and another twice, in the year, the total value of

which exposed for sale in 1840, was stated at 101,551,000 silver rubles,

and of the quantity actually sold at 64,326,700 rubles. Of which alone

at--

On Sale. Sold.

Nijny Novgorod, for 47,264,967 38,828,984 silver rubles

Irbit, 12,232,286 7,682,000 ...

Romna, 2d fair 9,001,904 4,454,747 ...

Kharkoff, 1st fair, 5,743,280 2,944,390 ...

Koursk, 7,014,802 2,014,834 ...

The great fair of Nijny Novgorod may rival with Leipzig in the magnitude

of its transactions. In 1841, the general movement of values at this

fair is thus returned:--

Merchandise for sale, 50,506,606 silver rubles, or 176,773,121 rbls. ass.

Sold, 41,704,236 ... 145,964,826 ...

By decree of the government, within the last three years, the public

accounts, before kept in rubles assignation, that is government paper

money, were ordered to be reckoned in silver rubles. For purposes of

comparison with former years, we state them in both. Of the mass of

commodities thus in motion at the fair, there were of Russian

manufactures and indigenous products, to the total value of 37,132,693

silver rubles exposed for sale, and for 29,762,473 sold; some other

chief articles ranging thus;--

For sale. Sold.

Cotton goods, 7,336,665 5,947,865 silver rubles.

Woollens, 3,448,295 2,620,175 ...

Linen and hempen fabrics, 3,126,736 2,375,736 ...

Silks, 3,220,489 2,239,989 ...

Leather, worked and not, 1,043,583 876,083 ...

Produce of mines and

founderies, iron, copper,

hardware, jewellery, 7,600,330 6,450,330 ...

Tea, for 7,107,500 rubles assignation, and other products of China, were

brought to the fair; raw cotton, cotton-yarn, shawls, silks, skins, &c.

from Persia and Asia, to the value of 29,796,819 roubles assignation,

and chiefly sold. Of the products of Western Europe, which make but a

miserable exhibit, the following are the chief:--

Woollen stuffs, for 256,455 silver rubles.

Cottons, 510,830 ...

Linens and hempen fabrics, 192,300 ...

Silks, 423,130 ...

Indigo, 918,000 ...

The growing magnitude of this fair will be appreciated by the following

returns of former years:--

Total commodities

for sale. Rubles assignation.

1829, 104,018,586 of which sold for 50,104,971 rbls. ass.

1831, 129,457,600 ... 98,329,520 ...

1833, 146,207,311 ... 117,210,670 ...

1835, 143,369,240 ... 117,743,340 ...

1837, 146,638,181 ... 125,507,881 ...

1838, 156,192,500 ... 129,234,500 ...

1839, 161,643,674 ... 137,100,774 ...

1840, 165,427,384 ... 135,901,454 ...

The convenience of these fairs for the purposes of interchange, both

between different industries and the populations of different provinces

of the same empire, and with contiguous countries from which so great an

affluence of merchants with their merchandise for exchange was

attracted, has induced the government to decree the establishment of

eleven new fairs in different towns, and fifty-nine others in as many

large villages, which, in growing size, may be already compared with

towns.

The internal commercial communications of Russia are chiefly carried on

by means of those innumerable rivers and canals, that network of natural

and artificial canals, by which she is intersected through all her

extent, and which, taking their rise in various central parts of the

empire, pursue their course singly, or falling into each other, and so

constituting mighty streams, to the White sea and the Baltic, or fall

into the Black sea and the Caspian. The total movement of this internal

navigation in all the rivers, presented the following results:--

Departures from the different ports

in the interior in 1839, 60,277 barques.

( do. 24,421 rafts.

Arrivals at ( do. 46,850 barques.

( do. 17,469 rafts.

They were the convoys of merchandise

dispatched from the ports

to the value of 737,814,276 rubles ass.

Of merchandise forwarded to do. 538,921,730 ...

In 1837 the values dispatched

from, ascended only to 618,990,306 ...

Do. forwarded to 490,505,940 ...

The various and many basins of river and water communication,

scientifically arranged, and showing how all parts of that vast empire

are connected with each other through all and nearly every portion of

its territorial extent, as in the report before us, is a document worthy

of study and more minute analysis, but our limits forbid.

The foreign commerce of Russia presents the following results for

1841:--

Exports to foreign countries, 86,382,179 silver rubles.

Imports from do. 79,429,490 ...

The Russian official tables include, under the head of foreign commerce,

the exports and imports with Finland and Poland; but as they fall within

the range, in reality, of internal commerce, the accounts are better

simplified by their exclusion. The system of separate returns results,

doubtless, from the political arrangements and conventions by which

Russia acquired the possession of those two countries.

The progress of exports and imports may be thus indicated:--

1838. 1839. 1840.

Exports, 85,718,930 94,857,788 82,731,386 silver rubles.

Imports, 69,693,824 69,993,589 76,726,490 ...

The remarkable excess of exports in 1839 resulted from the large demand

for, and shipments of, corn in that year--the official value of which is

stated at 25,217,027 silver rubles; the smallest export, so far as

value, being that of 1841, valued at 10,382,509 silver rubles only.

Exclusive of corn, the exports would stand thus:--

1838 for 70,562,252 silver rubles.

1839 69,640,761 ...

1840 68,704,971 ...

1841 75,999,670 ...

Gold and silver, in bars or specie, are not comprised in these returns.

For 1841 the values thus exported were, 4,023,728 silver rubles.

... ... ... imports, 9,347,867 ib.

