the train caused” &c., should be: “The lateness of the arrival” &c. So:
“Excuse a letter to-day,” should be: “Excuse my not having written a
letter to-day.”
_In prose_ be careful to avoid zeugma, _i.e._, the application of a
word to two or more ideas, to only one of which it is really suitable.
_E.g._: “The landscape and the shoutings formed a strange _sight_.”
The great rule for figures of speech, especially for metaphors and
similes, is to use strictly appropriate language. Therefore, do
not say, “_Convey an impression_.” Say, “_Make_ [or _leave_] an
impression.” Do not say, “The _car_ of progress rolls onward, _gnashing
its teeth_ in its course.”
In metaphorical language the pronouns usually agree with the noun used
metaphorically, as if it were taken in its literal sense. _E.g._:
“The stone _which_ the builders rejected,” &c. Afterwards, however,
the pronouns may agree with the noun in its figurative sense. _E.g._:
“Behold I lay in Zion a chief corner-stone; and he that believeth on
_Him_,” &c.
Do not employ different forms and expressions for the same person or
thing, unless there is a peculiar appropriateness in each term or
expression. Only confusion results from speaking, within narrow limits,
of Columbus as “the Genoese navigator,” “the discoverer of America,” &c.
It is a bad fault, therefore, to repeat the meaning in terms but
slightly differing one from another. Thus, do not, in close connection,
use such synonyms as _all_, _universal_, _total_.
A new construction ought not to be introduced without sufficient cause.
_E.g._: “On horseback and on foot,” is preferable to, “On horseback and
walking;” “The dead and the living,” to, “The dead and those still on
the earth.”
Let each sentence have one, and only one, subject of thought. That is,
avoid mixed or confused sentences.
It is often a good thing to introduce each sentence of a paragraph by a
short connecting expression: _accordingly_, _therefore_, _so_, _then_.
[Such words as _but_, _and_, and other conjunctions generally used to
join clauses, may, for the sake of clearness, introduce a new sentence.]
Sometimes two important sentences may very effectively be united by a
short connective sentence, such as: “This was as follows,” “The result
was as expected.”
Often a good effect is produced by making a statement or by giving an
explanation twice: first, briefly, and then fully; or _vice versâ_.
The guiding principle in descriptive writing is to imagine we see,
actually before us, the thing to be described.
Except in scientific or other very precise writing, avoid the frequent
use of _technical_ terms. It savors of pedantry, as the meaning of
these terms is often unknown to the general reader. This “technical
slang” is commonly seen in newspaper accounts of sporting and musical
events. Why should _bowling_ be called “trundling the leather,” or
a _lacrosse ball_ the “rubber”? Why should the report of a concert
fairly bristle with “technique” and “timbre” and “genre” and “morceau”?
Perhaps it is to display the writer’s intimate knowledge of the subject.
WORDS OFTEN CONFUSED, SYNONYMS, OPPOSITES.
_Advantage, benefit._
_Advantage_ is “a state of forwardness or advance;” and the word is
applied rightly, therefore, to one person or thing in relation to
other persons or things. _Benefit_ is simply gain or profit, without
comparison of one person or thing with another. [Thus: “He possesses
an advantage over me,” is correct. “All derived advantage from it,” is
incorrect.]
_Also, likewise._
_Also_ is applied to things and qualities, and denotes mere addition.
_Likewise_ is applied to states of being or of action; and denotes
some agreement or connection between the ideas expressed in the words
it joins. [Thus: “He is a prince and _also_ a musician;” but: “He is a
poet and _likewise_ a musician.”]
_Ability, capacity._
_Ability_ is the power of doing something. _Capacity_ is the faculty
of receiving something [_e.g._: new ideas, great thoughts.] [So: “That
statesman has great ability;” “That pupil had wonderful capacity.”]
_Answer, reply._
_An answer_ is given to questions; _a reply_, to attacks and
accusations. [An answer to an answer may, however, be called a reply.]
_Amid [amidst], among._
_Amid or amidst_ is used generally when the surroundings are of a
different nature from the person or thing surrounded. _Among_, when
they are of the same nature. Again, _amid or amidst_ is generally
applied to quantity; _among_, to number. [So: “among friends;” “amidst
enemies;” “among thousands;” “amid the snow.”]
_Abandon, desert, forsake._
_Abandon_ and _desert_ generally imply something blame-worthy in the
one who abandons or deserts; _forsake_ does not. Again: _abandon and
forsake_ are used of persons and things, _desert_ is used of causes or
of persons, but not of things. [Thus: “The soldier deserted his post
of duty.” “The man abandoned his early friends.” “We forsook the dear
old homestead.”]
