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[Transcriber's Note:
This text is intended for users whose text readers cannot use the "real"
(unicode/utf-8) version of the file. Characters that could not be fully
displayed have been "unpacked" and shown between braces:
[k.], [h.], [t.], [d.], [n.], [m.], [r.] (letters with dot under:
except [k.] and [h.], these are used only in Sanskrit words)
[.n] (n with dot over, in Sanskrit words)
[)a], [)e], [)u] (vowel with breve or "short" sign)
[-a] (a with macron or "long" sign)
In the section on Sanskrit origins, anusvara was printed as m with
tilde. It has been changed in this e-text to [m.] (m with dot under).
Note also that [´s] is written as ç, [s.] as sh, and [r.] as [r.]i.
Footnote 53 of the Introduction refers to "the peculiar vowel sound
represented in Arabic by the letter _ain_ ... denoted by the Greek rough
breathing". The reference is to the glottal stop. It is represented in
this Latin-1 e-text as the grave accent `.
In some sections, parts of words are italicized. These italics are shown
in {braces}; elsewhere, italics are shown conventionally with _lines_.
Errors are listed at the end of the e-text.]
* * * * *
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A
MANUAL OF THE MALAY LANGUAGE.
NEW WORKS ON
MALAY LANGUAGE
HANDBOOK OF THE MALAY LANGUAGE, for the Use of Tourists and Residents.
By KELLY and WALSH. Second Edition. 98 pages, 12mo, cloth. 1903.
3s. 6d. net. Printed in Roman characters only. It contains an
elementary grammar and an English-Malay vocabulary.
SPREEKT GIJ MALEISCH? Words and phrases in Dutch, Malay, French, German,
and English. By JZN. RIJNENBERG. Fourth Edition. 163 pages, oblong
8vo. 1901. 3s. 6d. net.
PRACTICAL MALAY GRAMMAR, with Reading and Translation Exercises. By
W. G. SHELLABEAR. 83 pages, 8vo, bound. 1899. 5s. net. All Malay words
are printed in Roman characters only.
MALAY-ENGLISH VOCABULARY, containing 6500 Malay words and phrases. By
W. G. SHELLABEAR. 141 pages, 8vo, cloth. 1902. 6s. net. Printed in
Roman characters only.
MALAY-ENGLISH DICTIONARY. By R. J. WILKINSON. 4to. 1901-3. Unbound,
£2, 10s.; bound, £3, 3s. The Malay words are printed in Arabic and
in Roman characters.
ENGLISH-MALAY VOCABULARY. By F. A. SWETTENHAM. Fifth Edition. 245 and
xxxii pages, 8vo, cloth. 1905. 8s. 6d. net.
MALAY-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. By F. A. SWETTENHAM. New edition in
preparation. *** Malay words printed both in Arabic and Roman
characters.
TRAVELLER'S MALAY PRONOUNCING HANDBOOK, for the Use of Travellers and
Newcomers to Singapore. Seventh Edition. 317 and xxvi pages, 12mo,
cloth. 1904. 5s.
_Printed in Roman characters only._
LONDON: KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRÜBNER, & CO. LTD.
Dryden House, Gerrard Street, W.
A MANUAL
of the
MALAY LANGUAGE.
with
+An Introductory Sketch of the
Sanskrit Element in Malay.+
by
WILLIAM EDWARD MAXWELL,
of the Inner Temple, Barrister-At-Law;
Assistant Resident, Perak, Malay Peninsula.
EIGHTH EDITION.
LONDON:
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRÜBNER, & CO. Ltd.
Dryden House, Gerrard Street, W.
1907
Je n'en refuis aulcune de phrases qui s'usent emmy les rues;
ceux qui veulent combattre l'usage par la grammaire se mocquent.
MONTAIGNE.
PREFACE.
The language which I have endeavoured to illustrate in the following
pages is the Malay of the British Settlements in the Straits of Malacca,
some knowledge of which I have had the opportunity of acquiring during
sixteen years' service in Penang, Province Wellesley, Malacca,
Singapore, and Perak.
Dialectical peculiarities are so abundant in Malay that it is impossible
to teach the colloquial language of the people without imparting to the
lesson the distinct marks of a particular locality. In parts of India it
is said proverbially that in every twelve _kos_ there is a variation in
the language,[1] and very much the same might be said of the Malay
Peninsula and adjacent islands. The construction of the language and the
general body of words remain, of course, the same, but in every state or
subdivision of a state there are peculiar words and expressions and
variations of accent and pronunciation which belong distinctively to it.
Words common in one district sound strangely in another, or, it may be,
they convey different meanings in the two places. Even words of such
constant occurrence as the personal pronouns "I" and "you" vary
according to locality. The Kedah accent is easily distinguished from
that of Patani, and that again from the speech of Trengganu and Pahang.
Certain expressions common in Penang are almost unintelligible in
Malacca and Singapore, and _vice versâ_. In Perak it is not difficult to
say whether a man comes from the upper or lower reaches of the river, by
merely noting particular words in his conversation. Even individual
villages and districts have their peculiar twang or their tricks of
expression not found elsewhere. In Java, Sumatra, and other islands
eastward in which Malay is spoken, the pronunciation and character of
the language are much influenced by the other languages current there.
Malay is only spoken in perfection in places where the natives speak no
other tongue.
[Footnote 1: Beames, Comparative Grammar of the Aryan Languages,
p. 101.]
Native pedantry has endeavoured to classify various styles of speaking,
as the court style (_bahasa dalam_), the well-bred style (_bahasa
bangsawan_), the trader's language (_bahasa dagang_), and the mixed
language (_bahasa kachau-kan_), but all that can be correctly said is,
that a limited number of words are used exclusively in intercourse with
royal personages; that persons of good birth and education, in the
Eastern Archipelago, as elsewhere, select their expressions more
carefully than the lower classes; and that the vocabulary of commerce
does not trouble itself with the graces of style and the copious use of
Arabic words which commend themselves to native writers.
The written language is more stilted and less terse and idiomatic than
the colloquial dialect; and even where pure Malay is employed, the
influence of Arabic compositions is very marked. Whole sentences,
sometimes, though clothed in excellent Malay, are unacknowledged
translations of Arabic phrases. This may be verified by any one well
acquainted with Malay literary compositions who will look into a really
good translation of an Arabic work; for instance, Lane's translation of
the "Thousand and One Nights." The Malay speaks much better than he
writes, and has at his command quantities of words which never find
their way into his literature, and, therefore, but rarely into
dictionaries compiled by Europeans.
The spelling of Malay words in the native character is hardly yet fixed,
though the Perso-Arabic alphabet has been in use since the thirteenth
century; and those follow but a vain shadow who seek to prescribe exact
modes of spelling words regarding which even native authorities are not
agreed, and of which the pronunciation may vary according to locality.
The experience of Crawfurd sufficiently proves this; there are words in
his dictionary which are transliterated in as many as four different
ways.
Two classes of works in his own language have hitherto been at the
service of the English student of Malay--grammars, more or less
scientifically arranged, and vocabularies and books of dialogues, which
presuppose some knowledge of grammatical construction.
The Malay Grammar of Marsden is an admirable work, of unquestionable
utility to the advanced student; but it contains more than the beginner
wants to know. Crawfurd's Malay Grammar, too, is hardly a work to put
into the hands of a beginner.
Mere vocabularies, on the other hand, teach nothing but words and
sentences, and throw no light upon forms of construction.
It has been my aim to supply a work which will be at once an elementary
grammar and a compendium of words and sentences, which will teach the
colloquial dialect and yet explain grammatical rules; and for this I
have taken as my model the Hindustani Manual of the late Professor
Forbes.
The language is not ennobled by having been the speech of men who have
made their mark in the world's history. The islands of Indonesia have
never startled the Eastern world with an Akbar, or charmed it with a
Hafiz or a Chand. Receptivity, not originality, is the characteristic of
the Malay races. But the importance of Malay, when the traveller heads
eastward from the Bay of Bengal, has been recognised by Europeans since
the sixteenth century, when Magellan's Malay interpreter was found to be
understood from one end of the Archipelago to the other. It is the
strong and growing language of an interesting people, and (in the words
of a recent writer on Eastern languages) "for Malay, as for Hindustani,
a magnificent future may be anticipated among the great speech-media of
Asia and of the world. They manifest that capacity for the absorption
and assimilation of foreign elements which we recognise as making
English the greatest vernacular that the world has ever seen."[2]
[Footnote 2: Cust, Modern Languages of the East Indies, 150.]
W. E. M.
THE RESIDENCY, LARUT, PERAK,
_July_ 1, 1881
INTRODUCTION.
The interest of Englishmen in the Malay language began with the early
ventures of the East India Company in the Far East, in the first years
of the seventeenth century. It was the language of commerce everywhere
east of the Bay of Bengal, and our earliest adventurers found it spoken
at the trading ports which they visited. The Portuguese had preceded
them by a century, and the Dutch had been a little earlier in the same
field. Our countrymen seem to have been indebted to the latter for their
first Malay vocabulary. The minutes of the East India Company record
how, on the 22d January 1614, "a book of dialogues, heretofore
translated into Latin by the Hollanders, and printed with the Malacca
tongue, Mr. Hakluyt having now turned the Latin into English, and
supposed very fit for the factors to learn, was ordered to be printed
before the departure of the ships."[1]
[Footnote 1: Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series, East
Indies, p. 272.]
At present the use of Malay, as far as Englishmen are concerned, is
chiefly confined to the officers of the Colonial Government in the
British possessions in the Straits of Malacca and in the native states
adjoining them, and to other residents in those parts, and in the Dutch
settlements in the East. To these may be added the English communities
of Labuan and Sarawak, and merchants, traders, and seamen all over the
Eastern Archipelago. The limited extent of our Malay possessions, when
they are compared with the magnificent islands which make up Netherlands
India, excuse us, no doubt, for the secondary place which we occupy in
all researches connected with the language and literature of the Malays.
To the Dutch their colonies in the Eastern seas are what our Indian
Empire is to us; and with them the study of Malay, Javanese, Kawi, &c.,
takes the place of Persian, Hindustani, Tamil, Sanskrit, &c., which
occupy our civilians in India. The extent and value of Dutch works on
Malay subjects is, however, but little known to Englishmen in the East,
owing to their general ignorance of the Dutch language. It is not too
much to say that any one aiming at a thorough knowledge of the language,
literature, and history of the Malay people should commence his task by
learning Dutch.
Malay is the language not of a nation, but of tribes and communities
widely scattered in the East, and is probably spoken with greatest
purity in the states of Kedah and Perak, on the west coast of the Malay
Peninsula. It is spoken in all the states of the Peninsula, in Sumatra,
Sunda, Java, Borneo, Celebes, Flores, Timor, and Timor Laut, the
Moluccas, and the Philippines. Traces of it are found among the numerous
Polynesian dialects, and in the language of the islanders of Formosa.
Siam proper has a large Malay population, descendants mainly of captives
taken in war, and the language is therefore in use there in places; it
is found also here and there on the coasts and rivers of Anam and
Cochin-China. No other language of the Eastern Archipelago is understood
over such an extensive area, and it is the common means of communication
between the numerous tribes and races of the Malay family whose
languages and dialects differ.
Logan supposes that the earliest inhabitants of the Archipelago were
tribes of Africo-Indian origin, who peopled the Eastern islands as well
as the more accessible portions of the Continent, descendants of whom he
recognises in the negro and quasi-negro tribes that are still preserved
in some of the mountains of the Malay Peninsula, Siam, and Anam. To
these succeeded immigrant tribes from Mid-Asia, by way of the Irawadi,
whom Logan designates by the term of the Tibeto-Anam family, all the
races and languages from Tibet to Anam being included under it. "By a
long-continued influx this family spread itself over the Peninsula,
Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Celebes; but its farther progress over the
many islands to the north and east appears to have been checked by the
older races. It was probably only by slow steps and by settling at many
points that it gained a firm footing even in the western islands, and a
long period must have elapsed before its tribes became so populous and
spread so far into the interior as to enable them to absorb and destroy
the earlier occupants."[2] The variety which exists among the languages
and dialects in the region affected by these movements is thus accounted
for by Logan:-- "The languages imported by the Tibeto-Anamese settlers
differed as did those of the natives, and the combinations formed in
different places from the contact of the two families varied in the
proportions of each which entered into them. But the structures of the
native tongues had strong affinities amongst themselves, and
predominated in all these new combinations."[3]
[Footnote 2: Journ. Ind. Arch., iv. 311.]
[Footnote 3: Idem, p. 315.]
The idea presented by this sketch of the origin of the aboriginal Malay
language is that of a mixed dialect, borrowing something from the
Tibeto-Anam languages (the influence of which would be more apparent in
the western settlements), and gradually approaching the Africo-Indian
forms farther east.[4] "Lastly," Logan supposes, "a later Indian
influence, belonging to a far more advanced civilisation, flowed in a
great stream into the Western Archipelago, and cut off that of the
Irawadi, before its linguistic operation had made much progress."[5] It
is to this epoch that we must ascribe the introduction of the Sanskrit
element into the Malay language.
[Footnote 4: Journ. Ind. Arch., v. p. 569.]
[Footnote 5: Idem.]
Malay is mainly dissyllabic, but there are not wanting evidences of a
former monosyllabic tendency. The syllable _bu_, _bun_, or _bung_, for
instance, occurs in a considerable number of words conveying an idea of
roundness:--
_Bu-lan_ the moon.
_Bu-lat_ round.
_Bu-ah_ fruit.
_Bu-yong_ a jar.
_Bu-tir_ a grain, globule.
_Bu-sar_ an arch.
_Bu-kit_ a hill.
_Bu-sut_ an anthill.
_Bun-tar_ round.
_Bun-ting_ pregnant.
_Bun-chit_ pot-bellied.
_Bun-tut._ the buttocks.
_Bun-toh_ a numeral affix implying rotundity
(cf. _lún_, Burmese), used with such
words as _chin-chin_, a ring; and _kail_,
a fishhook.
_Bung-kok_ hump-backed.