It is necessary, however, to travel more backwards in order to a right

appreciation of the progress of the foreign trade of Russia. This

comparison is here instituted with earlier years, premising that the

exports to Poland and Finland, amounting to some ten or twelve millions

of rubles assignation, and imports from, amounting to about three

millions, are included, and therefore swell the amount of the imports

and exports of the following years. However, to facilitate the

comparison, the silver ruble values of 1841 are multiplied into

corresponding ruble assignation values:

Exportations. Importations. Balance in favour of

Russia.

In 1830 268,887,342 197,115,340 71,772,002 rb. as.

1836 283,748,233 237,251,204 13,733,196

1837 264,485,160 251,757,177 12,727,983

1841 302,337,626 378,003,215 24,334,411

Add 11,808,743 rubles assignation for exports to, and 4,792,346 imports

from, Poland and Finland in 1841, and the real comparison would be, for

1841, exports 314,146,349, imports 282,795,561; balance in favour of

1841, 31,350,688 rubles assignation.

The bulk of Russian exportations consists of raw or first materials,

such as flax, hemp, flax-seed, oil, tallow, leather, woad, metals, and

of which to the aggregate value in 1841, of 59,773,354 silver rubles was

exported; an amount nearly stationary as compared with the three

previous years. But the export of Russian manufactures, viz. woollens,

cottons, linens, candles, cordage, and cloths for China, had improved in

aggregate amount from,--

Silver Rubles.

In 1838, 6,527,222

To, in 1841, 10,259,209

It was the trade with China by Kiachta, and latterly also by the line of

Siberia, which, however, had perhaps taken the most remarkable

extension, and was held to be most promising of future progress and

profit. The imports, and therefore the consumption, of tea in Russia,

are growing annually larger; and the exports of Russian products and

manufactures to China, equally in proportion. For by mutual convention,

as dictated by China, for regulating the commercial intercourse between

the two countries strictly limited to that frontier river port, although

now indirectly countenanced by Siberia, the trade is exclusively one of

barter; tea and silks for leather, furs, cottons, woollens, and linens.

A condition, be it observed, which serves to place beyond all doubt the

fact, that it was not the introduction and consumption, with the

deterioration to the health of the population resulting, physically and

morally, from the use of opium, which had so much effect with the

celestial Emperor in provoking the late war with Great Britain, as the

abstraction by export in payment, and the drain so constant, of Sycee

silver. The imports of tea in--

Poods. Silver Rubles.

1838, By Kiachta, were, of good and

ordinary quality, 127,645 value 2,015,189

By the line of Siberia, 10 ... 600

-------- ---------

127,655 ... 2,015,789

-------- ---------

1841, By Kiachta, 168,218 ... 6,976,363

By the line of Siberia and

Caspian Sea, 1,364 ... 66,293

-------- ---------

169,582 ... 7,012,656

Besides which, the imports of an inferior tea, called _brick tea_,

amounted to the value of 359,223 silver rubles in 1841. In three years,

the general trade, China silks inclusive, had therefore more than

trebled so far as value; for it is remarkable, that though larger

quantities of tea are imported, yet prices, so far from declining, had

actually considerably advanced; which proves that the commodity was

becoming a favourite beverage, and gaining into more general

consumption, in Russia. The values of the Russian merchandise, such as

stated, which passed in barter, are said to have been equally sustained.

It may be noted, indeed, as an extraordinary fact, that whilst, as the

official report of the department of commerce observes, the prices and

values of almost all foreign raw products and manufactured wares

imported into Russia, during the three or four years preceding 1841, and

including 1841, entered constantly, and some at considerably depreciated

rates, in the reverse the products of Russia, exported to Europe and

elsewhere during the same period, quantity for quantity, generally

improved in prices and ascended in value.

The foreign commerce of Russia by sea was carried on, during the year

1841, by 2,596 vessels, inwards loaded, tonnage, 452,760

2,174 do. in ballast, do. 410,164

----- -------

Totals, 4,770 862,924

----- -------

4,582 do. outwards loaded, do. 819,232

312 do. do. in ballast, do. 58,046

----- -------

Totals, 4,894 877,278

In the coasting trade in the Northern seas, the number of vessels

dispatched from port to port was 2007, in the Black Sea, 5,275.

The revenue from customs in 1841 amounted to 27,387,494 silver rubles,

or upwards of two-fifths in excess of the receipts of 1830.

In order to exemplify the nature of the trade betwixt Great Britain and

Russia, and exhibit it in its most disadvantageous aspect, we shall add

here, from statements verified as authentic by competent authorities on

the spot, the returns of British trade and shipping with certain Russian

ports for 1842, which we have recently received direct. They will assist

us to a conception of the relative importance of each place in respect

of its commercial connexion with this country.

The commerce of the port of Archangel, omitting from the table Onega,

Kola, Kemi, and Soumsk, the other ports in the White Sea, their traffic

being inconsiderable, is thus represented.

1842.--Total shipping outward, 212, of which,

British, 153, tonnage, 31,704

Total imports, (exclusive of L.13,816

by Norway coasters,) L.18,384

Of which from Great Britain, L.801

Total exports, (omitting L.22,236 to Norway,) L.427,789

Of which to Great Britain, L.305,823

In 1841, 176 vessels exported for

Great Britain the value, L.408,077

Exclusive of cargoes by 2 other vessel, to the amount

of L.7,208, for the Hanse towns and Holland.

In 1840, 250 vessels, tonnage 48,249, exported to

Great Britain the value of L.442,381

Exclusive of 6 British vessels which carried cargoes to

the Hanse towns, France, and Italy,

of the aggregate value of L.12,858.

The commerce with Riga exhibits a somewhat more favourable proportion

between imports and exports, and we are induced, therefore, to give the

return of imports for 1842 in same detail as received.