_Assist, aid._
_Assist_ implies mutuality of help; _aid_, not necessarily so. [“The
sufferers assisted one another.” “I aided him in his distress.”]
_Anger, wrath._
_Anger_ is inward feeling. _Wrath_ is inward feeling accompanied by
outward manifestations. [“The wrath of the elements.” “The anger of
the inmost soul.”]
_Accurate, exact._
_Accurate_ is aiming at, and therefore attaining to, correctness.
_Exact_ has not necessarily this implication of intention, and may be
used of accidental correctness. [“He was very honest and accurate in
his accounts.” “He was exact in that financial statement, but it was
by chance.”]
_Authentic, genuine_ (applied to books, writing, &c.).
_Authentic_ is that which gives a true account of the matters in
question. _Genuine_ is that which has been written or composed by the
person whose signature the book or paper bears. [“This is a genuine
letter of the great Captain’s; but it does not give an authentic
account of the voyage.”]
_Admittance, admission._
_Admittance_ is the right of entry; _admission_ is the actual entry.
[“The admittance fee was twenty-five cents.” “The burglar gained
admission to the house by a window.”]
_Allow and permit._
_Allow_ is the stronger of the two. [“I begged to to be allowed to go;
but I was refused.” “Permit me to show you to a seat.”]
_Appear, seem._
_Seem_ is confined to the mind; _appear_, to the senses. [“It seems to
me that you have made a mistake.” “That house appears white to me.”]
_Bountiful and plentiful._
_Bountiful_ is used of persons; _plentiful_, of things. [“The game was
plentiful.” “A bountiful giver.”]
_Bravery, courage, valor._
_Bravery_ is a natural quality; _courage_ and _valor_ are acquired
qualities; courage, in particular, being the result of reason.
_Bravery_ and _valor_ are confined to contests with living beings;
_courage_ is not. Again, _valor_ is not used of single combat, but
of war; _bravery_ and _courage_ may be used of single combat. [“The
natives showed great bravery.” “He bore his sufferings with undaunted
courage.” “His military career was one long record of valor.”]
_Beneficent, beneficence; benevolent, benevolence._
_Beneficent_ is used chiefly--if not entirely--of actions.
_Benevolent_ is used of both actions and feelings, chiefly of
feelings. The same thing may be said of most adjectives and
nouns having the endings _-ficent_ and _-ficence_ [facio, I
do] respectively, and _-volent_ and _-volence_ [volo, I will]
respectively; _e.g._: _munificent_, _malevolent_. [“He was naturally
very benevolent; but, owing to the circumstances of his life, he could
not shew any very great beneficence.” “He was a very munificent man,
continually giving away his money to the poor.”] The use of these
words should be confined to persons or personified things. It is
incorrect, therefore, to speak of a _munificent_ gift.
_Brevity, conciseness; brief, concise._
_Brevity_ is mere shortness. _Conciseness_ is shortness along with
condensation. [“His speech was very brief; for really there was
nothing to be said.” “Mr. H. is very concise in his speeches: they are
short, but full of matter.”]
_Continuous, continual._
Motion is _continuous_ when there are no interruptions. It is
_continual_ when there are interruptions. [“Life itself is
continuous.” “The demands upon ones purse are imperative and
continual.”]
_Character, reputation._
_Character_ is our real inner worth; _reputation_ is the world’s
opinion of our character. [“His reputation is bad; but, could we see
his real character, we should find him not so bad, after all.”]
_Conscious, aware._
_Conscious_ applies to the heart, the soul, the conscience: _i.e._, to
the moral and spiritual part of man. _Aware_ applies to the mind. [“He
was conscious of his sin.” “He was not aware that you saw him.”]
_Crime, sin, vice._
A _crime_ is an infraction of the law of a particular land or people.
_Sin_ is the violation of a religious law. This law may be common to
many lands or peoples. _Vice_ is a continual course of wrong-doing,
and is unaffected by country, religious belief, or state of life:
being a line of conduct harmful to the vicious man or to others.
[Smuggling is a crime; idleness is a sin, and, if long-continued, it
becomes a vice.]
_Courteous, polite [polished]._
_Courteous_ has reference chiefly to others; _polite or polished_, to
ourselves. The former is “objective;” the latter, “subjective.” [Thus:
“We met an old fisherman, who took us home and treated us with great
courtesy and kindness. Of course, he was not polished: in fact, he had
very little idea of politeness.”]
_Catalogue, list._
A _catalogue_ is a list accompanied by short explanations or notes.