_Bung-kus_ a bundle.
Many others might be cited.[6]
[Footnote 6: These remarks do not, of course, affect foreign
words, such as _bumi_ and _bujang_ derived from the Sanskrit
_bhumi_ and _bhujangga_.]
Another characteristic list of words might be made, compounded with the
monosyllable _tang_ (which in Sakai and Semang means "_hand_"), and
conveying an idea of seizing or holding.
_Tang-an _ the hand.
_Tang-kap_ to seize.
_Tang-kei_ a stalk.
_Tang-gong_ to support.
_Tang-gal_ to drop off (having left hold).
_Tong-kat_ a walking-stick, &c.
The history of the Malay people is to be discovered in the language
itself, for no authentic records of pre-Muhammadan times exist. Just as
an insight into the early history of our own nation may be obtained by
analysing the component parts of the English tongue, and assigning to
each of the languages which have contributed to make it what it is their
due proportion of influence, so, by resolving the Malay language into
its separate elements, of which native, Sanskrit, and Arabic are the
chief, and by examining the words contributed by each, it is possible to
follow with some approach to historical accuracy the successive advances
which the Malay people have made on the path of civilisation.
The aboriginal dialect, prior to the admixture of Sanskrit, must have
been but the poor vocabulary of men hardly raised above savage life. The
purely native element in Malay furnishes all the necessary terms to
express the physical objects surrounding men leading a primitive life in
the forest, and all that has to do with their food, dwellings,
agriculture, fishing, hunting, and domestic affairs.
The use of a Sanskrit word for "plough" seems to record a revolution in
agriculture. The primitive cultivation of the Malays was carried on by
clearing and burning the hill-sides (a system still largely adopted in
native states where land is plentiful and timber valueless), and the
cultivation of the wet ricefields of the plains, which necessitates the
use of the plough, would thus seem to have been resorted to only after
the arrival of the Hindus.
As soon as the analysis reaches moral ideas, or objects requiring some
advance in civilisation, it is found that they are expressed by words of
foreign origin. These are, for the most part, Sanskrit or Arabic. The
latter require no notice here, for they are of comparatively recent
introduction. For the most part, they consist of terms incidental to the
ethical and religious teaching of the Muhammadans. The Arabic element in
Malay is not accurately determinable, for new expressions are constantly
being introduced.
A sketch of the Sanskrit element in Malay is all that there is space for
here.
A careful classification of the principal Sanskrit words which are found
in Malay helps to indicate what must have been the condition of society
when the Aryan came into contact with the islanders of Sumatra. It
shows, independently of other proof, that Hindu colonisation must have
gradually introduced the Malay races to institutions, ideas, pursuits,
and wants to which they had hitherto been strangers. Many of the
incidents of commerce, most of the metals and precious stones, the pomp
and ceremony of royalty, and the use of the elephant, are shown, by the
Sanskrit nomenclature employed in describing them, to be of Hindu
importation. From this it is not difficult to infer the primitive
condition of a people to whom all these things were unknown. So, the
Sanskrit names of many weapons indicate a period when the rude weapons
of savage Malay tribes--blowpipes, spears, &c.--were supplemented by
arms of a more formidable character, for which they were indebted to
India. Other groups of words show, independently of other proof, that
the Hindu religion was successfully planted among the Malays and
flourished for a time, and that the monarchical form of government was
introduced in Malay countries by Hindu settlers and rulers.
The word "rulers" is used advisedly, for the theory of Marsden as to the
manner of the introduction of Hinduism seems to possess greater claims
to general acceptance than that advocated by certain other writers,
notably Leyden and Crawfurd. Crawfurd asserted that the Sanskrit words
adopted in Malay came originally through the Hindu priesthood, and that
the priests through whom this was effected belonged to the Telugu race,
this, in his opinion, being the people who, commencing by trading with
the Malays, proceeded to partial settlement in their country, and ended
by converting them to Hinduism and introducing the language and
literature of the Hindus. He entirely discountenances the idea that
Sanskrit could have been introduced by a people of whom it was the
vernacular language.[7] He admits, however, that in Southern India
Sanskrit was itself a foreign tongue; that Sanskrit has found its way
into Javanese and Malay in a state of comparative purity, and not
intermixed with Telugu; and that there is no trace whatever of any
extensive settlement of the Telugus in the Malay Archipelago.
[Footnote 7: Crawfurd, Malay Grammar, Dissertation xxxix., xliii.]
Marsden's contention, on the other hand, points to Gujarat as the
quarter from which Hindu civilisation penetrated to the far East, and to
conquest as the mode in which the way was cleared for its
introduction.[8]
[Footnote 8: "Innovations of such magnitude, we shall venture to
say, could not have been produced otherwise than by the entire
domination and possession of these islands by some ancient Hindu
power, and by the continuance of its sway during several ages. Of
the period when this state of things existed we at present know
nothing, and judging of their principles of action by what we
witness in these days, we are at a loss to conceive under what
circumstances they could have exerted an influence in distant
countries of the nature here described. The spirit of foreign
conquest does not appear to have distinguished their character and
zeal, for the conversion of others to their own religious faith
seems to be incompatible with their tenets. We may, however, be
deceived by forming our opinion from the contemplation of modern
India, and should recollect that, previously to the Mohametan
irruptions into the upper provinces, which first took place about
the year 1000, and until the progressive subjugation of the
country by Persians and Moghuls, there existed several powerful
and opulent Hindu states of whose maritime relations we are
entirely ignorant at present, and can only cherish the hope of
future discoveries from the laudable spirit of research that
pervades and does so much honour to our Indian establishments."
--_Marsden, Malay Grammar_, xxxii.]
Before proceeding to classify some of the Sanskrit words which are found
in Malay, and to deduce any theories from their presence, it is
necessary, in order to avoid misconception, to notice several
difficulties which cannot be overlooked.
In the first place, it is not meant to be asserted that the Malays have
obtained all the words enumerated further on direct from the people of
India. All theories founded upon the presence of Sanskrit words in Malay
must apply with equal force to Javanese, which contains a larger
proportion of Sanskrit words than Malay. "Sanskrit words are found in
greatest purity in the Javanese, and next to it in the Malay, their
corruption increasing as we recede from Java and Sumatra."[9] It may be
assumed, therefore, that in addition to the influence which Hinduism
exerted among the Malays of Sumatra by means of direct intercourse with
India, there was also a second source from which the Malays derived a
great portion of their Hindu nomenclature, namely, the ancient Hindu
kingdoms of Java.[10]
[Footnote 9: Crawfurd. See also Marsden, Malay Grammar, xxxiii.]
[Footnote 10: "The Hindu religion and Sanskrit language were, in
all probability, earliest introduced in the western part of
Sumatra, the nearest part of the Archipelago to the continent of
India. Java, however, became eventually the favourite abode of
Hinduism, and its language the chief recipient of Sanskrit.
Through the Javanese and Malays Sanskrit appears to have been
disseminated over the rest of the Archipelago, and even to the
Philippine Islands. This is to be inferred from the greater number
of Sanskrit words in Javanese and Malay--especially in the first
of these--than in the other cultivated languages, from their
existing in greater purity in the Javanese and Malay, and from the
errors of these two languages, both as to sense and orthography,
having been copied by all the other tongues. An approximation to
the proportions of Sanskrit existing in some of the principal
languages will show that the amount constantly diminishes as we
recede from Java and Sumatra, until all vestiges of it disappear
in the dialects of Polynesia. In the ordinary written language of
Java the proportion is about 110 in 1000; in Malay, 50; in the
Sunda of Java, 40; in the Bugis, the principal language of
Celebes, 17; and in the Tagala, one of the principal languages of
the Philippines, about one and a half." --_Crawfurd, Malay
Grammar, Dissertation_ xlvii. _Sed quære_ as to the total absence
of Sanskrit in the Polynesian dialects. Ellis' "Polynesian
Researches," i. 116.]
These remarks may be illustrated by reference to the fourth column of
the lists of words which follow.
Again, some of the Sanskrit words in the following lists are synonyms
merely, there being native or Arabic words, or both, in common use to
express the same object.
In some instances, too, the words quoted are not often heard in the
colloquial dialect, but occur in books to which in many cases they have
been transplanted from Javanese romances.
All these circumstances seriously modify the possibility of drawing
general conclusions from an analysis of the body of Sanskrit vocables
found in Malay. The questions to be decided seem to be (1) whether it is
possible that such a mass of terms for common objects (for they are by
no means confined to words incident to the Hindu religion) could have
been imported into Malay by any means except by oral communication with
a Sanskrit-speaking people; (2) supposing that this could have been
effected through some later Indian dialect, itself largely tinged with
Sanskrit (as the Latin words in English came to us with the Norman
speech), what dialect was this? Telugu, as Crawfurd thinks, Gujarati, to
which Marsden inclines, or what?
It is in order to contribute to the settlement of such questions as
these that a classification of some of the Sanskrit terms in Malay has
been attempted in this Introduction.[11] It is hoped that the subject
may attract the attention of those more competent to deal with it, and
that the researches of Sanskrit scholars may facilitate a decision which
there is no pretension to pronounce here.
[Footnote 11: A selection of words only is given. There are
numbers of Sanskrit words in Malay which have no place in these
lists.]
The centre of Hindu influence in Malay states would seem to have been
the court. From the governing classes the use of Sanskrit expressions
would gradually spread among the people. To this day there are certain
Sanskrit words which are applied to royalty alone, there being native
equivalents when the non-privileged classes are intended. The words
_putra_ and _putrî_ afford an instance in point. Meaning simply "son"
and "daughter" in Sanskrit, they have, from the fact of Sanskrit
nomenclature having been affected at Malay courts, come to mean
"_prince_" and "_princess_," and are applied only to the sons and
daughters of rajas.
At the chief seats of Hindu government, there must have been Brahmans
conversant with the sacred writings, whose teaching would gradually be
the means of introducing a taste for Hindu learning and literature.
_Bacha_, to read (from _bach_, to speak), is Sanskrit, but _tulis_, to
write, is a native word,[12] and _surat_, a writing, is Arabic.
Language, therefore, in this instance does not throw much light on the
progress made by the Malays in the art of writing in the pre-Muhammadan
stage of their history. Rock-inscriptions found in Province Wellesley
and Singapore prove, however, that at some remote period an ancient
Indian character was known on the Peninsula,[13] though it was probably
confined to religious purposes.
[Footnote 12: Unless the Sansk. root _likh_, to write, may be
detected in the second syllable.]
[Footnote 13: Journal Royal As. Soc., Bengal, vi. 680; xvii. part
i. 154 and 232; Idem, part ii. 62, 66.]
Crawfurd, writing in 1852, stated that Malay can be written or spoken
without the least difficulty, without a word of Sanskrit or Arabic, and
described the foreign elements in Malay as "extrinsic and
unessential."[14] But several words of the first necessity are Sanskrit.
It would be difficult to speak Malay intelligibly, while avoiding the
use of the relative pronouns _yang_ (Sansk. _yas_, _ya_, _yat_, who,
which) and _mana_ (Sansk. _mâna_, measure), or of the common auxiliary
_sudah_ (Sansk. _çuddha_,[15] pure, acquitted), which denotes the past
tense. A long list might be made of common words not included in any of
the following groups, which are almost pure Sanskrit, such as _bawa_, to
bring (_vaha_, bearing, carrying); _kata_, to say (_kath_, to tell,
talk); _biasa_, accustomed (_abhyâsa_, reflection); _langkah_, to step,
stride (_langh_, to stride over); _kelahi_, to fight (_kalaha_,
quarrel); and _niala_, to blaze, to burn (_jval_). Nor is the influence
of Sanskrit in Malay confined to words which have been adopted in
comparative purity. An extension of the sphere of research reveals whole
groups of Malay words which seem to be formed from some Sanskrit root,
and to retain to some extent its signification. Thus the Sanskrit root
_ju_ (to push on, impel) may perhaps be detected in such words as
_juwang_, to rush against; _jungur_, prominent, a beak; _jungang_,
prominent (of teeth); _juring_, sharp, pointed; _jurus_, to pull,
course, direction; _juluk_, to thrust upwards; _julir_, a kind of
harpoon; _julur_, to wag, to wriggle; &c.
[Footnote 14: Malay Grammar, Dissertation vi.]
[Footnote 15: This is the derivation given in Favre's Dictionary.
Another from _so[d.]ha_, (borne, undergone) might perhaps be
suggested with equal probability.]
_Ap_ is a common termination of Malay words, e.g., _tangkap_, to seize;
_chakap_, to speak; _silap_, to mistake, &c. The presence of the
Sanskrit root _âp_ (to attain, obtain) is not indeed to be assumed in
every case, but it is difficult to resist the conviction that it does
form a part of many Malay derivations. D{ap}at, to obtain; r{ap}at, to
approach; as{ap}, smoke (cf. vy{âp}ta); aw{ap}, steam; tangk{ap}, to
seize, grasp; a{lap}(Jav.), to take; are instances which, among others,
might be cited.
_Gal_ (Sansk., to drop, to distil, percolate, to fall) is another root
which seems to enter into the composition of Malay words, _e.g._,
tang{gal}, to fall off, to drop out; ting{gal}, to leave, forsake;
tung{gal}, solitary; pang{gal}, to chop off, a portion chopped off.
Compare also _gali_, to dig; teng{gal}am, to sink; tu{gal}, to sow rice
by putting seeds into holes made with a sharp stick; {gal}ah, a pole;
{gal}a-{gal}a, pitch.
If it be correct to assign a Sanskrit origin to all or any of these
words, they belong to a much earlier epoch than the comparatively pure
Sanskrit words, the importation of which into Malay is the subject now
under discussion.