Nature and value of merchandise imported into Riga from Great Britain

during the year 1842:--

Coffee, L.2,500 0 0

Cotton, 11,011 0 0

Cotton twist, L.21,159, 10s; do. goods, L.1135, 22,294 0 0

Woollen goods, 4,100 16 8

Woollen twist, 19,057 3 4

Indigo and other dyes, 13,764 0 0

Dye-woods, 2,718 6 8

Salt, 53,269 3 4

Sugar, 24,882 10 0

Wines and brandies, 19,200 13 4

Iron and steel wares, 7,025 0 0

Spices and drugs, 13,440 6 8

Non-enumerated articles, 12,527 10 0

-----------

Total, L.205,791 0 0

Countries from whence British vessels have arrived at the port of Riga

during the year 1842:--

No. of vessels. Tonnage. Remarks.

United Kingdom, 387 59,629 With cargoes and in ballast.

Hamburg, 6 1,261 In ballast.

Denmark, 21 3,730 ...

Norway, 13 2,438 ...

France, 5 670 ...

Belgium, 1 484 ...

Holland, 6 1,018 ...

Prussia, 4 562 ...

Sweden, 3 669 ...

--- ------

Total, 446 70,461

Total value of Countries to

exportations whence exported.

1842 exports. Tons. to Great Britain.

British vessels, 446 70,461 L.1,527,810 5 4 United Kingdom.

The commerce of Odessa represents a closer approximation still between

imports and exports; and they would perhaps nearly balance, but for the

large shipments of wheat to this country, which contribute to swell the

exports.

In 1842, 174 British ships entered, tonnage 44,428,

sailed 176 tonnage, L.44,929

Total value of imports by them, 185,870

Of which, from the United Kingdom, 184,370

The remainder by 64 British vessels entering from

Leghorn, Turkey,

Algiers, Amsterdam, mostly in ballast.

Total average of exports, 784,865

Of which, to the United Kingdom, 776,995

The remainder to the countries above named.

1841, Total imports by British ships, 147,950

Do. exports do. 590,570

1840, Total imports by British ships, 130,660

Do. exports do. 859,090

The commerce of St Petersburg is stated, for 1812, imports and exports

together, at the value of 97,795,415 silver rubles. And of 1147 foreign

vessels which left that port and Cronstadt with cargoes, more or less,

515 were British, of 117,793 tonnage--being a rather considerably less

number than in either 1840 or 1841.

The present is the proper occasion to remark upon and explain the system

of official valuation pursued in Russia, by which it will be observed

how the real value, both of imports and exports, is swelled, probably

with a view to the vain display of a greater commerce than is really

carried on. As the system is nearly the same for both imports and

exports, it cannot, of course, materially interfere with, or impeach the

accuracy of the general balance-sheet. It is desirable, however, that

the facts should be fairly represented, for the guidance of those who

may be in the habit of consulting and comparing the official documents

of different countries; and they will serve moreover to explain, in some

degree, the extraordinary discrepancies which have been found betwixt

the declared values of British products and manufactures exported to

Russia, as published in the Board of Trade tables, and the same exports

as exhibited in Russian customhouse returns.

In calculating the annual value of importations, it is the rule in the

Russian customhouses to add the duties paid on the entry of goods to

their original value. This practice in Russia, where the duties are so

high, swells the value of imports far beyond their true amount, and

gives a false and exaggerated view of them.

With respect to the exports, nearly the same practice exists. In

calculating their value, all the shipping charges are added to the cost

of the article; and we are informed by merchants resident in Russia,

that on comparing the annual Government statements of exports for their

establishments, they are found to correspond with the invoices forwarded

to their foreign correspondents, which, of course, include commission,

and all the expenses attendant on the shipping of the goods. The law

also requires that the shipper, on clearing merchandise for export

through the customhouse, should declare its value. With a view of

preserving uniformity, the Russian authorities, from time to time, fix a

standard price at which particular articles shall be valued for export

at the customhouse. To exemplify the evil of this system, it is

necessary only to mention that oats, for example, could lately be

purchased at a Baltic port at sixty silver rubles per last, while the

latest customhouse standard values them at eighty silver rubles per

last. This practice is no way injurious to the merchant, but only

unnaturally swells the tables of exports when annually made up by the

Russian Government. A shipper, therefore, of any of the articles

included in the Russian standard, is compelled to state a much greater

value at the customhouse than he furnishes to his foreign correspondent,

who, of course, only pays the market price of the article, with the

additional shipping expenses.

The difficulty, such as it is, might be obviated, were the masters of

British merchantmen compelled by law to submit their ship's papers, on

arrival and departure, to the British consuls at each port, who would

then be placed on the same footing with the consuls of other countries,

and be enabled to communicate much important statistical information to

their Government, of the opportunity for acquiring and transmitting

which they are now deprived.

Our review of Russian commerce and industry would be more incomplete

than it is, if we were to omit all notice of the vast mining wealth of

that empire. But our limits, already nearly reached, do not admit of

more than a passing reference. Suffice it, that in coal, both bituminous

and anthracite, in iron and other metals, and salt, constituting the raw

materials, Russia is rich enough for all her wants, and indeed supplies

the great bulk of those wants within herself, with to spare in some of

these products for her neighbours and other countries. Her mines are

annually increasing in productiveness and number, as enterprise is

extended and capital invested in them, and as domestic manufactures and

improving agriculture increasingly absorb their produce. The

treasure-yielding progress of her gold mines is one of the extraordinary

events of the age. The existence of gold in Siberia was scarcely

suspected till 1829. The first researches of adventuring individuals

were attended with no success. Feodot Popoff, one of the earliest,

succeeded at length in that year, when all others had abandoned the

undertaking as hopeless, in discovering traces, and procuring some

inconsiderable specimens, of gold--not in quantity, however, to repay

the working; and the doubts before existing seemed confirmed as to the

fruitlessness of further perseverance in the search. Major-General

Kovalevsky, of the engineers of mines, having been appointed governor of

Tomsk, renewed the attempt in 1830; and, at the close of that year, his

indefatigable labours, and more methodical plan of operations, were

rewarded with the discovery of a first considerable stratum of

auriferous sands, which was designated Yégorievsky, (St George.)