“The list of the paintings was only a page and a half long; but the
complete catalogue--compiled later--occupied four pages.”
_Casual, accidental, fortuitous._
That is _casual_ which is unpremeditated. That is _fortuitous_ which
is “opposed to systematic design.” [_Fortuitous_ generally implies
a combination of events.] That is _accidental_ which interrupts
(generally unpleasantly) the ordinary course of events. [“Walking
carelessly along, I took a casual look at the prison window; and there
I beheld my friend.” “The accidental stopping of the coach saved him a
further explanation.” “The meeting was quite fortuitous: it would not
have taken place once in a thousand times.”]
_Compel, compulsion; coerce, coercion._
_Compel and compulsion_ generally imply the employment of physical
force. _Coerce and coercion_ do not, their meaning being almost always
confined to moral or mental pressure.
_Confess, acknowledge._
_Confess_, _confession_, imply that what is told was before unknown
to the person to whom the confession is made. _Acknowledge_,
_acknowledgment_, have no such implication. [“But what was their
surprise when the captain confessed that he himself was the murderer!”
“The monster, being accused of the crime, acknowledged his guilt.”]
_Conjecture, surmise._
_A surmise_ is founded on evidence; _a conjecture_, not necessarily
so. A _conjecture_, therefore, is generally of something visionary;
a _surmise_ of something practical. [“His conjecture, that the moon
is inhabited, is now discredited.” “After taking observations, he
surmised that the Indians contemplated an attack.”]
_Con- and Co-_ [in composite words].
_Con-_ is used before a consonant; _co-_, before a vowel. When,
however, the two parts are very distinct, _co-_ is preferred, before
even a consonant. A hyphen will, in such cases, generally be used.
[_Contemporary_, _coeval_, _co-partner_.]
_Complete, finished._
_Complete_ means lacking nothing. _Finished_ means done as far as was
intended. [“The house is finished for the winter; but still, much more
labor will be required to make it complete.”]
_Custom, habit, usage._
_Custom and usage_ apply to society; _habit_ applies to an individual.
Again, _usage_ implies long standing; _custom_, not necessarily so.
[“My _habit_ in Africa was to rise early. Early rising is a _custom_
of the country, sanctioned by immemorial _usage_.”]
_Discriminate, distinguish._
_Discriminate_ is used of small differences; _distinguish_, of great
differences. Again: _discriminate_ applies to several objects;
_distinguish_, to two. Further: _discriminate_ is generally used of
the mind; _distinguish_, of the senses. [“By the light of the lantern
he distinguished the bodies.” “He discriminated among the specimens,
which, to an unpractised eye, appeared all the same.”]
_Despotism, tyranny._
_Despotism_ exists by law or of right. _A tyranny_ exists in the face
of law and right. A _despotism_ may, therefore, be mild, as has often
been the case in history.
_Determine, resolve._
_Resolve_ is stronger than _determine_. [“I am resolved to die
rather than give up my Church.” “I am determined to get the book, if
possible.”]
_Directed, guided._
One is _directed_ by a person at a greater or less distance. One is
_guided_ by a person close at hand. [“Taking our hand, he guided
us through the forest.” “Standing on an eminence, he directed the
pilgrims to their various quarters, by a movement of the hand.”]
_Deduction, induction._
In reasoning, _deduction_ is proceeding from generals to particulars;
_induction_, from particulars to generals.
_Direct, address._
A letter is _directed_ to him who is to receive it; _addressed_,
to him who is to read it. A parcel, therefore, is _directed_, not
_addressed_.
_Drive, ride._
_Drive_ is to urge along; _ride_, to be borne along. This is the
distinction in America. [“Mr. Vanderbilt drove a beautiful span of
bays; his wife rode beside him.”] In Great Britain and Ireland,
_drive_ generally refers to vehicles (except busses, cabs, and other
public conveyances, with which its use is confined to the driver);
whilst _ride_ means to be carried upon the back of a horse, donkey,
&c. Thus: “I went out for a drive,” would not necessarily mean that
I myself held the reins. The American use of _drive and ride_ is,
however, more agreeable to reason and authority.
_Evidence, testimony._
_Evidence_ is that which produces proof. _Testimony_ is that which
is intended to produce proof, _i.e._, the giving of what may be
_evidence_. [“Much testimony was taken, but really there was little
evidence of even the commission of the crime.”]
_Epidemic, endemic._
_Epidemic_ is a disease brought upon or into a community from some
outside quarter. It is therefore unnatural to the locality. _Endemic_
is a disease natural to the community or locality. [“Yellow-fever,
which is epidemic at New York, is endemic in Cuba.”]