The presence of Sanskrit words in the Malay language was first remarked
by Sir William Jones,[16] and the subject received more attention at the
hands of Marsden, who gives a short list of fifteen words, "taken, with
little pains in the selection, from a Malayan dictionary."[17] Many of
the Sanskrit words are, as Marsden observes, "such as the progress of
civilisation must soon have rendered necessary, being frequently
expressive of the feelings of the mind, or denoting those ordinary modes
of thought which result from the social habits of mankind, or from the
evils that tend to interrupt them." This assertion might have been put
in more forcible terms had it occurred to the author to include not only
words expressive of thought and feelings, but even some signifying
natural objects, though doubtless most of these are expressed by
aboriginal words. _Hari_, day, is clearly identical with the Sanskrit
_hari_, "the sun," which is also used as a name of Vishnu or Krishna.
_Mata-hari_, the sun (Malay), is thus "the eye of Hari," and is a
compound formed of the native word _mata_ and the Sanskrit _hari_.
_Halilintar_, a thunderbolt, seems to be compounded similarly of _hari_
and _lontar_ (to hurl), "hurled by Hari." Here the _r_ has been softened
into _l_. The Sanskrit _kapala_ has almost entirely superseded the use
of the old native word _ulu_ or _hulu_, the head; the latter, however,
is found in composition with a Sanskrit word in the substantive
_hulubalang_, a war-chief, from _hulu_, head, and _bala_, an army.
[Footnote 16: Asiatic Researches, iii. 11, 12.]
[Footnote 17: On the Traces of the Hindu Language and Literature
extant among the Malays, As. Res. iv. See also, On the Languages
and Literature of the Indo-Chinese Nations, Leyden, As. Res. x.]
The extent to which the Malays are indebted to Sanskrit for words to
express the human body and members is shown in the following list:--
|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages[18]
|The body
| |salîra
| | |çarîra
| | | |J. _sarira_; Bat. _sorira_.
|Limb, member, body
| |anggûta
| | |angga
| | | |J. _ongga_.
|Form, appearance
| |rûpa
| | |rûpa
| | | |J., S., Bat., Mak., and Bu. _rupa_.
|Joint
| |sendi
| | |sa[m.]dhi
| | | |S. _sandi_; D. _sandik_, bound; Tag. and Bis. _sandig_,
| | | |unite.
|Head
| |kapâla
| | |kapâla (the skull)
| | | |J., S., D., Mak. _kapala_, chief; Bat. _kapala_, thick.
|Tongue
| |lîdah
| | |lih (to lick), lîdha (licked)
| | | |J. _lidah_; Bat. _dila_; Mak. and Bu. _lila_; D. _jela_;
| | | |Tag. and Bis. _dila_.
|Pulse
| |nâdî
| | |nâ[d.]î (artery, vein, intestine)
|Shoulder
| |bâhû
| | |bâhu (the arm)
| | | |J. _bahu_; S. and D. _baha_.
|Hair of the body
| |rôma
| | |roman
|Foot
| |pâda
| | |pâda
| | | |Kw. _pada_.
[Footnote 18: The words in this column have been taken from the
Malay and French Dictionary of the Abbé Favre. J. signifies
Javanese, S. Sundanese, Bat. Battak, Mak. Makassar, Bu. Bugis, D.
Dayak, Bis. Bisaya, Tag. Tagala, and Malg. Malagasi.]
Time and its division and measurement have supplied a number of Sanskrit
terms to the Malay language, most of which are so necessary in everyday
life that it is difficult to conceive the poverty of a dialect which
contained no words to express them. The following list contains the
greater number of them:--
|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|Time
| |kâla, kâli
| | |kâla
| | | |J. and S. _kala_.
|When
| |tatkâla
| | |tad (this) kâla
|Time, period
| |katika
| | |ghatikâ (a division of time)
| | | |Bat. _katika_; D. _katika_.
|Time, period, hour
| |dewâsa
| | |divasa (a day)
| | | |J. _diwasa_, adult; Mak. _rewusa_.
|Just now
| |tâdî
| | |tad (this, that)
| | | |S. _tadi_.
|Day
| |hârî
| | |hari (the sun)
| | | |J. and B. _hari_.
|Day
| |dîna
| | |dina
| | | |J. _dina_.
|Dawn
| |dînahârî
| | |from dina and hari
|Evening, sunset
| |senja, or senja- kala
| | |sa[m.]dhyâ (twilight)
| | | |Bat. _sonja_; J. _chandik-kala_, evg. twilight.
|Always
| |santîasa
| | |nityaças
| | | |J. _nityasa_.
|Old, former
| |sadîa
|Former time
| |sadîa-kâla
| | |sâdhya (from sâdh, to finish, accomplish)
|Continually
| |sada-kâla
| | |sâda (perishing)
|Time (when)
| |bîla
| | |velâ
|Time, season, period
| |mâsa
| | |mâsa (month)
| | | |J. and S. _mangsa_; Tag. _masa_.
Another group of Sanskrit words found in Malay is that comprising
articles of commerce, weights and measures, &c. Their presence suffices
without other evidence to show that for their knowledge of the
commercial value of many products the East Indian islanders were
indebted to traders from Hindustan, who, indeed, probably introduced not
only the names of, but the use of, their weights and measures. _Buah
pala_, the Malay phrase for the "nutmeg," is in strictness a pleonasm,
for _phala_ signifies "fruit" in Sanskrit, as _buah_ does in Malay.
TERMS OF COMMERCE.
|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|Nutmeg
| |pâla
| | |phala (fruit)
| | | |J. and S. _pala_.
|Clove
| |lawang
| | |lava[m.]ga
|Eagle-wood
| |g[)a]hârû
| | |aguru
| | | |J., S., and Mak. _garu_; D. _garo_, perfume.
|Camphor
| |kâpur, kâpur bârus
| | |karpûra
| | | |J., S., and D. _kapur-barus_; Mak. _kaporo barusu_
|Sandalwood
| |chandâna
| | |chandana
| | | |J. and S. _chendana_; Tag. and Bis. _sandana_
|Musk
| |kastûrî
| | |kastûrî
| | | |J. and S. _kasturi_; Mak. _kasaturi_; Tag, and Bis.
| | | |_kastoli_.
|Charcoal
| |ârang
| | |a[.n]gâra
| | | |J. and S. _areng_; S. _arang_; Bat. _agong_; D. _aring_;
| | | |Tag. and Bis. _oling_.
|Sugar
| |gûla
| | |gu[d.]a (molasses)
| | | |J., S., and D. _gula_; Mak. _golla_.
|Saltpetre
| |sandâwa
| | |saindhava (rocksalt)
| | | |J. _sendawa_; S. _chindawa_.
|Silk
| |sûtra
| | |sûtra (thread, fibre)
| | | |J. and S. _sutra_; Bat. _suntora_; Mak; and Bu. _sutara_;
| | | |Tag. _sutla_.
|Cotton
| |kâpas
| | |karpâsa
| | | |J., S., and D. _kapas_ Bat. _hapas_; Mak. _kapasa_;
| | | |Bis. _gapas_.
|Gunny-bag
| |gônî
| | |go[n.]i
| | | |S. _goné_
|Price
| |harga
| | |argha
| | | |S. and Bat. _harga_; J. and D. _rega_; Mak. _angga_;
| | | |Tag. and Bis. _halaga_.
|Profit
| |lâba
| | |lâbha
| | | |Kw., Bat., Mak., and D. _laba_; Tag. and Bis. _laba_,
| | | |increase, usury.
|Scales for weighing
| |narâcha
| | |nârâchî (a gold smith's scales)
| | | |Kw. _naracha_; J. and S. _traju_
|A bhar (native weight = 3 pikuls)
| |b[)a]hâra
| | |bhâra (a load, a weight)
| | | |Kw. and Mak. _bara_ 100 millions: Bis. _bala_, to load
| | | |on the back.
|A cubit
| |hasta
| | |hasta
| | | |J. and S. _asta_.
|A number, figure
| |ângka
| | |a[.n]ka (a mark, a cipher)
| | | |J. _ongka_; S., Mak., Bu., and D. _angka_.
|Ten thousand
| |laksa
| | |laksha (100,000)
| | | |J. _leksa_; S., D., Tag. and Bis. _laksa_; Bat. _loksa_;
| | | |Mak., _lassa_.
|A million
| |jûta
| | |ayuta (10,000)
| | | |J. and S. _yuta_.
Many of the metals and most of the precious stones are known to the
Malays by their Sanskrit names, even those which are found in Malay
countries.
|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|Gold
| |âmas, mas
| | |mas (to mete, to measure)
| | | |J. _emas_; S. _mas_; Bat. _omas_; D. _amas_; Tag. and Bis.
| | | |_amas_, gold, weight.
|Gold
| |kanchâna
| | |kânchana
| | | |Kw. and S. _kanchana_.
|Copper
| |tambâga
| | |tâmra
| | | |J. _tembaga_; S. _tambaga_; Bat. _tombaga_;
| | | |Mak. _tambaga_; Tag. and Bis. _tumbaga_.
|Tin
| |tîmah
| | |tîvra
| | | |J., S., and D. _timah_; Bat. _simbora_; Mak. _timbera_;
| | | |Tag. and Bis. _tingga_.
|Quicksilver
| |râsa
| | |rasa
| | | |J., S., Mak., and D. _rasa_.
|Pinchbeck
| |suwâsa
| | |suvarchasa (brilliant)
| | | |J., S., Bat., and Mak. _suwasa._
|Glass
| |kâcha
| | |kâcha
| | | |J., S., Mak., and Bu. _kacha_; D. _kacha_; and _kasa_;
| | | |Tag. _kasa_, blue and green stone.
|Mica
| |âbrak[19]
| | |abhra (amber, talc)
|Crystal
| |golega
| | |golaka (globule)
|Jewel, precious stone
| |mânî
| | |ma[n.]i
| | | |J. _mani_.
| |mânikam
| | |ma[n.]ika
| | | |Kw. and S. _manikem_; Mak. _manikang_.
| |kamâla
| | |kamala (lotus)
| | | |Kw. _kuma`a_; Bat. _humala_, snake-stone.
|Sapphire
| |nîlam (nîla, blue)
| | |nîla (blue)
| | | |J. and S. _nila_; Mak. _nyila_, blue.
|Opal
| |bidûri
| | |vidûra (a mountain which produces lapis lazuli)
|Ruby
| |dalîma
| | |dâlima (pomegranate)
|Jewel, brilliant
| |mustîka
| | |mushtika (goldsmith)
|Topaze
| |pusparâgam
| | |pushparâga
|Pearl
| |mutia, mutiara
| | |muktâ
|Jewel, precious stone
| |permâta
| | |paramata (excellence)
| | | |Kw. _pramati_, a very beautiful object.
|Jewels of five kinds
| |panchalôgam
| | |panchaloha (five metals)
[Footnote 19: Favre derives _abrak_ from the Arabic.]
The implements, utensils, instruments, &c., the names of which, if not
the things themselves, the Malay races have borrowed from their Indian
conquerors and rulers, are as follows:--
|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|A lock
| |kunchî
| | |kunchikâ (a key)
| | | |J., S., and D. _kunchi_; Bat. _hunsi_; Mak. _konchi._
|A bell
| |ganta
| | |gha[n.][t.]â
| | | |J. and S. _genta_; Bat. _gonta_; D. _ganta_;
| | | |Mak. _garaganta_.
|A water vessel
| |kindî
| | |ku[n.][d.]î
| | | |J. and S. _kendi_.
|A net
| |jâla
| | |jâla
| | | |J., S., Bat., Mak., and D. _jala_.
|A box
| |petî
| | |pe[t.]î (basket, bag)
| | | |S. _peti_; Mak. _patti_; D. _pati_.
|Name of a sword
| |chora
| | |kshura (a razor)
|A plough
| |tanggâla
| | |hala
| | | |Bat. _tinggala_; Mak. _nangkala_.
|Chess
| |châtur
| | |chatur (four)
| | | |J. and S. _chatur_.
|Dice
| |jûdî
| | |dyûta (game at dice)
| | | |J. _judi_; Bat. _juji_.
|A saw
| |gargâjî
| | |krakacha
| | | |J. _graji_; S. _gergaji_; Bat. and Mak. _garagaji_.
|An awl
| |jâra
| | |ârâ
| | | |J. and S. _jara_.
|A coffin
| |karanda
| | |karanda (basket)
| | | |Bat. _hurondo_.
|Royal umbrella
| |chatrâ
| | |chhattra
|Salver with a pedestal
| |charâna
| | |chara[n.]a (a foot)
| | | |S. _charana_; Bat. _sarano_; D. _sarana_.
|A wheel
| |jantrâ
| | |yantra (an engine or machine)
| | | |J. _jontra_; S. _jantra_.
|Chariot
| |râta
| | |ratha
| | | |J. _rata_.
|Lyre, lute
| |kechâpî
| | |kachchhapi
| | | |S. _kachapi_; Bat. _husapi_; D. _kasapi_.
|Flute
| |bangsî
| | |vançî
|Pipe, flute
| |mûri
| | |muralî
The terms of adulation common in India in the mouths of inferiors
addressing superiors have no equivalents in Malay. It is noticeable,
however, that some of the most ordinary Malay phrases of politeness are
Sanskrit. _Tâbek_ (J. and S. _tabé_; Bat. _santabi_; Mak. _tabeya_; D.
_tabi_; Tag. and Bis. _tabi_; Tag. _santabi_, to show respect), which
corresponds to the Indian _salaam_ in communications between Europeans
and Malays, means properly "pardon," and is derived from the Sanskrit
_kshantavya_, excusable; _sîla_, to sit cross-legged[20] (the respectful
attitude indoors), is the Sanskrit _çîl_, to meditate, to worship; and
_sîla_, a Malay term of politeness, which in some respects answers to
our "if you please," but which also means "to invite," has its origin in
the Sanskrit word _çîla_, good conduct, moral practice. The same
language, too, supplies a considerable number of words denoting family
and relationship:--
|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|Father
| |âyah
| | |vayas (prime of life)
| | | |J. _ayah_, grandson; S. _aya_; Mak. _aya_, mother.
|Brother
| |sûdâra
| | |sodarya
| | | |J. _saudara_.
|Husband
| |swâmî
| | |svâmin
|Wife
| |istrî
| | |strî (a woman)
| | | |J. _estri_; S. _istri_.
|Virgin
| |ânak dâra
| | |dâra (wife), adâra (unmarried)
| | | |Kw. _dara_; J. _lara_; Bat. _dara_; Mak. _rara_;
| | | |S. _dara_, a young woman who has just got her first child.
|Relationship
| |pangkat
| | |pa[.n]kti (a line, row)
|Race
| |bangsa
| | |va[m.]ça
| | | |J. _wongsa_; S., Bat., and D. _bangsa_; Mak. _bansa_.
|Family
| |kulawarga
| | |kula (family), varga (class)
| | | |J. _kulawarga_.
|Do.
| |kulawangsa
| | |va[m.]ça
[Footnote 20: J., S., and Tag. _sila_; S. _silah_, to invite; Bat.