Adventurers flocked into the district forthwith, and in numbers, upon

the widespreading news; and excellently did renewed labours recompense

the zeal of the more fortunate; numerous were the discoveries of layers

of golden sands. In one of these, last year, a massive piece of native

gold, weighing 24-1/2 pounds Russian, (the Russian pound is about 1-1/2

oz. less than the English,) was discovered embedded in a fragment of

quartz, and is now deposited in the museum of the School of Mines at St

Petersburg. The yield of the Siberian mines has since been at the

following rate of progression--omitting the intermediate years for

brevity, although in every year there was an increase of quantity upon

the preceding:--

1830 5 poods, 32 lbs., 59-1/2 zdotnicks.

1832 21 --- 34 --- 68-3/4 ---

1834 65 --- 18 --- 90-3/8 ---

1836 105 --- 9 --- 41 ---

1838 193 --- 6 --- 47-1/2 ---

1840 255 --- 27 --- 26-3/8 ---

1842 631 --- 5 --- 21-1/4 ---

The total of the thirteen years has been 2093 poods, 38 lbs., 46 zd. The

pood, be it remembered, is equal to (rather more than) 36 lbs.

avoirdupois.

The total general yield of the older worked mines

of the Oural mountains for 1842, was, besides,

149 poods, 18 lbs., 58 zd.

And of platina, 53 -- 33 -- 67 --

On a rough estimation, the produce of all the gold, platina, and silver

from the silver mines, could not have amounted to less, perhaps, for the

year 1842, than three millions sterling.

According to the learned academician Köppen, of St Petersburg, in a

lengthened memoir upon the subject, the total population of Russia,

inclusive of Poland, Finland, and Trans-Caucasian provinces, ascended in

1839 to 65,000,000

Or of Russia Proper alone, 55,500,000

With an empire so gigantic, a population so large, however

disproportioned as compared with territory, and with resources so

incalculable, it must appear extraordinary that foreign commercial

relations are so limited. The total of exports and imports together for

1841, represents only, in round numbers, a commercial movement to the

value of 165,811,000 silver rubles, or in sterling, about L.25,907,300.

The matter which most concerns this country, is the very

disproportionate interest which results to its share in the export and

import trade of Russia. Taking the latest British returns of the value

of Russian products imported into England, for the Board of Trade tables

give quantities only, as we find them stated by Mr McGregor, the

indefatigable secretary of that board, for 1838, at L.6,977,396, or say,

in round numbers L.7,000,000

And British exports at the

declared value here of,

say, 1,700,000

-----------

There would appear to result

the very heavy difference

against the United

Kingdom of L.5,300,000

But bad as the case may be, it is not quite so bad as these figures

would represent. It must not be forgotten in this sort of calculation,

that shipping, freights, insurances, and commissions, represent property

quite as substantially in the commercial sense, as even Mr Cobden's

printed calicos, or friend Bright's flannel pieces. Now, we think it

might admit of proof, that as much as nine-tenths of all the produce

brought to this country from Russia, is so brought in British bottoms,

and so also of the exports to Russia; although in 1840, the last of the

Board of Trade tables containing such particulars, no more than 1629

British vessels, of 340,567 tonnage, against 296 foreign, of 79,152

tonnage, entered British ports from Russia--the proportions being much

the same outwards; but whether the foreign were all Russian vessels may

be doubted. Let us assume, however, that no more than three-fourths of

both imports and exports were so carried, and leaving three-fourths

British freights outwards to balance Russian one-fourth freights inwards

and outwards, let us in fairness estimate the worth of that freightage

in reduction of the enormous balance against us. As for Spain, in our

last Number, we took twenty per cent to cover all the freightage

charges, before indicated, on her commodities of less bulk though more

value in proportion, twenty-five per cent on the average will not be too

much, certainly, to cover those charges on the more bulky products of

Russia, more especially when the long, costly, and intricate navigation

of the Baltic, and the White and Black Seas, are taken into account. The

calculation will then stand thus:--

Imports from Russia, L.7,000,000

Deduct twenty-five per cent freightage, &c.

as British property and profit, 1,750,000

-----------

Real value of imports as on board in Russia, L.5,250,000

Declared value of ex-British exports to Russia,

L.1,700,000

Value of British freightage, &c., as above,

1,750,000

----------- L.3,450,000

-----------

Real approximative balance in favour of Russia, L.1,800,000

or say two millions, as the three-fourths produce of outward freight

would, perhaps, not quite compensate the one-fourth on inward and

outward cargoes to the Russian shipping. Even such a balance is

exclusively and unjustly large against a country which, like Great

Britain, is a consumer of Russian products to the extent of

seven-twelfths of the total exports of Russia to all the world. The

consequence is, that the rate of exchange is almost invariably against

this country. Lord Howick, indeed, most quixotically deals with adverse

exchanges; he disposes of them summarily, and in a style that must have

astonished the people on 'Change. This disciple and representative of Mr

Edward Gibbon Wakefield's economics in the House of Commons, as Lord

Durham was before his political disciple, and the victim of his schemes

colonial, thus decisively disposes of adverse exchanges in the

celebrated debate on Import Duties, taking Portugal for an example.