_Expense, cost; expensive, costly._
_Expense and expensive_ refer to the purchaser; _cost and costly_, to
the thing purchased. [“That vase is not too costly--for it is very
valuable; but it is too expensive for my limited means.”]
_Effect, consequence, result._
The _effect_ is that which immediately follows the cause. Then comes
the _consequence_, and after that the _result_. [“The effect of
wearing clothes is warmth; the consequence is the wearing out of the
clothes; the result is the purchase of new clothes.”]
_Eternal, everlasting._
_Eternal_: having neither beginning nor end; _everlasting_: having
beginning, but no end. [“Eternal Father, strong to save.” “The
everlasting hills.”]
_Etc. [etcetera], and so forth._
_Etc._ means, “and others of a different kind.” _And so forth_ means,
“and others of the same kind,” “in the same strain,” “and the like.”
[“He has sold his horses, cows, sheep, &c.” “The result is a train of
coughs, colds, consumption, and so forth.”] In dignified composition
the use of these expressions is to be avoided as much as possible. It
is incorrect to use _etc._, _&c._, _and so forth_, in instances like
the following: “Employ some such word as mountain, hill,” &c. [_Some
such_ renders &c. superfluous.]
_Ferment, foment._
_Ferment_ is to produce alcohol by fermentation. Hence _ferment_
is sometimes used figuratively with the intransitive force of “to
be in an excited state.” _Foment_ is to apply lotions to; hence,
figuratively, to animate or stir up. [“The revolutionary ingredients
seemed to be fermenting; the leaven of socialism seemed to be
working.” “He fomented the disturbance by appeals to the people.”]
_Faultless, blameless._
_Faultless_ is, free from defects as well as from evil or wickedness.
_Blameless_ is, free from evil or wickedness alone. [“His course of
life was blameless, although he made many errors in business matters.”
“His playing was faultless.”]
_Falsehood, falsity._
A _falsehood_ is a false or incorrect proposition. _Falsity_ is
the falseness or incorrectness of the proposition, apart from the
proposition itself. [“That statement is a falsehood. The falsity of
the assertions contained therein is obvious.”]
_Farther, further._
_Farther_ is used of rest; _further_, of motion. In a secondary sense
_further_ is generally preferred. [“Montreal is farther away than
Toronto.” “I throw the ball further than you.” “To speak further is
superfluous.”]
_Goodness, virtue._
_Goodness_ is innate; _virtue_, acquired. [“His goodness of heart
prompted the savage to give us food.” “His virtue was of slow growth:
at first he was a most degraded man.”]
_However, but, yet, still, notwithstanding, nevertheless, in spite of._
These words are in their proper gradation from weak to strong.
_Hidden, concealed, secret._
_Hidden and concealed_ imply intention; _secret_ does not. [“Hidden
here, concealed there, the officers found the stolen goods.” “Deep in
the earth he found the secret ore.”]
_Haste, hurry._
_Haste_ is quickness. _Hurry_ is quickness accompanied with confusion
or flurry. [“We are often in haste; we ought never to be in a hurry.”]
_Hindrance, obstacle, inpediment._
A _hindrance_ stops us at the beginning; an _obstacle_, in the
middle; an _inpediment_ retards us all the time. [“Our journey was
very unfortunate. The entrance of a visitor was a hindrance to our
departure; about a mile from the house we found in the road an
obstacle in the shape of a fallen tree; whilst the mass of baggage we
carried was a serious inpediment to our progress.”]
_Informed, instructed, taught._
One who is _informed_ knows something new; one who is _instructed_
understands something new; one who is _taught_ can do something new.
[“He was informed of the death of his father.” “He was instructed in
matters of trade.” “He was taught how to make sword-blades.”]
_To take issue, to join issue._
_To take issue_ is to object to the right of denial. _To join issue_
is to admit the right of denial, but to disagree as to facts. _Join
issue_ should, of course, never be used for _agree_. [“He wanted to
argue with me; but I at once took issue with him, alleging that his
position in the matter precluded any argument.” “He said yes; I said
no. Upon this we joined issue.”]
_Indecent, immodest._
_Indecent_ is used of the person; _immodest_, of the conduct or
disposition. [“The wearing of such clothes was simply indecent.” “His
general behaviour was quite immodest.”]
_Instant, moment._
An _instant_ is shorter than a _moment_. [“In a few moments--nay, in a
single instant--we may be ushered into eternity.”]
_Industrious, diligent; industry, diligence._
_Diligent_ and _diligence_ express the idea of thoroughly doing
whatever is at hand. _Industrious_ and _industry_ express the same
idea, and, in addition, imply a readiness or watchfulness for work.