_sila_, a gift of welcome.]
The few astronomical terms known to the Malays have been borrowed either
from Sanskrit or Arabic, the former supplying the following:--
|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|Eclipse
| |grahana
| | |graha[n.]a
| | | |J. _grahana_.
|Firmament
| |udara
| | |adhara (lower)
|Celestial sphere
| |chakrawâla
| | |chakra-vâla (horizon; a range of mountains supposed to
| | | |encircle the earth and to be the limit of light and
| | | |darkness)
|Atmosphere
| |bumantâra
| | |_cf._ dyumantara (brilliancy)
| | | |Kw. _bomantara_; J. _jumantara_.
|The heavens, æther
| |angkasa
| | |âkâça
| | | |Kw. and S. _akasa_.
|The milky-way
| |bîmasaktî
| | |bhîma (terrible), çakti (strength, power)
| | | |S. _bimasakti_; J. _bimasakti_, the name of a star
|Pleiades
| |kertîka
| | |k[r.]ittikâ (the third of the lunar mansions)
|The sign Cancer in the Zodiac
| |mangkâra
| | |makara
| | | |J. _mangkara_, crab.
|Astrology
| |panchalîma
| | |panchan (five)
To these may be added _Râhû_ (Sansk. _Râhu_, a deity to whom eclipses
are ascribed) and _Kedû_ (Sansk. _Ketu_, the mythological name of the
descending node, represented as a headless demon), monsters who are
supposed by the Malays to cause eclipses by swallowing the moon. To
denote the points of the compass the Malays have native, Sanskrit,
and Arabic terms. Utâra (_uttara_),[21] the north, and da[k.]sina
(_dakshi[n.]a_), the south, are Sanskrit words; and _pa[k.]sina_,
the north, has evidently been coined by Malays in imitation of
_da[k.]sina_.
[Footnote 21: J., S., and D. _utara_; Bat. _otara_; Bis. _otala_,
east wind.]
The elephant is most generally known all over the Archipelago by its
Sanskrit name _gajah_. Sanskrit terms are also used to signify the
driver of an elephant and several articles used in connection with this
animal. From these circumstances we may probably conclude, with
Crawfurd, that the art of training and domesticating elephants was
first learned by the Malays from natives of India.[22]
[Footnote 22: Crawfurd's Malay Grammar, Dissertation clxxxiii.]
|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|Elephant
| |gâjah
| | |gaja
| | | |J., S., and D. _gajah_; Bat. and Mak. _gaja_;
| | | |Tag. _gadia_; Bis. _gadya_.
|Elephant-driver
| |gambâla-gâjah
| | |gopâla (herdsman)
|Goad
| |ângkus, kwâsa
| | |a[.n]kuça
|Foot-chain
| |ândûwân
| | |andu (chain)
|Front part of the head
| |gomba, kumba
| | |kumbha
|Unbroken, vicious (of an elephant); the condition called _musth_
| |meta
| | |mada (elephant in rut)
| | | |Kw. _meta_, wild elephant.
|Hobbles for securing the feet
| |sengk[)a]la
| | |ç[r.]i[.n]khala (a chain)
The words of command used by elephant-drivers in the Malay peninsula
appear, however, to be adapted mainly from the Siamese, and it is from
this people that the Malays of the continent have acquired much of their
modern knowledge of the art of capturing, subduing, and training the
elephant. The names of animals, birds, &c., indicate, as might be
expected, that while most of the varieties known to the Malays are
indigenous, there are some species which have been imported, or which,
belonging to other countries, are known by name only in the Archipelago.
The word _morga_, (m[r.]iga) and _satwâ_ (sattva),[23] both meaning "an
animal," are Sanskrit, and if the commoner word _benâtang_ is derived,
as seems possible, from the Sanskrit _vana_, forest, there is no purely
native generic term to signify a beast or animal. While, therefore, the
early Malay tribes had names for all the animals domesticated by them,
as well as those which they encountered in their forests, it was not
until the period of their intercourse with more civilised races from
India that they learned to generalise and to comprehend the brute
creation under one term. The following Sanskrit words for animals, &c.,
occur in Malay:--
|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|Lion
| |sînga
| | |si[m.]ha
| | | |J. and S. _singa_ and _singha_; Mak. and D. _singa_.
|Jackal
| |srîgâla
| | |c[r.]igâla
| | | |Bat. _sorigala_; J. _segawon_, a dog.
|Camel
| |onta
| | |ush[t.]ra (a camel)
| | | |J. and Mak. _unta_; S. _onta_.
|Wild bull
| |ândâka
| | |dhâka
| | | |Kw. _daka_ and _andaka_.
|Ichneumon
| |charpalei
| | |sarpâri (sarpa, a snake)
|A small yellow snake, about a span long
| |chintâ-mani
| | |chintâ-ma[n.]i (a fabulous gem, the possessor of which gets
| | |all he wishes for)
|Scorpion
| |kâla
| | |kâla (black)
| | | |J., S., D., and Malg. _kala_; Bat. _kala_;
| | | |Mak. _pati-kala_.
|Crow
| |gâgak
| | |kâka
| | | |J. and S. _gayak_; Bat. _gak_; Mak. _kala_; D. _kak_.
|Peacock
| |m[)e]ra[k.]
| | |barha, varha
| | | |J. and S. _merak_; Mak. _muraka_; D. _marak_.
|Goose[24]
| |angsa, hangsa, gangsa
| | |ha[m.]sa
| | | |J. _ongsa_; S. _gangsa_.
|Pigeon
| |m[)e]r-[)a]pâti, perapâti
| | |pârâpatî
| | | |S. _japati_; Bat. _darapati_; Tag. _palapati_;
| | | |Bis. _salapati_.
|Eagle-falcon
| |râjawâlî
| | |rajjuvâla (a species of bird)
|Indian cuckoo (_Gracula religiosa_)
| |kokila
| | |kokila
| | | |J. _kokila_.
[Footnote 23: J. _mergu_; J. _sato_; S. _satoa_; D. _satua_; Bat.
_santuwa_, a mouse.]
[Footnote 24: Crawfurd has noticed the fact that the names of the
domesticated animals are native, one exception being the goose,
which, he thinks, may therefore be supposed to have been of
foreign introduction (Crawfurd's Grammar, Dissertation clxxxiii.).
It must be remembered, however, that among the Hindus the goose is
worshipped at the festivals of Brahma, and that, being thus in a
manner sacred, its Sanskrit name would naturally be in use
wherever the Hindu religion spread. Brahma is represented as
riding on a white _ha[m.]sa_.]
Perhaps the Malay word _harîmau_ (Kw. _rimong_; Bat. _arimo_, tiger-cat;
D. _harimaung_, panther), a tiger, may have been formed from _Hari_
(Krishna or Vishnu) and _m[r.]iga_ (an animal). Words similarly
compounded with _m[r.]iga_ (Malay _morga_) are not uncommon in Sanskrit,
_e.g._, _K[r.]ish[n.]a-m[r.]iga_ (the black antelope), _mahâ-m[r.]iga_
(an elephant).[25] The terms in use for "horse" and "sheep" seem to
indicate that those animals were first brought to Malay countries from
India. _Kûda_, horse (Kw. and S. _kuda_), is derived by Crawfurd from
_ghora_ (Hindi), by others from _kudra_ (Tamul). _Bîri-bîri_ (sheep) is
said to be borrowed from the Hindi _bher_, which is itself derived from
the Sanskrit _bhe[d.]a_, a ram, or from _bhîru_ (Sansk.), a goat.
Certain fabulous birds and reptiles which belong to the domain of Hindu
mythology have their places also in Malay folk-lore; such as
_garu[d.]a_,[26] the eagle of Vishnu, and _Ja[t.]âyu_ (Malay _jintâyu_),
a fabulous vulture; _chandrawâsi_, a name given by Malays to a fabulous
bird which is heard but never seen, is also evidently of Sanskrit
origin. To these _nâga_, a dragon, may be added (J., S., Bat., Mak.,
Bu., and D. _naga_).
[Footnote 25: Perhaps a more plausible derivation is from the
Tamul _ari-mâ_, a male lion.]
[Footnote 26: J. and S. _garuda_; Mak. _guruda_.]
The vegetable kingdom supplies a long list of trees, plants, and flowers
which are known to the Malays by Sanskrit names. Some of these are
closely connected with another group of words to be noticed presently,
namely, those which belong to the department of religion. The use of
sweet-smelling flowers is a noticeable feature in the religious worship
of the Hindus, and the fact that many flowers held by them to be sacred
to the worship of particular gods are called by Malays by the same names
which they bear in the temples of India, is a remarkable example of an
historical lesson latent in words. It points to the fact, abundantly
proved by other evidence, that Brahmanism once held sway where it has
long been superseded by the faith of Islam, and that words which have no
special significance for the modern Muhammadan Malay were fraught with
mystic solemnity for his distant ancestors.
In many cases, indeed, the Sanskrit names have been applied by the
Malays to different plants from those designated by the same expressions
in India. In other cases, names unknown in classical Sanskrit, but
obviously compounded of Sanskrit words, have been given by the Malays or
Javanese. The common native Malay term for "flower" is _bûnga_; _sâri_
(Javanese _sari_, Sansk. _kesara_) and _puspa_ (Sansk. _pushpa_) have
been borrowed from India.
|English or Latin.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|Michelia champaka
| |champaka
| | |champaka (dedicated by the Hindus to Krishna; one of
| | |Kamadeva's arrows is tipped with it)
| | | |J. and S. _champaka_; Mak. _champaga_.
|Jonesia asoka
| |ângsôka
| | |açoka (sacred to Mahadeva, and held in the highest veneration
| | |by the Hindus)
| | | |J. _angsoka_ and _soka_.
|Mesua ferrea
| |nâgasârî (Rigg supposes the Malay plant to be _Acacia
| |pedunculata_; Marsden, _Acacia aurea_).
| | |nâgakesara ("The delicious odour of its blossoms justly
| | |gives them a place in the quiver of Kamadeva." --_Sir William
| | |Jones_)
|Jasminum sambac (jasmine)
| |malâtî
| | |mâlatî (_Jasminum grandiflorum_[27])
| | | |J. _malati_; S. _melati_.
|Arabian jasmine (_Nyctanthes_?)
| |melor
| | |mâdhura (cf. _malura_, Cratæva religiosa)
| | | |J. _menur_; Kw. _menur_, silver.
|Ocymum basilicum (holy basil)
| |sulasi
| | |tulasî (sacred to Krishna)
| | | |J. _selasih_ and _telasih_; S. _selasi_; Mak. _tolasi_;
| | | |Tag. _solasi_.
|Uvaria odorata (or cananga)
| |kenânga
| | |kânana[28] (a forest)
| | | |J. _kenonga_; Mak. and Bu. _kananga_.
|Santalum album, sandal-wood
| |chandâna
| | |chandana ("Perpetually mentioned in the most ancient books
| | |of the Hindus as flourishing on the mountains of Malaya"
| | |--_Sir Wm. Jones_)
| | | |J. and S. _chendana_; Tag. and Bis. _sandana_.
|Plumieria acutifolia
| |kambôja
| | |kâmboja (a kind of _mimosa_)
| | | |S. _kamboja_.
|Nelumbium speciosum, lotus.
| |saroja
| | |saroja
| | | |J. _saroja_.
|Vitex trifoliata
| |lagundi [29]
| | |nirgandhi ("Which Bontius calls _lagondi_." --_Sir Wm.
| | |Jones_) _-Gandhi_ is used in the latter part of a compound
| | |word with same meaning that _gandha_ has: "smell," "odour"
| | | |J. _legundi_; Bat. _gundi_.
|Alpinia galanga, or Curcuma reclinata
| |gâdamâla
| | |_gandha_, smell; _mâlâ_, a garland
|Justicia gandarusa
| |gandarusa
| | |_gandha_, smell; _rusa_ (Malay), a deer(?)
| | | |S. _gandarusa_
|Hibiscus abelmoschus
| |gandapûra
| | |_gandha_, smell; _pura_, calix of a flower
| | | |Mak. _gandapura_
|Hedichium coronarium
| |gandasûlî
| | |_gandha_, smell
| | | |S. _gandasoli_.
|Liquidambar altingiana
| |rasamala
| | |_surasa_, sweet, elegant; _mâlâ_, a garland
|Carthamus tinctorius, safflower
| |kasumba
| | |kusumbha
| | | |J., S., Mak., and D. _kasumba_; Tag. _kasubha_;
| | | |Bis. _kasobha_.
|Crocus sativus, saffron
| |kumkumâ
| | |ku[m.]kuma
| | | |J. _kamkuma_; Mak. _kuma_.
|Alyxia stellata; an odoriferous root used in medicine
| |pûlasâri
| | |phul (_Hind_.), flower; _sari_ (Javanese), from _kesara_
| | |(Sansk.), a flower
|Tectonia grandis, teak
| |jâtî
| | |jâti (synonymous with _malati_), Jasminum grandiflorum
| | | |J., S., Bat., Mak., Bu., and D. _jati_.
|Pterocarpus indicus
| |ângsâna
| | |asana (Terminalia alata tomentosa)
| | | |J. and S. _angsana_.
|Borassus flabelliformis
| |lontar
| | |tâla
| | | |J. and S. _lontar_; Bat. _otal_; Mak. _tala_; Bu. _ta_;
| | | |Tag. _tual_.
|Eugenia jambu, roseapple
| |jambû
| | |jambu
| | | |J., S., Mak., and D. _jambu_; Bu. _jampu_; Tag. _dambo_;
| | | |Bat. _jambu-jambu_, fringe; Bu. _jambo-jambo_, fringe,
| | | |plume.
|Mangifera indica, mango
| |mampelam
| | |from Telugu, _mampalam_; Sansk. _mahâphala_, "great fruit"
| | | |J. _pelem_; S. _ampelem_.
|Spondias myrobolan (or mangifera)
| |âmra
| | |âmra (the mango, _Mangifera indica_); âmrâta (_Spondias
| | |mangifera_)
|Punica granatum, pomegranate
| |dalîma
| | |dâ[d.]ima and dâlima
|Zizyphus jujuba
| |bidâra
| | |vidara
| | | |J. _widara_; S. _bidara_.
|Cucurbita lagenaria, gourd, pumpkin
| |lâbû
| | |alâbu
| | | |S. _labu_; Bat. _tabu-tabu_; Malg. _tawu_.
|Tricosanthes laciniosa
| |patôla
| | |pa[t.]ola
|Cassia fistula
| |biraksa
| | |v[r.]iksha (a tree)
|Emblica officinalis
| |malâka
| | |âmalaka (Emblic myrobalan)
| | | |S. _malaka_; Bat. _malakah_.