"A large increase of importations from Portugal would

necessarily be attended by a proportionate increase of our

export trade. Was it not clear that every merchant who imported

a pipe of wine would anticipate the bills drawn against him on

account of it, and that, whatever would be the increase in the

amount of imports, there would be a corresponding increase in

the amount of the bills drawn against us? How were our

merchants to provide for them? There would be no difficulty in

it, whether the trade of Portugal increased legally or

illegally. Suppose an increase of imports into Portugal, there

would be an immediate demand for bills to Portugal. _The

consequence would be, that if there was any other country from

which Portugal received more than it exported, the bill-brokers

would get bills from that country_, and our manufactures would

be sent there instead of to Portugal. Admit that you could not

find in any other country the means of discharging your debt by

importation of your manufactures, bills on Portugal should then

rise to a certain premium, and gold and silver would be sent to

discharge the debt. The gold and silver would come from some

other country, and the consequence would be that we should send

our manufactures, not to Portugal, but to South America; while

Portugal would be obliged to send the bullion to some other

country that it might carry on a smuggling trade with its

neighbour, Spain. It was impossible for the ingenuity of man to

point out any different result."

The "bill-brokers" will be greatly amused with the new line of business

chalked out for them, of "getting bills" from other countries when short

in this. There are two descriptions of "bill brokers," but the class

bearing that designation purely deal with domestic bills only. The other

class are known as "exchange brokers," because they meddle only with

foreign bills; but as to "getting bills" from abroad when bills are

wanting here, that trustworthy and respectable description of agents

certainly never dreams of such an occupation. Lord Howick would seem to

imagine that manufactories of bills existed specially abroad, and that

people could draw with as much nonchalance from Paris or from Hamburg,

upon Jack Nokes and Tom Styles at Amsterdam or Frankfort, as here Lord

Huntingtower accepted for his dear friend the Colonel values uncared

for, or as folks familiarly talk of valuing an Aldgate pump when an

accommodation bill is in question. May we venture to hint to the member

for commercial Sunderland, the _ex_ for Northumberland, that the

functions of "exchange brokers" extend no further than to ask A if he

has any bills to sell, and B if he is a buyer; whereupon he has only

further to learn what rate the one will purchase and the other sell at;

that knotty point arranged, the bargain is concluded, and he receives

his very small percentage. The operations are carried on every day, more

or less, but on Tuesdays and Fridays, being especially "post days" on

London 'Change, where Lord Howick any day may be initiated in the

mystery, if not punctilious about being unceremoniously elbowed and

jostled about.

In the principle of protection, we hold Russia to be perfectly in her

right and her interest; in the abuse of it, she damages herself.

Prohibition is not protection; restrictive duties equal to absolute

prohibition, like the 85 per cent prohibitory tax, formerly levied here

on Indian cotton fabrics, in favour of Lancashire, are not protection in

the legitimate sense. The late Emperor Alexander hit the true nail of

principle on the head when, in 1819, he reformed the Russian tariff on

the calculation of imposts ranging from fifteen to forty per cent. We

are, nevertheless, bound to say, that, even as protection is understood

in its exaggerated sense by the Autocrat, the system has worked well for

Russia, as indeed we have shown. She has accumulated wealth by that

system; she has secured by it the possession of a large proportion of

those precious metals, which are indispensable no less as the medium of

foreign exchanges and balances, than as the means by which, above all

other means, the operations of industry, and the employment of labour,

are facilitated at home. How would industry progress, and wages be

dispensed, if the master manufacturer could offer payment of wages only

in yards or pieces of cloth, the iron-master in ore, or the

land-proprietor in oxen, sheep, corn, hay, or cabbages? In respect of

commercial balances, that of Great Britain against Russia is liquidated

probably, to some extent, by the yearly balance resulting against Russia

in her dealings with Persia; for the policy of Russia is to favour the

commerce of Asia, whilst oppressing that with Europe, and Persia is

always indebted to Great Britain. She has, however, the game in her own

hands. Can we wonder that she plays it to her own advantage,

half-political, half-commercial? She knows as well as we feel keenly,

that the raw materials, in which she is so rich, are indispensable for

our use; she charges accordingly. The time may come when we shall be

more independent of her, and then, then only, she will conform to

altered circumstances. The able and distinguished diplomatist at her

court, Lord Stuart de Rothesay, who succeeded in the arduous task of

negotiating the recent treaty of navigation with that crafty Government,

is the man also who will not be slow to avail himself of any favourable

conjuncture for turning circumstances to account, and redressing the

adverse balance now against this country.

As before said, our intention, on this occasion, is not to dissect

principles or theories, but to present facts. We have still more in

store for the absolute theory men. But, in concluding, we may be allowed

to observe, that the causes why a restrictive and exclusive system does

answer for Russia, and, on the contrary, tends to the ruin of Spain, are

simply these:--The raw materials of Russia are indispensable for this

and other manufacturing countries, because cheaper and more abundant

than can be elsewhere procured, and the price of labour is low. The raw

products of Spain necessary for manufactures are, on the reverse, dear

priced; her products of luxury, even, are dear; her rates of labour are

higher than in this or any other country of Europe. Two shillings and

sixpence a-day, or fifteen shillings a-week; with, besides Sundays, a

hundred saints' days or holidays in the year, put her labour and produce

quite _hors de combat_ in the race of competition. A Spanish operative

would no more toil on a _dia de dos cruces_, (two saints on one day,)

than he would fast on a feast-day, with an odorous _olla podrida_ before

him on the table.