[“He performed his task with diligence--just as a well-trained horse
does. He lacked, however, those habits of industry and thrift which
raised his brother to wealth.”]
_Import, meaning, sense._
_Import_ is the idea most readily conveyed. _Meaning_ is the idea
intended to be conveyed. _Sense_ is the way in which the expression
may be taken, or its general substance or spirit. [“He says the
meaning is so and so. His words may have that sense, but it is not
their obvious import.”]
_Illusion, delusion._
_Illusion_ is the imagining to be existent of something non-existent.
_Delusion_ is an incorrect idea about something really existent.
[“His chief illusion was that there were wild beasts in the room.”
“The delusion under which he labored was that paper currency is real
money, instead of its representative.”]
_In-_, _un-_ [prefixes].
_In-_ is the ordinary negative prefix to be used with nouns and
adjectives of Latin origin. _Un-_ is the negative prefix to be used:
(1) with words of Anglo-Saxon origin; (2) with verbs of Latin origin.
[Thus: _inhospitable_, _ingratitude_; _unclean_, _unauthorize_.] There
are, however, many exceptions; _e.g._: _uncomfortable_, _incapacitate_.
_Inexorable, inflexible._
_Inexorable_ is, not to be prevailed upon by entreaty; _inflexible_,
not to be bent at all. _Inflexible_ is therefore the stronger of the
two. [“We tried entreaties, but he was inexorable. Afterwards, we
tried money and threats; but he was still inflexible.”]
_Jar, pitcher, jug._
_A jar_ is a wide-mouthed vessel without a handle [“A jar of jam”].
_A pitcher_ is a wide-mouthed vessel with a protruding lip and a
large ear or handle. [“Please pass the milk-pitcher.”] _A jug_ is a
small-mouthed vessel with a swelling body and a small ear or handle
near the mouth. [“He brought a large jug of beer.”]
_Low-priced, cheap._
_Low-priced_ is that for which little has been paid. The thing may
however, really be dear. _Cheap_ is that the price of which is low,
its intrinsic worth being considered. [“The watch was by no means
low-priced; it cost, in fact, one hundred pounds; still, it was cheap
at that sum, for its action was perfect.”]
_Lazy, idle, slothful._
_Lazy_ describes the general disposition, and is the opposite to
_alert_ or _industrious_. _Idle_ refers to a particular time, place
or matter, and is the opposite to _busy_ or _occupied_. _Slothful_
or _indolent_ implies a hatred of exertion and a general slowness or
languor. The opposite to _slothfulness_ or _indolence_ is _activity_.
[“The boy was thoroughly lazy: he would neither work nor play.” “After
a hard day’s work, he was now enjoying a few minutes of idle repose.”
“Be not slothful in business.”]
_Laudable, praiseworthy._
_Laudable_ is used of things; _praiseworthy_, of persons. [“It is a
most laudable endeavour.” “He is a praiseworthy man.”]
_Last, latest._
_Last_ is used of place or order; _latest_, of time. [“His name
was last on the list.” “He was the latest to arrive.”] _Late_ is
often employed incorrectly for _last_. _E.g._: “The _late_ [_last_]
speaker.” #
_Leave, quit._
_Leave_ generally implies a return. _Quit_ generally implies no
return. [“He left me for a moment.” “He quitted me for ever.”]
_Malice, spite._
_Malice_ is used of conduct in general; _spite_, of individual acts.
[“He followed him for years with untiring malice.” “On this occasion
he certainly shewed spite towards his opponent.”]
_Marital, matrimonial._
_Marital_ means, pertaining to a husband; _matrimonial_, pertaining
to marriage. [“His marital rights were disregarded.” “Matrimonial
alliances between crowned heads are often matters of policy.”]
_Mistake, error._
A _mistake_ is not necessarily blameworthy. An _error_ is
blameworthy. [“That was a fortunate mistake.” “It was a downright
error on his part; for he had been warned again and again.”]
_Mute, dumb._
_Mute_ is used of one who _can_ speak, but who, through compulsion or
otherwise, will not. _Dumb_ is used of one who _cannot_ speak. So,
the expression, _a deaf-mute_, should be, _a deaf and dumb person_.
[“He was mute, in spite of all their threats: he would not betray his
friends.” “He was dumb, having uttered no articulate sound in his
whole life.”]
_Merely, simply._
_Merely_ implies no addition; _simply_, no admixture. [“They were
there merely to prevent bloodshed.” “It was simply incredible that he
should have so acted.”]
_Nearly, entirely, scarcely; almost, completely, hardly._