[Footnote 27: "Commeline had been informed that the Javans give
the name of _Malati_ to the _Zambak_ (_Jasminum sambac_), which in
Sanskrit is called _Navamalika_, and which, according to Rheede,
is used by the Hindus in their sacrifices; but they make offerings
of most odoriferous flowers, and particularly of the various
_Jasmins_ and _Zambaks_." --_Sir William Jones_, _As. Res._ iv.]
[Footnote 28: Ainslie's Materia Medica, Madras, 1813. _Kanana_
occurs in the names of several flowers, _e.g._, _kanana karavira_,
Plumieria alba.]
[Footnote 29: Perhaps a corruption of _nila-gandhi_. Ainslie gives
the Sanskrit name as _jela-nirghoondi_.]
_Pâlas_, _palâsa_, and _palâsang_ are Malay names for trees of different
kinds, not one of which corresponds botanically with the Sanskrit
_palâça_ (_Butea frondosa_, a tree which is held by Hindus to be
peculiarly venerable and holy). The preceding list affords several
illustrations of a similar misuse of terms. To it might be added several
words borrowed from other Indian languages, such as _nânas_, pine-apple
(Hind. _ananas_), _bilimbing_ (Tamul _bilimbi_), &c., &c.[30]
[Footnote 30: J. _nanas_; S. _kanas_; Bat. _honas_; D. _kanas_; J.
and S. _balimbing_; Bat. _balingbing_.]
Marsden has remarked on the number of Sanskrit words expressive of the
feelings and emotions of the human mind which occur in Malay, and Arabic
also furnishes several. Either their synonymous native terms have been
lost, or the Malays, at the period of Indian influence, had not reached
that stage of civilisation when man commences to analyse and name the
emotions he experiences and sees experienced by others. Good and bad
qualities, in the same way and for the same reason, seem often to bear
Sanskrit appellations. The following list does not profess to be
complete:--
|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|Pleasure, to be pleased
| |sûka
| | |sukha
| | | |J., S., and D. _suka_
|Joy, rejoiced
| |suka-chita
| | |sukha-chit (chit = thought, the heart)
|Sorrow, grief
| |dûka
| | |duhkha (pain)
| | | |J. and S. _duka_.
| |duka-chita
| | |duhkha-chit
|Care, anxiety, concern
| |chinta
| | |chintâ (thought)
| | | |J. _chipta_; S. _chinta_; Mak. _chita_; D. and Tag.
| | | |_sinta_.
|Passionately in love
| |berâhî
| | |virahin (suffering separation)
| | | |J. _birahi_.
|Angry
| |murka
| | |mûrkha (stupidity)
| | | |J. _murka_, greedy, dissatisfied.
|Hope
| |âsa
| | |âçâ
| | | |Tag. _asa_.
|Love
| |âsmâra
| | |smara
| | | |J. and S. _asmara_.
|Avarice, covetousness
| |lôba
| | |lobha
| | | |Kw. _loba_, voluptuous, luxurious; S. _loba_, abundant.
|Wisdom, understanding
| |bûdî
| | |buddhi
| | | |J. and S. _budi_.
|Stupid, foolish
| |bôdoh
| | |abodha
| | | |J. and S. _bodo_.
|Wise, learned
| |pandei
| | |pa[n.][d.]ita
| | | |J., S., and Bat. _pandé_.
|Lazy
| |malas
| | |alasa
|Charity, benevolence
| |dermâ
| | |dharma
| | | |J. and S. _derma_; Bat. _dorma_, means of gaining
| | | |affection.
|Generous
| |dermâwan
| | |dharmavant
|Fidelity
| |setîa
| | |satya
| | | |J. _satya_ and _secha_; S. _sacha_.
|Faithful, loyal
| |setîâwan
| | |satyavant
|Thought, to think
| |sangka
| | |ça[.n]ka
|To suspect, conjecture
| |tarka
| | |tarka (doubt, reason)
| | | |J. and S. _tarka_ and _terka_.
|Blame
| |chelâ
| | |chhala (fraud)
| | | |J. _chela_; Mak. _challa_.
|Misfortune, vile, base
| |chelâka
| | |chhalaka (deceiving, a deceiver)
| | | |J. and S. _chelaka_; Mak. _chilaka_; D. _chalaka_.
|Sin, crime
| |dôsa
| | |dush (to sin)
| | | |J., S., Bat., Mak., and D. _dosa_.
|False, untrue
| |dusta
| | |dushta
|Merit meritorious actions
| |pahâla
| | |phala (fruit, produce, result)
| | | |Kw. _pahala_, fruit, merit.
|Happiness, good fortune
| |bahagîa
| | |bhâgya (lot, fate)
| | | |J. _bagya_; S. _bagia_; Bat. _badiya_.
|Use, value, quality
| |guna
| | |gu[n.]a (quality)
| | | |J., S., Bat., Mak., and D. _guna_.
Inter-tribal warfare is usually characteristic of savage tribes, and an
ample vocabulary of words connected with fighting and the art of war may
be looked for in a language like Malay. But though the native terms are
numerous, many have also been furnished by Sanskrit, among which may be
instanced the following:--
|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|Army
| |bâla, bâlatantrâ
| | |bala (an army), tantra (series, offspring)
| | | |J. and S. _bala_.
|Fort
| |kôta
| | |kû[t.]a
| | | |J. _kuta_; Bat. _kuta_; S., Mak., D., Tag., and Bis.
| | | |_kota_.
|Bastion, redoubt
| |mâlawâti [31]
| | |balavatî (strong, powerful)?
|Weapon, arm
| |senjâta
| | |sajjâ (armour), sajjatâ, readiness
| | | |Kw. and Mak. _sanjata_; Bat. _sonjata_; D. _sandata_.
|Bow
| |pânah
| | |vâ[n.]a (an arrow)
| | | |J., S., and D. _panah_; Mak. _pana_; Tag. and Bis.
| | | |_pana_, arrow.
|Dagger
| |kris
| | |k[r.]it (to cut, to kill)
| | | |J. and S. _keris_ and _kris_; Bat. _horis_; Mak. _kurisi_;
| | | |Tag. and Bis. _kalis_.
|Discus
| |chakra
| | |chakra
|Club
| |gada
| | |gadâ
| | | |J. _gada_.
|Cross-bow
| |gandî
| | |gâ[n.][d.]iva
| | | |J. _gandewa_.
|Pike
| |sanggamâra
| | |sa[m.]grâma (war, battle)
|Knife
| |churîka
| | |chhurikâ
| | | |Kw. _churika_, a kris.
|Enemy
| |satrû
| | |çatru
| | | |J. and S. _satru_.
|Battlefield
| |râna
| | |ra[n.]a (battle)
| | | |Kw. and S. _rana_.
|Victory
| |jaya
| | |jaya
| | | |J. and S. _jaya_.
[Footnote 31: Crawfurd, very likely correctly, derives this from
the Portuguese _baluârte_, a bulwark.]
Among the Malays the titles of royalty and nobility, and many of the
terms in use for the paraphernalia of the court, are Sanskrit. Logan
supposes the native Malayan institutions to have been of a "mixed
patriarchal and oligarchical" form.[32] Crawfurd was not satisfied that
the terms alluded to proved that Hinduism had exercised much influence
on Malayan government;[33] but when to these is added a long catalogue
of words connected with law, justice, and administration, it will
probably be apparent that Indian influence has played an important part
in moulding the institutions of the Malays. The following are some of
the principal titles, &c., in use about the court of a Malay Raja:--
|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|King
| |râja
| | |râj
| | | |J., S., and Bat. _raja_.
|Maharaja (a title not confined to royalty, but used also by Malay
|chiefs)
| |mahârâja
| | |mahârâja (a king, sovereign)
|_Adiraja_ (a title)
| |âdirâja
| | |âdhirâja (the first or primeval king, epithet of Manu and
| | |of a son of Kuru)
|King (reigning monarch)
| |baginda
| | |bhâgya (merit, happiness)
| | | |J. _bagenda_; S. _baginda_.
|_Paduka_ (a title of respect used in addressing persons of rank)
| |paduka[34]
| | |pâduka (a shoe)
| | | |J. and S. _paduka_.
|_Duli_ (a title used in addressing royalty)
| |dûli[34]
| | |dhuli (dust)
| | | |J. _duli_; Bat. _daholi_.
|Queen
| |permeisûrî
| | |parameçvarî (a title of Durga, wife of Çiva)
| | | |J. _prameswari_; S. _permasuri_.
|Prince
| |putrâ
| | |putra (a son)
| | | |J. and S. _putra_.
|Princess
| |putrî
| | |putrî (a daughter)
| | | |J. and S. _putri_.
|Minister
| |mantrî
| | |mantrin (councillor)
| | | |J. _mantri_; Mak. _mantari_; S. _mantri_, a minor
| | | |official.
|Chief minister
| |pardana-mantri
| | |pradhâna
|Councillor
| |paramantri
| | |para (highest)
|Officer of the household
| |sîda-sîda
| | |siddha (priest, learned man)
|Warrior, royal escort
| |hulubâlang
| | |bala (army)
| | | |J. and Bat. _hulubalang_.
|Sage, royal adviser
| |pandîta
| | |pa[n.][d.]ita
| | | |J. and S. _pandita_.
|Laksamana (one of the officers of state)
| |laksamâna
| | |lakshma[n.]a (the son of Daçaratha by Sumitrâ)
| | | |J. and S. _laksmana_.
|Treasurer
| |bandahâra
| | |bhâ[n.][d.]âgâra (treasure)
| | | |Mak. _bandara_; J. _bendara_, master; S. _bandaran_;
| | | |custom-house.
|Throne
| |singgahasana
| | |si[m.]hâsana
| | | |Kw. and S. _singasana_.
|Palace
| |astana
| | |sthâna (place, whence the Persian _astana_, a threshold,
| | |a fakir's residence)
|Crown
| |makôta
| | |muku[t.]a
| | | |J. and S. _makuta_; Mak. _makota_.
|Royal insignia
| |upachara
| | |upachâra (service)
| | | |J. _upachara_.
|Title of a chief who is of noble blood on one side only
| |magat
| | |mâgadha (the son of a Vaiçya by a Kshatriya woman)
|Officer (hero)
| |punggâwa
| | |pu[.n]gava (a bull; as latter part of compound words,
| | |"excellent," _e.g._, _nara-pu[.n]gava_, an excellent warrior)
| | | |J., S., and Mak. _punggawa_.
[Footnote 32: Journ. Ind. Arch., v. 572.]
[Footnote 33: Crawfurd, Malay Grammar, Dissertation ccii.]
[Footnote 34: These two words must have been originally used by
Malays in the sense which they bear in Sanskrit. "Unto the shoes
of my lord's feet," or "beneath the dust of your majesty's feet,"
are phrases in which _paduka_ and _duli_ would immediately precede
the name or title of the person addressed. Being thus used always
in connection with the titles of royal or distinguished persons,
the two words have been taken for honorific titles, and are so
used by Malays, unaware of the humble origin of what are to them
high-sounding words.]