* * * * *

INDEX TO VOL. LIII.

[Transcriber's note: The page numbers refer to editions 327 to

332, published between January and June 1843, according to the

following table:

Edition 327, pages 1-140, dated January 1843,

328, 141-280, February,

329, 281-414, March,

330, 415-550, April,

331, 551-692, May,

332, 693-826, June.]

Aden, on the occupation of, 484.

Affghanistan, the war in, 17

review of the events in, 239

the evacuation of, 266.

Agriculture, the practice of, 415.

Akhbar Khan, murder of Macnaghten by, 257

defeat of, at Tazeen, 269.

Amalia, from the German of Schiller, 442.

Ammalát Bek, a tale, translated from the Russian,

Translator's preface, 281

Chap. I., 288

Chap. II., 296

Chap. III., 464

Chap. IV., 471

Chap. V., 478

Chap. VI., 568

Chap. VII., 573

Chap. VIII., 579

Chap. IX., 584

Chap. X., 746

Chap. XI., 750

Chap. XII., 752

Chap. XIII., 755

Chap. XIV. 759.

Anti-Corn Law League, failure of the, 6.

Antique at Paris, the, from Schiller, 312.

Antique, the, to the Northern Wanderer, 312.

Aristocracies of London life, the, 67

the aristocracy of fashion, 68

of power, 227

of talent, 386.

Arnold's lectures on history, review of, 141.

Astronomical works, from Schiller, 311.

Attorney's Clerk in the Monk's Hood, the, a review of Chatterton, 780.

Auckland, Lord, remarks on his policy in India, 18, 266.

Bailey, Mr, his Reply to an Article in Blackwood's Magazine,

on Berkeley's Theory of Vision, 762.

Ballads of Schiller, the, see Schiller.

Battle, the, from Schiller, 446.

Battle of the Blocks, the, 614.

Berkeley's Theory of Vision, further remarks on, 762.

Book of the Farm, review of the, 415.

Buckingham, the Duke of, his resignation, 5.

Burial march of Dundee, the, 537.

Burnes, Sir Alexander, murder of, 244.

Cabul, Eyre's Narrative of the Operations in, reviewed, 239.

Caleb Stukely, Part X. The Revulsion, 33

Part XI. Saints and Sinners, 213

Part XII. The Parsonage, 314

Part XIII. The Fugitive, 496

Part last, Tranquillity, 651.

Candia, the siege of, 718.

Capello, Bianca, history of, 554.

Chapters of Turkish History, No. IX,

Rise of the Kiuprili family siege of Candia, 718.

Chatterton's Poems, review of, 780.

Chief End of Man, the, from Schiller, 311.

China, state of our relations with, at the commencement of 1843, 19

justice of the war with, 20

future prospects of, 21.

Claverhouse's Burial March, a poem, 537.

Columbus, from Schiller, 312.

Commercial Policy in relation to Spain, review of, 673

In relation to Russia, 807.

Comte, Auguste, review of his Cours de Philosophie Positive, 397.

Corn-Law, Sir Robert Peel's alteration in the, defended, 5.

Correctness, from Schiller, 310.

Count Eberhard the Grumbler, from Schiller, 628.

Cromwell and Sir Oliver Cromwell, Imaginary conversation between, 209.

Cunningham's Life of Reynolds, strictures on, 596.

Curse of Glencoe, the, by B. Simmons, 121.

Death of Thomas Hamilton, Esq., 280.

Delta, the Lost Lamb, by, 395.

Disturbances in the manufacturing districts, the, 11.

Division of Ranks, the, from Schiller, 311.

Dream of Lord Nithsdale, the, by Charles Mackay, 83.

Dumas' Travels in Italy, review of, 552.

Dundee, the burial march of, 537.

East and South of Europe, the, 101.

Eberhard of Wurtemberg, from Schiller, 628.

El Empecinado, passage in the career of, 343.

Ellenborough, Lord, policy of, in India, 18

his policy with regard to Affghanistan, 266

his proclamation on evacuating the country, 276

defended against the charges of the Whigs, 539.

Elysium, from Schiller, 628.

Europe, the east and south of, 101.

Evacuation of Affghanistan, the, 266.

Expectation and Fulfilment, from Schiller, 439.

Eyre's narrative of the events in Cabul, review of, 239.

Fantasia to Laura, from Schiller, 638.

Favour of the moment, the, from Schiller, 438.

Fight with the dragon, the, from Schiller, 175.

Financial position of Great Britain at the close of 1842, 6.

Florence, sketches of, 561.

Flowers, from Schiller, 445.

Foreign affairs, aspect of, at the commencement of 1843, 15.

Fortune and Wisdom, from Schiller, 631.

Fortune-Favoured, the, from Schiller, 439.

Founding of the Bell, the, by Charles Mackay, 462.

Funeral phantasie, from Schiller, 626.

Genius, from Schiller, 310.

Gentility-mongering, on, 379.

Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield illustrated, review of, 771.

Good and the Beautiful, the, from Schiller, 309.

Great Britain at the commencement of 1843, 1

her position on the meeting of parliament, 5

financial state, 7

aspect of domestic affairs, 14

and of foreign relations, 15

state of her Indian empire, 18

and of affairs in China, 19.

Group in Tartarus, a, from Schiller, 627.

Hamilton, Thomas, Esq., death of, 280.

Hector and Andromache, from Schiller, 441.

History, Arnold's Lectures on, reviewed, 141.

Honour to Woman, from Schiller, 173.

Ideal, the, from Schiller, 433.

Ideal and the Actual Life, the, from Schiller, 435.

Ignacio Guerra and El Sangrador, a tale of civil war, 791.