The incidents of Asiatic government have caused the introduction into
the Malay language of such terms as the following, among others:--
|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|Country
| |negrî
| | |nagara and nagarî
| | | |J. and S. _nagara_.
|District
| |dêsa
| | |diçâ
| | | |J., and S., Bat., and D. _desa_; Mak. _dessa_.
|Tax
| |ûpatî
| | |utpatti
| | | |J. and S. _upeti_.
|Hall, court
| |bâlei
| | |valaya (an enclosure)
| | | |S. _balé_; D. _balai_, open building; J. _balé_, bench;
| | | |Bat. _balé_, hut on a king's tomb.
|Examine, inquire
| |pre[k.]sa
| | |parîkshâ
| | | |J. _priksa_; Mak. _paressa_; D. _pariksa_ and _riksa_.
|Cause, suit
| |bichara
| | |vichâra (consideration, discussion)
| | | |Mak. and D. _bichara_; J. _wichara_; S. _pichara_.
|Witness
| |sa[k.]si
| | |sâkshin
| | | |J., S., D., Tag., and Bis. _saksi_.
|Crime
| |dosa
| | |dush (to sin)
| | | |J., S., Bat., Mak., and D. _dosa_.
|Insult, trespass
| |ângkâra
| | |aha[m.]kâra (pride)
| | | |Kw. _angkara_.
|Injustice, oppression
| |ânyâya
| | |anyâya
| | | |J. _aniaya_.
|Inheritance
| |pusâka
| | |push (to possess)
| | | |J., S., and Mak. _pusaka_.
|Action, negotiation
| |sanggêta
| | |sa[m.]keta (appointment, convention)
|Proof
| |biti
| | |vitti (probability)
|Cause, matter in dispute
| |âchâra
| | |âchara (conduct)
|Punishment
| |si[k.]sa
| | |çikshâ (learning)
| | | |J. and S. _siksa_; Mak. _sessa_.
|Fine
| |denda
| | |da[n.][d.]a
| | | |J. and S. _denda_; Bat. _dangdang_; D. _danda_.
|Prison
| |panjâra
| | |panjara (a cage)
| | | |J. and S. _kunjara_; Mak. _panjara_; Bat. _binjara_,
| | | |a trap; D. _jara_ and _panjara_, punished.
|Punishment (of a disgraceful kind inflicted on women)
| |druma
| | |druh (to hurt)
|Slave
| |sahâya
| | |sahâya (companion)
|Free, liberated
| |mardahîka
| | |m[r.]idh (to pardon?)
| | | |J. and S. _mardika_; Bat. _mardaekoh_; Mak., Bu., and D.
| | | |_maradeka_; Tag. _mahadlika_
|Executioner
| |palabâya
| | |para (exceeding) bhaya (fear)
The groups of words remaining to be noticed are those connected with the
Hindu religion, and with the demon-worship or spirit-worship, which was
the earliest form which the religious sentiment took among the Malay
tribes.[35] After the conversion of the Malays to the faith of Muhammad,
the traditions of Hinduism were gradually confused with the aboriginal
superstitions, and neither have been entirely obliterated by the cult
which superseded them. The belief in the power of malignant spirits to
cause misfortune, sickness, and death is still strong among the Malays,
whose _pawangs_ or medicine-men claim to be able to propitiate demons by
spells, prayers, and offerings. These men frequently invoke benevolent
spirits by the names of Rama, Vishnu, and other Hindu deities, in
complete ignorance that they are Hindu,[36] to counteract the evil
influences of malevolent demons. Practices of this sort prevail most
generally in places remote from Arab influence.
[Footnote 35: "The Javanese have peopled the air, the woods and
rivers with various classes of spirits, their belief in which
probably constituted their sole religion before the arrival of the
Bramins." --_Crawfurd's Grammar_, _Dissertation_ cxcix.]
[Footnote 36: "The Javanese consider all the Hindu gods of their
former belief not as imaginary beings, but as real demons"
(_Ibid._), just as the early Christians regarded the classic gods,
and attributed oracles to diabolical agency.]
The Malays did not altogether discard the theological terms of Hinduism
when they adopted a new religion. For instance, _puâsa_,[37] abstinence,
fasting (Sansk. _upavâsa_), is used to express the annual fast of the
Muhammadans during the month Ramzan. Heaven and hell also retain their
Sanskrit names.
[Footnote 37: J., S., Mak., D., and Bis. _puasa_; Bat. _puaso_.]
The following are some of the principal theological terms which have
passed from Sanskrit into Malay:--
|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|Religion
| |âgâma
| | |âgama (sacred science)[38]
| | | |J., S. Mak., Bu., and D. _agama_.
|Spiritual guide
| |gûrû
| | |guru
| | | |J., S. Mak., Bu., and D. _guru_.
|Praise, adoration
| |puji, puja
| | |pûj (to honour)
| | |pûjâ (worshipping)
| | | |J. and S. _puji_, _puja_; Bat. and Mak. _puji_;
| | | |D. _mampuji_; to invoke.
|Religious penance
| |tâpa
| | |tapas
| | | |J., S., Mak., D., and Bu. _tapa_.
|Heaven
| |sûrga
| | |svarga
| | | |J. _suwarga_; S. _surga_.
|Hell
| |nâraka, patâla
| | |naraka, pâtâla
| | | |J., S., Mak., and D. _naraka_; S. _patala_.
|Fast, abstinence
| |puâsa
| | |upavâsa
| | | |J., S., Mak., D., and Bis. _puasa_; Bat. _puaso_.
|Supernatural power
| |sa[k.]tî
| | |çakti (strength, power)
| | | |J. and S. _sakti_.
|Meritorious service, merit
| |ba[k.]tî
| | |bhakti (worship, devotion)
| | | |J. and S. _bakti_.
|Sacred formula, charm, spell
| |mantrâ
| | |mantra
| | | |J. and S. _mantra_.
|Incense
| |dûpa
| | |dhûpa
| | | |J., S., Mak., Bu., and D. _dupa_; Bat. _daupa_;
| | | |Tag. _dupa-an_, censer.
|Incense (made of eight ingredients)
| |istanggi
| | |ash[t.]aka (a collection of eight things)
| | | |S. _istanggi_; Mak. _satanggi_.
|Censer (a bamboo split at one end, and opened out so as to form
|a receptacle)
| |sangka
| | |ça[.n]kha (conchshell used for libations)
|Trumpet
| |sangkakala
| | |ça[.n]kha (conchshell used for blowing as a horn), kala (time)
|Protection, blessing, or invocation to secure protection
| |sempana
| | |sampanna
|_Sati_, self-sacrifice on the tomb of a lord or husband
| |bela
| | |velâ (sudden death?)
| | | |J. and Bat. _bela_.
|Recluse, devotee
| |biku
| | |bhikshu (a religious mendicant)
| | | |Kw. _wiku_; Siam. _phiku_, a devotee, beggar.
|Mystic words prefixed to prayers and invocations
| |Om, hong[39]
| | |om (a mystic word prefacing all prayers); hum (a mystic
| | |syllable used in incantations)
| | | |J. _hong_.
|Sacrifice, burnt-offering
| |hûmum
| | |homa (sacrifice)
DEITIES, &c.
|A god
| |batâra
| | |avatâra (descent)
| | | |J., S., Bat., and Mak. _batara_; Bis. _batala_, idol.
|Minor deity
| |dêwa, dêwâta
| | |deva, devatâ
| | | |J. and S. _dewa_, _dewata_; Mak. _dewa_, _rewata_;
| | | |D. _dewa_; Bis. _dia_, idol; Bat. _debata_; Bu. _dewata_.
|Do. (female)
| |dêwî
| | |devî
| | | |J., S., and Mak. _dewi_.
|Names supposed by Malays to belong to powerful spirits or demons
| |Brahma
| | |Brahma (one of the three principal Hindu deities)
| |Bisnû
| | |Vishnu (one of the three principal Hindu deities)
| |Srî Râma
| | |Râma (the hero of the Râmâyana)
| |Ranjûna
| | |Arjuna (the third son of Pandu)
| |Barûna
| | |Varu[n.]a (the deity of the waters)
| | | |S. _Baruna_.
| |Mahêswâra
| | |Maheçvara
| |Handûman
| | |Hanumant (the monkey chief in the Râmâyana)
| |Mahareshî
| | |Maharshi (a sage of a pre-eminent class)
|Supernatural beings
| |Indrâ
| | |Indra (king of heaven)
| | | |Kw. _Endra_; S. _Indra_.
| |Chandrâ
| | |Chandra (the moon)
| | | |J. and S. _Chandra_.
|Nymph, goddess
| |Bidyâdârî
| | |Vidyâdharî (a female demi-god)
| | | |J. _Widadari_; Mak. _Bidadari_.
DEMONS, &c.
|Demon
| |jana, janu
| | |jana (creature, demon)
|Malignant spirit
| |bôta
| | |bhûta
| | | |J. and S. _buta_; Mak. _bota_.
|Name of a particular demon
| |pancha-maha-bôta
| | |panchan (five); bhûta (element); the five elements according
| | |to the Hindus are earth, fire, water, air, and æther
|A kind of demon
| |bôga
| | |bhoga (a snake)
|Name of a particular demon
| |bûjangga
| | |bhuja[m.]ga (a snake)
| | | |J. _bujongga_; S. _bujangga_.
|An evil spirit
| |rakshâsa
| | |râkshasa
| | | |J. and S. _raksasa_.
|Ghost, goblin
| |hantû
| | |hantu (death)
| | | |J. _antu_; Bat. and S. _hantu_; D. _hantu_, corpse.
|Spectre (which haunts the scene of a murder or sudden death)
| |bâdei
| | |vadha (killing, murder)
|A female who chants incantations
| |bîdû, bidûan
| | |vidhavâ (a widow)
| | | |Bat. _biduwan_.
|Spell to cause death
| |permâya
| | |pramaya (death)
| | | |Bat. _parangmayo_.
|A demon
| |danâwa
| | |dânava
| | | |J. _danawa_.
|A daitya or demon
| |ditya
| | |daitya
| | | |Kw. _ditya_.
|A supernatural monster
| |gargâsi
| | |karkaça (cruel), or perhaps, from _ugra_, very strong,
| | |terrible, cruel
| | | | J. _gargasi_, a large bird
|Magic
| |sastarâ
| | |çâstra (science, learning)
|Magician, sorcerer
| |sastarâwan
| | |çâstravant (skilled in the holy writings)
[Footnote 38: "_Agama_ in Sanskrit is 'authority for religious
doctrine:' in Malay and Javanese it is religion itself, and is at
present applied both to the Mohammedan and the Christian
religions." --_Crawfurd_, _Malay Grammar_, _Dissertation_
cxcviii.]
[Footnote 39: I have found both these words used separately and
distinctly by Pawangs in the state of Perak. Raffles and Logan
confused them. Journ. Ind. Arch., i. 309; History of Java, ii.
369. De Backer mentions _ong_ only. L'Archipel. Indien, p. 287]
A remarkable instance of the extent to which the Malay language has been
enriched by Aryan terms is to be found in their national or racial name.
The origin of the word _Malayu_ (the native word from which we obtain
our "Malay") has been made the subject of some discussion by several
authors. Some are disposed to trace it to the Sanskrit word _malaya_,
while others prefer to regard it as a purely native word. These views
are summarised in the following extract from the introduction to the
Malay Grammar of the Abbé Favre:--
"Some authors, and particularly Dr. Leyden, whose authority in this
matter is of great weight, derive the word _malayu_ from the Tamil
_malé_, which means 'mountain,' whence _malaya_, 'chain of mountains,' a
word applied in Sanskrit to the Western Ghauts.
"Marsden asserts that this opinion, being founded upon a mere
resemblance of sound between the Sanskrit word _malaya_ and the name of
the Malay people, is not sufficient to justify this derivation.[40]
"Nevertheless the opinion of Dr. Leyden has continued to command belief,
and has been regarded as not altogether unfounded by M. Louis de Backer,
who has recently published a work on the Indian Archipelago.[41]
"Another theory, which has the support of Werndly,[42] is so far simple
and rational that it seeks the etymology of this word in the traditions
of the Malays and in books written by themselves. Thus, in a work
which has the greatest authority among them, and which is entitled
_Sul[-a]lates-sal[-a]tin_, or _Sej[-a]rat mal[-a]yu_, the following
passage occurs:--
[Transcriber's Note:
In the following paragraph, transliterations from Arabic are shown
between #marks#. The words "jehudi" and "yehudi" were transliterated
in the original text, so the Arabic has not been repeated.]
"'There is in the island of Sumatra an ancient kingdom called Palembang,
opposite to the island of Banka; a river flows there which is still
called Tatang, into the upper portion of which another river falls,
after having watered the spurs of the mountain Maha Meru (which Malay
princes claim as the cradle of their origin); the tributary is called
_Melayu_, or _Malayu_.' The meaning of this word is 'to flow quickly' or
'rapidly,' from _layu_, which in Javanese as well as in the dialect of
Palembang signifies 'swift, rapid;' it has become _laju_, _melaju_, in
Malay by the conversion of #y# into #j#, a change which is by no means
rare in Malay, as it may be seen in #jut# and #judi#,[43] from the
Sanskrit _ayuta_ and _yodi_, and in _jehudi_, from the Arabic _yehudi_,
&c.
"Now the Malays, an essentially nautical people, are in the habit of
settling along the banks of rivers and streams, whence it comes that a
great number of their towns have taken the names of the rivers on or
near which they are situated, such as Johor, Pahang, &c. In this way
'the country situated near the river of which the current is rapid,'
_Sungei Malayu_, would take the name of _Tanah Malayu_, and the
inhabitants of this country (governed in those times by a chief named
Demang Lebar Daun) that of _Orang Malayu_, just as the inhabitants of
Johor and Pahang are called _Orang Johor_, _Orang Pahang_; and their
language is called _Bahasa Orang Malayu_ or _Bahasa Malayu_.
"The name of _Malayu_ thus applied to the people and to the language
spread with the descendants of Demang Lebar Daun, whose son-in-law, Sang
Sapurba, became king of Menangkabau or Pagar Ruwang, a powerful empire
in the interior of Sumatra. A grandson of Demang Lebar Daun, named Sang
Mutiaga, became king of Tanjong Pura. A second, Sang Nila Utama, married
the daughter of the queen of Bentan, and immediately founded the kingdom
of Singapore, a place previously known as Tamassak. It was a descendant
of his, Iskander Shah, who founded the empire of Malacca, which extended
over a great part of the peninsula; and, after the capture of Malacca by
the Portuguese, became the empire of Johor. It is thus that a portion of
the Indian Archipelago has taken the name of _Tanah Malayu_, 'Malay
country.'
"One of the granddaughters of Demang Lebar Daun was married to the
Batara or king of Majapahit, a kingdom which extended over the island of
Java and beyond it; and another was married to the Emperor of China, a
circumstance which contributed not a little to render the name of
_Malayu_ or Malay known in distant parts."[44]
[Footnote 40: Malay Grammar, Introduction.]
[Footnote 41: L'Archipel Indien, p. 53.]
[Footnote 42: Maleische Spraakkunst, door G. H. Werndly p. xix.]
[Footnote 43: The derivation of _judi_, gaming, from _dyuta_ (game
at dice), seems to be preferable to that adopted by M. Favre
(following Van der Tuuk), who refers it to _yodi_, a warrior.]
[Footnote 44: Favre, Grammaire de la Langue Malaise, Introduction,
viii.]