Imaginary Conversations,

by Walter Savage Landor

between Tasso and Cornelia, 62

between Cromwell and Sir Oliver Cromwell, 209

between Sandt and Kotzebue, 338;

by Edward Quillinan

between W.S. Landor and Christopher North, 518.

Imitator, the, from Schiller, 310.

Income Tax, discussion on the, 7

remarks on, 8

causes which led to its imposition, 10.

Infanticide, the, from Schiller, 631.

Ireland, state of, at the commencement of 1843, 14.

Italy, Dumas' travels in, reviewed, 552.

Jeweller's Wife, the, a passage in the career of El Empecinado, 343.

Jove to Hercules, from Schiller, 311.

Khelat, occupation of, by the British, 274.

Khoord Cabul pass, retreat of the British through the, 262.

Kiuprili Family, rise of the, a chapter in Turkish history, 718.

Landor, Walter Savage, Imaginary Conversations by

between Tasso and Cornelia, 62

Cromwell and Sir Oliver Cromwell, 209

Sandt and Kotzebue, 338

lines by, 337

Imaginary conversation between, and Christopher North, 518.

Last of the Shepherds, the, Chap. I., 447

Chap. II., 449

Chap. III., 451

Chap. IV., 453

Chap. V., 455

Chap. VI., 458

Chap. VII., 460.

Lay of the Bell, the, from Schiller, 302.

Leap Year, a tale, Chap. I., 603

Chap. II., 606

Chap. III., 611.

Lesurques, or the victim of Judicial error, Chap. I., the four guests, 24

Chap. II., the four horsemen, 25

Chap. III., the robbery and murder, ib.

Chap. IV., the arrest, 26

Chap. V., the trial, 28

Chap. VI., the execution, 30

Chap. VII., the proofs, ib.

Chap. VIII., the way in which France rectifies an error, 32.

London, the world of, see World.

Londonderry, the Marquis of, review of his steam voyage

to Constantinople, &c., 101.

Lost Lamb, the, by Delta, 295.

Love's Triumph, from Schiller, 635.

Mackay, Charles, dream of Lord Nithsdale, by, 83

Founding of the Bell, by, 462.

Mackenzie, Captain, account of the murder of Macnaghten, by, 257.

Macnaghten, Sir William, description of the murder of, 257.

Maître-d'Armes, a passage in the life of a, 733.

Marlínski's Ammalát Bek, translation of, Chap. I., 288

Chap. II., 296

Chap. III., 464

Chap. IV., 471

Chap. V., 478

Chap. VI., 568

Chap. VII., 573

Chap. VIII., 579

Chap. IX., 584

Chap. X., 746

Chap. XI., 750

Chap. XII., 752

Chap. XIII., 755

Chap. XIV., 759.

Marston; or, the memoirs of a statesman. Part I., 693.

Martyr's Monologue, the, a poem, 125.

Master, the, from Schiller, 310.

Memorandums of a month's tour in Sicily--leaving Naples

steam boatiana, 799

churches, 802

visit to the gardens of the Duke of Serra di Falco, near Palermo, ib.

the Thunny fishery, 804

the fishmarket, 805.

Merchant, the, from Schiller, 312.

Might of Song, from Schiller, 172.

Monaco, sketch of the history of, 573.

Moralist, to a, from Schiller, 630.

Mulready's illustrations to the Vicar of Wakefield, review of, 771.

Music in England, state of, Part I., 127.

Mystery of reminiscence, the, from Schiller, 442.

Natural history of the salmon and sea-trout, the, 640.

Non-intrusion controversy, account of the, 352.

Nott, General, movements of, in Cabul, 270.

Occupation of Aden, on the, 484.

Opium question, the, 22.

Parr, natural history of the, 640

its identity with the salmon, 643.

Passage in the life of a Maître-d'Armes, 733.

Paul de Kockneyisms, by a Cockney, 366

a cit's soirée, 373.

Paving Question, the, 614.

Peel, Sir Robert, difficulties of his position

on his accession to power, 2

errors of his predecessors, 5

his alteration in the corn-law, 5

his financial policy, 7

his tariff, 11.

Philosophy of Dress, the, 230.

Poems and Ballads of Schiller. See Schiller.

Poetry, the dream of Lord Nithsdale, by Charles Mackay, 83

the curse of Glencoe, by B. Simmons, 121

the martyr's monologue, 125

the poems and ballads of Schiller, Part V., 166

Part VI., 302

Part VII., 433

Part VIII., 626

the young grey head, 202

lines by W.S. Landor, 337

the lost lamb, by Delta, 395

the founding of the bell, by Charles Mackay, 462

sonnet, on viewing my mother's picture, 495

the burial march of Dundee, 537

the vigil of Venus, 715.

Poetry of Life, the, from Schiller, 313.

Pollock, General, advance of, into Affghanistan, 269.

Poor-law, support of the, by the Conservatives, 14.

Practice of Agriculture, the, 415.

Pretenders to Fashion, on, 234.

Quillinan, Edward, imaginary conversation by,

between W.S. Landor and Christopher North, 518.

Retreat from Cabul, description of the, 261.

Reviews, Londonderry's steam voyage to Constantinople, 101

Reynolds's discourses, Part II., 181

conclusion, 589

Eyre's Cabul, 239

Auguste Comte's cours de philosophie positive, 397

Stephens' Book of the Farm, 415

Dumas' Travels in Italy, 552

Young and Shaw on Salmon and Sea-Trout, 640

The Vicar of Wakefield, illustrated by William Mulready, R.A., 771

Chatterton's poems, 780.

Reynolds, Sir Joshua, review of the discourses of, Part II., 181

conclusion, 589

defence of, against the aspersions of Allan Cunningham, 496.