This theory requires that we should suppose that a word of wide
application, which is known wherever Malays have established themselves,
is, in fact, a Malay word disguised in a form found only in Javanese and
the dialect of Palembang. If the arguments adduced in support of it are
to apply, we must first of all admit the very doubtful historical
accuracy of the _Sejarah Malayu_, from which they are drawn.
There is a Malay word, _layu_, which means "faded," "withered," and it
is only the exigency of finding a word applicable to a river that makes
it necessary to look for a derivation in _laju_, swift. In this or some
kindred sense the word _laju_ is found in Javanese, Sundanese, and
Dayak; but why it should give its name, in the form of _layu_, to a
river in Sumatra, and thence to the whole Malay race, is not very
obvious. A river named in consequence of its swift current would be
called by Malays _Sungei Laju_, not _Sungei Malaju_. Even if the
derivation of Malayu from _melaju_ had the support of the Malays
themselves, Malay etymologies are not often safe guides. Not much, for
instance, can be said in favour of the fanciful derivation of Sumatra
from _semut raya_, "large ant," which is given by the author of the
_Sâjarah Malayu_.[45]
[Footnote 45: Leyden's Malay Annals, 65.]
It is impossible to treat the story of Sang Sapurba, the first Malay
raja, as historical. The name, "Maha-Meru," sufficiently shows that we
are upon mythological ground. The story is as follows:-- Three young men
descend from the heavens of Indra (_ka indra-an_) upon the mountain
Maha-Meru, on the slopes of which they meet two women who support
themselves by planting hill-padi. Supernatural incidents mark the advent
of the strangers. The very corn in the ground puts forth ears of gold,
while its leaves become silver and its stalks copper. One of the
new-comers rides on a white bull, and carries a sword called _Chora_
(Sansk. _kshura_, a razor) _samandang-kini_. They are received by the
natives of the district (Palembang) and made rajas. He who rides the
bull becomes king of Menangkabau, and the other two receive minor
kingdoms.
It is not difficult to recognise here certain attributes of the god
Çiva, with which, by a not unnatural confusion of ideas, Muhammadan
Malays, the recipients of the old traditions, have clothed their first
raja.
Maha-Meru, or Sumeru, on which are the abodes of the gods, is placed by
Hindu geographers in the centre of the earth. _Malaya_ is mentioned in
the _Puranas_ as a mountain in which the Godavari and other rivers take
their rise. The white bull of Sang Sapurba is evidently the _vahan_ of
Çiva, and the name of the sword bears a close resemblance to
_manda-kini_, the name given in heaven to the sacred Ganges, which
springs from the head of Çiva. Most of the incidents in the story,
therefore, are of purely Hindu origin, and this gives great probability
to the conjecture which assigns a Sanskrit source to the word _Malayu_.
The Straits of Malacca abound with places with Sanskrit names. Not to
speak of Singha-pura, there are the islands of Langka-wi and Lingga and
the towns of Indragiri and Indrapura, &c. Sumeru (in Java), Madura,
Ayuthia (in Siam), and many other names, show how great Indian
influences have been in past times in the far East. May it not be,
therefore, that _Malaya_ or _Malayu_[46] was the name by which the
earliest Sanskrit-speaking adventurers from India denominated the rude
tribes of Sumatra and the peninsula with whom they came in contact, just
as _Jawi_ is the name given to Malays by the Arabs, the term in either
case being adopted by the people from those to whom they looked up with
reverence as their conquerors or teachers? According to this view, the
introduction of a river, _Malayu_, into the story of Sang Sapurba is an
_ex post facto_ way of explaining the name, inserted with this object by
the native author of the _Sâjarah Malayu_.
[Footnote 46: Besides signifying a range of mountains, _Malaya_
has the secondary meaning of "a garden." If the term was applied
originally in reference to the agricultural pursuits of the
primitive tribes, it receives additional illustration from the
name given to one of the women whom Sang Sapurba meets on Mount
Maha-Meru, "_Malini_," a gardener's wife (Sansk.).]
If it be granted that the story of Sang Sapurba is mythological, it
becomes unnecessary to follow any attempt to show that the name of
_Malayu_ received additional celebrity from the marriages of
granddaughters of Demang Lebar Daun with the Batara of Majapahit and the
Emperor of China! The contemptuous style in which Malay, Javanese, and
other barbarian rajas are spoken of by ancient Chinese historians leaves
but slender probability to the legend that an Emperor of China once took
a Malay princess as his wife.[47]
[Footnote 47: See Groeneveldt's Notes on the Malay Archipelago,
compiled from Chinese sources. Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch
Genootschap, xxxix.]
From this subject it is natural to proceed to another disputed
etymology, namely, the origin of the word _Jawi_, which is often used by
the Malays for the word _Malayu_ in speaking of their language and
written character, _bahasa jawi_ meaning Malay language, and _surat
jawi_ a document written in Malay. It is not necessary to go into all
the various conjectures on the subject, which will be found in the works
of Marsden, Crawfurd, Favre, and others.
_Jawi_ is a word of Arab origin, and is formed in accordance with the
rules of Arabic grammar from the noun _Jawa_, Java. Just as from
_Makah_, Meccah, is derived the word _Makk-i_, of or belonging to
Meccah, so from _Jawa_, Java, we get _Jawi_, of or belonging to Java.
When this name was first applied to Malays, the Arabs had not an
accurate knowledge of the ethnography of the Eastern Archipelago.
Without very strict regard to ethnical divergencies, they described all
the brown races of the eastern islands under the comprehensive and
convenient term _Jawi_, and the Malays, who alone among those races
adopted the Arabic alphabet, adopted also the term in speaking of their
language and writing.[48]
[Footnote 48: "_Sawa_, _Jawa_, _Saba_, _Jaba_, _Zaba_, &c., has
evidently in all times been the capital local name in Indonesia.
The whole Archipelago was compressed into an island of that name
by the Hindus and Romans. Even in the time of Marco Polo we have
only a _Java Major_ and a _Java Minor_. The Bugis apply the name
of Jawa, _Jawaka_ (comp. the Polynesian _Sawaiki_, Ceramese
_Sawai_) to the Moluccas. One of the principal divisions of
Battaland in Sumatra is called _Tanah Jawa_. Ptolemy has both Jaba
and Saba." --_Logan_, _Journ. Ind. Arch._, iv. 338.]
As in Malay there are no inflexions to denote change of number, gender,
or person, the connection of _Jawi_ with _Jawa_ is quite unknown to the
Malays, just as the second part of the word _senamaki_ (_sena-maki_,
senna of Meccah[49]) is not suspected by them to have any reference to
the sacred city. There is a considerable Malay and Javanese colony in
Meccah,[50] where all are known to the Meccans indiscriminately as
_Jawi_.
[Footnote 49: _Senna_ (_Cassia senna_), as a medicine, enjoys a
high reputation in India and all over the East. In Favre's
Malay-French Dictionary _daun sena-maki_ is translated _feuilles
de séné_, no notice being taken of the last word; but Shakespear's
Hindustani Dictionary has _sena makk-i_, "senna of Mecca."]
[Footnote 50: Burton's Pilgrimage to Medinah and Meccah, p. 175.]
Marsden devotes several pages of the introduction to his Malay Grammar
to a discussion as to the origin and use of the expression _orang
di-bawah angin_, people below the wind, applied by Malays to themselves,
in contradistinction to _orang di-atas angin_, people above the wind, or
foreigners from the West. He quotes from De Barros and Valentyn, and
from several native documents, instances of the use of these
expressions, but confesses his inability to explain their origin.
Crawfurd quotes these terms, which he considers to be "native," and
remarks that they are used by the Malays alone of all the tribes in the
Archipelago. A much more recent writer characterises these terms as
"_Noms dont on ignore encore la vraie signification_."[51]
[Footnote 51: De Backer, L'Archipel Indien, li. (Paris, 1874).]
The expression is not of Malay origin, but is a translation into that
language of an Arabic phrase. Instances of its use occur in the "MOHIT"
(the ocean), a Turkish work on navigation in the Indian seas, written by
Sidi al Chelebi, captain of the fleet of Sultan Suleiman the Legislator,
in the Red Sea. The original was finished at Ahmedabad, the capital of
Gujarat, in the last days of Muharram, A.H. 962 (A.D. 1554). It
enumerates, among others, "the monsoons below the wind, that is, of the
parts of India situated below the wind," among which are "Malacca,
Shomotora, Tanassari, Martaban, and Faiku (Pegu)."[52]
[Footnote 52: Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, iii. 545.]
TRANSLITERATION OF MALAY IN THE ROMAN CHARACTER.
Malay is written in a character which has been borrowed from a foreign
literature in comparatively modern times, and which but imperfectly
suits its sounds. With the introduction of the Muhammadan religion, the
Malays adopted the Arabic alphabet, modified to suit the peculiarities
of their language.
In Malay literary compositions there is great diversity in the manner of
spelling many words. The accentuation of the spoken dialect differs so
much from Arabic, that it is difficult, even for native writers, to
decide when to write the long vowels and when to leave them out. This is
the point in which diversity is most common.
Every European author who writes Malay in the Roman character has to
decide on what system he intends to render the native language by means
of our alphabet. The Malay alphabet has thirty-four letters, so it is
obvious that ours will not accurately correspond with it. It is open to
him, if he wishes to obtain a symbol to correspond with every letter of
the Malay alphabet, to employ various means to denote those letters for
which we have no equivalents; or he may dismiss the native alphabet from
his mind altogether, and determine to write the language phonetically.
In a language, however, which abounds in Sanskrit and Arabic words, he
should, of course, avoid the adoption of any system of spelling which
would disguise the true origin of words of foreign derivation.
Muhammadans from India or Persia introduced their own method of writing
among the Malays. They wrote Malay in their own character (to the
gradual supersession of any native alphabet that may have previously
existed), and this became the alphabet of the Malays.
It is now our turn to write Malay in our character. Is it sufficient to
do this in our own way, as those did who introduced the Perso-Arabic
alphabet, or must we also have regard to the mode of spelling adopted by
the latter?
In an elementary work like the present, it does not seem to be necessary
to burden the student with a system of transliteration. The native
character is not employed in this manual, and there is, therefore, all
the less occasion for using special means for denoting peculiar native
letters. It will be found that the mode of spelling Malay words adopted
by Marsden has been followed in the main.[53] In this Introduction the
long vowels (that is, the vowels which are written in full in the native
character) are marked with a circumflex accent, but it has not been
thought necessary to adopt this system in the body of the work.
[Footnote 53: In certain foreign words the hard _k_ will be found
to be denoted by a dot under the letter, thus, [k.]; and the
peculiar vowel sound represented in Arabic by the letter _ain_ is
denoted by the Greek rough breathing `.]
Sometimes vowels will be found marked with the short sign, [)]. This is
only for the purpose of assisting the student in pronunciation, and does
not represent any peculiarity in the native character.
The vowels are to be sounded in general as in the languages of the
Continent of Europe. Final _k_ is mute.
The correct pronunciation of Arabic words is aimed at by Malays of
education, and the European student should get the right sounds of the
vowel _ain_ and of the more peculiar Arabic consonants explained to him.
MALAY MANUAL.
_PART I._
The object of this work is to facilitate the acquisition of an
elementary knowledge of the Malay language. It is believed also that
some of the hints and suggestions which it contains will be of use to
those who already have a colloquial knowledge of Malay, especially if
this has been acquired from Indian or Chinese settlers in the Straits of
Malacca, not from Malays themselves.
The Roman character is used throughout, but a knowledge of the native
character can hardly be dispensed with by those who aim at a thorough
acquaintance with the language. As it abounds in idiomatic expressions,
the study of native compositions is most important, and these are
generally to be found only in the Malay character. Little attempt is
made at scientific arrangement. In dealing with the various parts of
speech, technical terms are as far as possible avoided, and reliance is
placed rather on illustrations than abstract rules. The student should
divest himself of the expectation that sentences may be formed in Malay
on principles of construction which govern composition in European
languages. An elementary knowledge of Malay is so easily acquired that a
learner soon begins to construct sentences, and the tendency, of course,
is to reproduce the phrases of his own language with words of the new
one. He may thus succeed in making himself intelligible, but it need
hardly be said that he does not speak the language of the natives.
Correctness of expression cannot be entirely learnt from grammars. In
this manual cautions and hints will be given, and, where possible,
absolute rules will be laid down, but these must not be regarded as
complete. Instruction derived from books must be supplemented by
constant practice in speaking _with Malays_--not with Malay-speaking
Asiatics of other nationalities--before idioms can be mastered. Until
some facility in framing sentences according to native idioms has been
attained, and it has been perceived how shades of meaning may be
conveyed by emphasis, or by the position of a word in the sentence, the
European will find it difficult to convey his ideas in Malay, even with
a considerable vocabulary of words at his disposal. A Dutch author
justly remarks:-- "Malay is called a poor language, and so it is, but
not so much so as is often imagined, certainly not as far as its
vocabulary is concerned. That it is often unable to furnish us with
words for abstract ideas is a deficiency which it has in common with all
languages of the Indian Archipelago, or rather with all races who have
not yet risen to the height of our civilisation and development. Its
richness or poverty, however, must not be judged by the existing
dictionaries, or by the contents of those manuscripts which are known to
us. When Malays are seated together talking about various topics of
everyday life, they are not in want of words, and such conversations
would, if noted down, provide our present dictionaries with a good many
supplements, additions, corrections, and appendices."[1]
[Footnote 1: Klinkert, Eenige ophelderingen omtrent de Maleische
Spreekwoorden en spreekwijzen.]
I. THE ARTICLE.
There is no article in Malay, that is, there is no word which
corresponds exactly with our definite article _the_, or indefinite
article _a_, _an_. _Kuda_, horse, and _orang_, man, signify equally
"_the_ horse" and "_the_ man." When it is desired to specify particular
objects, the pronouns _ini_, this, _itu_, that, and _yang_, this which,
or that which, are used. _Si_ sometimes supplies the place of the
definite article when a person is spoken of; as _si-laki-laki_, the man;
_si-perampuan_, the woman; _si-mati_, the deceased; _si-bongkok_, the
cripple.