Riots in the manufacturing districts, the, 13.

Rousseau, from Schiller, 631.

Rowley's Poems, review of, 780.

Rudolph of Hapsburg, from Schiller, 169.

Russia, commercial policy in reference to, 807.

Russian Literature, remarks on, 281.

Salmon, Natural History of the, 640.

Sandt and Kotzebue, imaginary conversation between,

by Walter Savage Landor, 338

Sangrador, El, and Ignacio Guerra, a tale of civil war, 791.

Schiller, the Poems and Ballads of, translated. No. V.

The victory-feast, 166

Rudolph of Hapsburg, 169

the words of error, 171

the words of belief, 172

the might of song, ib.

honour to woman, 173

the fight with the dragon, 175

No. VI. The lay of the bell, 302

votive tablets, 309

the good and the beautiful, ib.

to ----, 310

genius, ib.

correctness, ib.

the imitator, ib.

the master, ib.

to the mystic, ib.

astronomical works, 311

the division of ranks, ib.

theophany, ib.

the chief end of man, ib.

Ulysses, ib.

Jove to Hercules, ib.

the sower, 312

the merchant, ib.

Columbus, ib.

the antique to the northern wanderer, ib.

the antique at Paris, ib.

the poetry of life, 313

No. VII. The ideal, 433

the ideal and the actual life, 435

the favour of the moment, 438

expectation and fulfilment, 439

to the proselyte maker, ib.

value and worth, ib.

the fortune-favoured, ib.

Poems of the first period, introductory remarks on them, 441

Hector and Andromache, ib.

to Laura, the mystery of reminiscence, 442

to Laura, rapture, ib.

to Laura, playing, 444

flowers, 445

the battle, ib.

No. VIII. A funeral fantasie, 626

a group in Tartarus, 627

Elysium, 628

Count Eberhard, the grumbler, of Wurtemberg, ib.

to a moralist, 630

Rousseau, 631

fortune and favour, ib.

the infanticide, ib.

remarks on it, 634

the triumph of love, 635

fantasie to Laura, 638

to the spring, 639.

Scinde, occupation of, by the British, 273.

Sea-Trout, natural history of the, 640.

Shah Shoojah, death of, 266, _note_.

Shaw, Mr, on sea-trout and salmon, 640.

Shaw, Thomas B., translation of Ammalát Bek by,

introductory remarks, 281

Chap. I., 288

Chap. II., 296

Chap. III., 464

Chap. IV., 471

Chap. V., 478

Chap. VI., 568

Chap. VII., 573

Chap. VIII., 579

Chap. IX., 584

Chap. X., 746

Chap. XI., 750

Chap. XII., 752

Chap. XIII., 755

Chap. XIV., 759.

Shepherds, last of the, a tale, Chap. I., 447

Chap. II., 449

Chap. III., 451

Chap. IV., 453

Chap. V., 455

Chap. VI., 458

Chap. VII., 460.

Sicily, memorandum of a month's tour in, leaving Naples,

steam-boatiana, 799

churches, 802

visit to the garden of the Duke of Serra di Falco, near Palermo, ib.

the Thunny fishery, 804

the fishmarket, 805.

Siege of Candia, the, 718.

Simmons, B., the curse of Glencoe, by, 121.

Song of the bell, the, from Schiller, 302.

Sonnet, by the author of the Life of Burke, 495.

Sower, the, from Schiller, 312.

Spain, commercial policy of Great Britain towards, 673.

Spring, address to, from Schiller, 639.

Statesman, memoirs of a, see Marston.

Stephens' Book of the Farm, review of, 415.

Tale of a Tub, the, an additional chapter,

how Jack ran mad a second time, 352.

Tariff, reconstruction of the, difficulty of the task, 11.

Tasso and Cornelia, imaginary conversation between,

by Walter Savage Landor, 62.

Taste and Music in England, state of, Part. I., 127.

Theophany, from Schiller, 311.

Thunny fishery, the, 804.

To ----, from Schiller, 310.

To Laura, the mystery of reminiscence, from Schiller, 442.

To Laura, rapture, from Schiller, 443.

To Laura, playing, from Schiller, 444.

To a Moralist, from Schiller, 630.

To the Mystic, from Schiller, 310.

To the Proselyte-maker, from Schiller, 439.

To the Spring, from Schiller, 639.

Triumph of Love, the, from Schiller, 635.

Turkish History, chapters of; No. IX.

rise of the Kiuprili family siege of Candia, 718.

Two Hours of Mystery, a tale, Chap. I., 85

Chap. II., 89

Chap. III., 93.

Ulysses, from Schiller, 311.

Value and Worth, from Schiller, 439.

Vicar of Wakefield illustrated, review of, 771.

Victory Feast, the, from Schiller, 166.

Vigil of Venus, the, translated from the Latin, 715.

Votive Tablets, from Schiller, 309.

Whigs, the, and Lord Ellenborough, 539.

Wood Paving, remarks on, 614.

Words of Error, the, from Schiller, 171

and of belief, 172.

World of London, 2d series. Part I. Aristocracies of London life, 67

the aristocracy of fashion, 68

Part II. Concerning slow fellows, 225

the aristocracy of power, 227

the philosophy of dress, 230

pretenders to fashion, 234

Part III. Aristocracies of London life continued,

of gentility-mongering, 379

the aristocracy of talent, 386.

Young, Mr, on grilse and salmon, review of, 640.

Young grey head, the, a poem, 202.

* * * * *

END OF VOL. LIII.

* * * * *

_Edinburgh: Printed by Ballantyne and Hughes, Paul's Work._

* * * * *