The numeral _satu_, one, is often used as the indefinite article; as
_ada sa' orang di negri Kedah_, there was a man in the state of Kedah;
_ini satu kuda chantek_, this is a beautiful horse.
II. SUBSTANTIVES.
A difficulty which attends the classification of Malay words into
various parts of speech, according to the system applied to European
languages, consists in the number of words which, while yet unmodified
by particles, are either verb or substantive, substantive or adjective,
adjective or adverb, according to the context. _Baniak_, as an adverb,
means much, as an adjective, many; _jalan_ is either a road or to walk;
_panjang_ either long, tall, or length, height. The same thing occurs in
English in a minor degree; but with us the difference between _cold_ and
_a cold_, or between _to brush_ and _a brush_, is rendered distinct by
the use of the article _a_ and the particle _to_. Many Malay words must
thus be treated as now substantive, now adjective, now verb, according
to the position they occupy in the sentence.
The noun undergoes no change to denote number, gender, or case.
NUMBER.
The plural, if not sufficiently made plain from the context, is often
indicated by the use of such words as _baniak_, many, _sumua_,
_sa-kali-an_, and _sagala_, all.
It is also expressed sometimes by repeating the noun; as _raja_, a king,
_raja-raja_, kings; _tuan_, master, _tuan-tuan_, masters. _All_ nouns
are not capable of this duplication. As a general rule, it may be said
to be mainly confined to nouns expressing persons or animate objects.
When there is nothing to show whether singular or plural is meant, the
number remains indefinite, but may generally be assumed to be plural. In
such phrases as _menembak burong_, to shoot birds, _memb[)e]li hayam_,
to buy fowls, the substantives are clearly plural, though nothing marks
them as such. To restrict the number, and show that _one bird_ or _one
fowl_ is meant, it would be necessary to use the word _satu_, one, with
the idiomatic term _ekor_ (lit. _tail_), which is always used in
enumerating the lower animals; as _menembak sa'ekor burong_, to shoot a
bird; _memb[)e]li sa'ekor hayam_, to buy a fowl.
GENDER.
Inflexion is unknown in Malay, and gender has no place in the grammar of
the language. Most nouns which signify animate things are of both
genders, and the sexes are distinguished by the addition, in the case of
persons, of the words _laki-laki_, male, and _perampuan_, female, and in
other cases of the words _jantan_, male, and _betina_, female. _Jantan_
and _betina_ are also applied vulgarly to persons. If an apparent
exception is found in such words as _putra_, a prince, and _putri_, a
princess, derivation from a foreign language may be suspected. The
inflexion in the word just cited is due to the rules of Sanskrit
grammar.
DECLENSION.
There is nothing in the Malay language which corresponds with the
_cases_ of a Latin, Greek, or Sanskrit noun, which are formed by changes
of termination, or of a Hindustani noun, which are formed by
postpositions. In Malay the cases are expressed, as in English, by
prepositions:--
To, _ka_, _kepada_, _sama_.
For, _akan_.
With, _dengan_, _sama_.
From, _deri_, _deri-pada_.
By, _uleh_.
The genitive or possessive case is expressed either by the use of the
word _punya_ after the noun, or by placing the noun which signifies the
possessor immediately after the thing possessed; as _sahaya_, I; _sahaya
punya_, of me, mine; _rumah_, house; _rumah punya_, of the house;
_sahaya punya rumah_, or _rumah sahaya_, my house.
The employment of the genitive with _punya_ is to be avoided. It is more
idiomatic to say _rumah sahaya_ than _sahaya punya rumah_.
Substantives are of five classes:--
1. Those which in their primitive form are substantives; as _orang_,
person; _rumah_, house; _kuda_, horse; _bapa_, father.
2. Those which are formed from verbs by prefixing the inseparable
particle _pe_; as _pe-lari_, a runaway; _peng-asuh_, a nurse;
_pem-buru_, a hunter; _pen-churi_, a thief; _penyapu_, a broom.
3. Those which are formed by affixing the termination _-an_ to verbs,
adjectives, prepositions, and to other substantives; as _makan-an_,
food; _manis-an_, sweetness; _hampir-an_, proximity; _trus-an_, a
channel; _buah-an_, fruit in general; _laut-an_, the ocean.
4. Those which are formed by prefixing the particle _pe_ and adding the
termination _-an_; as _pe-layar-an_, a voyage; _peng-ajar-an_,
instruction; _pem-bunoh-an_, slaying, execution; _pen-dapat-an_,
acquisition; _pel-ajar-an_, lesson; _per-uleh-an_, possession;
_per-main-an_, amusement.
5. Those which are formed by prefixing the particle _ka-_ and adding the
termination _-an_; as _ka-jadi-an_, creation, origin; _ka-baniak-an_,
generality; _ka-puji-an_, praise; _ka-salah-an_, guilt, offence;
_ka-korang-an_, want, deficiency.
III. ADJECTIVES.
Adjectives, like nouns, are indeclinable. They are always placed _after_
their substantives; as _kuda baik_, a good horse; _orang jahat_, a bad
man; not _baik kuda_, _jahat orang_.
IV. PRONOUNS.
The proper use of the personal pronouns and of the nouns which are used
for them presents some difficulty.
The following words may be used to express the first person singular,
_I_:--
1. _Aku_, I.
2. _Sahaya_ (lit. companion, slave; Sansk. _sahâya_).
3. _Hamba_ (lit. slave), or _hamba tuan_ (lit. master's slave).
4. _Perhamba_ (lit. lowest slave).
5. _Beta_ (lit. slave).
6. _Patek_ (lit. slave).
7. _T[)e]man_ (lit. companion).
The appropriate use of these pronouns is dependent upon the relative
positions of the persons between whom communication takes place.
_Aku_ is generally used by natives among themselves. Its use implies
familiarity and equality. It should not be used by Europeans addressing
natives, or by natives addressing Europeans.
_Sahaya_ is the ordinary polite form used by Europeans in conversation
with natives of all classes, and by natives of the upper class in
addressing Europeans.
_Ha ba_, _ha ba tuan_, and _perhamba_ are used by persons of inferior
rank when addressing superiors. _Hamba_, if used by a chief or native of
high rank, implies a certain affectation of modesty.
The use of _beta_ is confined to literary composition, and it is
incorrect to employ the word colloquially. It may be used by Europeans
and natives.
_Patek_ is used only by natives, and by them only when addressing a
person of royal blood.
_T[)e]man_ is used only in intercourse between natives of the upper
class and of approximately equal rank.
The first person plural is _kita_ or _kami_, we. _Kita_ is used when the
person addressed is intended to be included. _Kami_, on the contrary,
like the royal "we" in English, excludes the person addressed.
Sometimes the word _orang_ is added without changing the signification;
as _kita orang_, we.
Other forms are also in use, but they are generally provincialisms
confined to particular states or districts. _Sahaya apa_, _kita apa_,
and _hamba tuan apa_ are used in Kedah, and _sahaya-ma_ in Perak, for
_kita orang_.
Colloquially the personal pronouns are often omitted to avoid
repetition. This is done especially in narration or description; as, for
example, in the following sentence: _Lepas itu jalan pula ka-kampong
singgah di rumah Haji Ismail hari pun sudah p[)e]tang langsong pulang
ka-rumah maka nasi_-- Afterwards (I started) again (and) walked to the
_kampong_, (and) stopped at the house of Haji Ismail, (and then), as it
was evening, (I) went straight home (and) had my dinner.
Here the personal pronoun _I_ is understood throughout.
The second person singular is _angkau_, you. Each syllable of this word
may be used separately for the whole. _Ang_ or _hang_ is much employed
in Kedah and Perak, and _kau_ in other parts of the peninsula and in
Borneo. In Perak _mika_, in Malacca _awah_, in Borneo _kita_, and in
Batavia _kweh_, are also used. The preceding words are used by a
superior addressing an inferior, or by the common people in ordinary
(not in polite) conversation.
In polite conversation the use of _angkau_, or of most of the words
given above, must be avoided, as it is considered by Malays to be vulgar
or harsh. In addressing servants or followers, the name of the
individual addressed is often inserted in the sentence instead of the
pronoun _you_; as, in addressing Ismail: When you were at the bazaar
just now who was with you?-- _Apabila Ismail di pekan tadi siapa sama?_
In the same way _tuan_, sir, master, is employed in addressing a haji or
sayyid; _tuan-ku_ or _tunku_, my lord, in addressing a raja; _datoh_,
grandfather, in addressing a chief or _penghulu_.
Other words similarly employed are--
_Abang_ (elder brother) or _wah_ (uncle), to a man older than the
speaker.
_Kakak_ (elder sister), to a woman older than the speaker.
_Adek_ (younger brother).
_Inche_ (sir or madam), to respectable persons of either sex.
EXAMPLES.
When did you arrive? (to a haji)--
_Bila-mana tuan sudah tiba?_
I must ask one thing of you (to a raja)--
_Sahaya handak minta satu kapada tunku._
If you give the order (to a chief)--
_Jikalau datoh suroh._
Do not be angry (to an elderly man)--
_Jangan abang marah._
Please help yourselves to water (to guests of various ranks)--
_Datoh-datoh, tuan-tuan, inche-inche sakalian, sila berayer._
The use of the word _lu_, a form of the second person singular, derived
from the Chinese, and generally used by Europeans, is offensive to
Malays of all classes, and is altogether to be avoided.
In the plural _kamu_, ye, corresponds to _angkau_, you, in the singular;
that is to say, it is used by a superior addressing inferiors. It is
found in its contracted form _mu_ in literary composition, but seldom
colloquially; as _ka-tahu-i uleh-mu_, be it known unto ye.
_Kamu_ is sometimes used in the singular also.
THIRD PERSON SINGULAR.
_Dia_ or _iya_, he, she, it.
_Dia_ and _iya_ are used indifferently, but perhaps _dia_ is more common
in conversation and _iya_ in literature.
The plural is _dia orang_ (and sometimes, though less commonly, _iya
orang_), they.
Another form of the third person plural is _marika-itu_, they, these, or
those persons; but it is found in literary compositions only, and is not
used in conversation.
A pronoun of the third person only used in conjunction with other words
is _-nia_, a contraction of _inia_, he, she, it.
The indefinite form "one" (the French "on" and German "man") is
expressed in Malay by _orang_; as _orang tiada b[)e]rani pergi sana_,
one dare not go there; _kalau orang handak kawin_, if one is about to
marry.
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
The possessive pronouns, _my_, _thy_, _his_, _our_, _your_, _their_, are
usually denoted by placing the personal pronoun after the word
expressing the object possessed; as _rumah sahaya_, my house; _pada
pikir-an hamba_, in my opinion; _apa pen-chari-an angkau?_ what is your
occupation? _apa nama dia?_ what is his name?
Possessive pronouns are also formed by the word _punya_ or _ampunya_
(lit. owning, owned) placed after the personal pronoun; as _aku punya_,
my or mine; _tuan punya suka_, as you please (your pleasure); _yang
ampunya tanah_, (he) whose land it is.
_Singular._ | _Plural._
My, mine, _sahaya punya_. | Ours, _kita punya_.
Thy, thine, _angkau punya_. | Yours, _kamu punya_.
His, hers, its, _dia punya_. | Theirs, _dia-orang punya_.
Frequently where the word "your" would be used in English Malays leave
out the pronoun altogether. "Bring your gun with you," would be
correctly rendered in Malay, _bawa snapang sama_ (lit. bring gun
together), not _bawa angkau punya snapang sama angkau_.
In literary composition _ku_ and _mu_ (abbreviated forms of _aku_ and
_kamu_) are affixed to the noun denoting the thing possessed; as
_rumah-ku_, my house; _bapa-mu_, your father.
The affix _-nia_ is used in the sense of _his_, _hers_, or _its_, as
well as the other forms of the possessive pronoun; as _patah kaki-nia_,
his leg was broken; _bauh-nia terlalu wangi_, its smell is very sweet.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
_Ini_, this, these. _Itu_, that, those.
The demonstrative pronouns, like adjectives, follow the word to which
they belong; as _rumah ini_, this house; _hari ini_, this day, to-day;
_aku ini_, I myself; _sakarang ini_, this moment; _orang itu_, that man
or those men; _waktu itu_, that time; _iya itu_, that is to say. It is
not unusual to hear _ini_ and _itu_ placed before the noun, but this is
not idiomatic.
The INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS are
_Siapa_, who? _Apa_, what? _Mana_, who? what?
EXAMPLES.
_Apa mahu?_-- What do you want?
_Rumah ini siapa?_-- Whose house is this?
_Siapa panggil?_-- Who called?
_Gajah mana ini?_-- What elephant is this?
_Siapa akan tahu?_-- Who knows?
The RELATIVE PRONOUN is
_Yang_, who, which.
EXAMPLES.
_Burong yang liyar_, a bird that is wild.
_Raja yang adil_, a king who is just.
_Ada yang tuah, ada yang muda_, some are old and some are young
(lit. there are who are old, &c.).
The Menangkabau word is _nen_. This is often found in composition, but
is seldom used in the dialect spoken in the Straits of Malacca. Example:
_Patek nen fakir_-- I who am but a beggar.
REFLECTIVE PRONOUNS.
_Diri_, _sendiri_, or _kendiri_, self, are used with or without the
personal pronouns to signify myself, yourself, himself, ourselves, &c.
EXAMPLES.
_Bunoh diri_, to kill oneself.
_Meng-ajar diri_, to take oneself to task.
_Hamba sendiri handak pergi_, I shall go myself.
_Baik tuan sendiri suroh_, you had better order it yourself.
_Kemdian turun-lah raja sendiri_, afterwards the king himself
descended.
_Dia lari masok hutan membawa diri-nia_, she escaped to the jungle
with her life (lit. taking herself with her).
_Biar-lah hamba sa-orang diri me-lawan dia_, let me fight him myself
alone.
V. VERBS.
Verbs are either primitive or derivative; the former are those which in
their original signification are verbs; the latter are formed from
primitive verbs, or from substantives, adjectives, or adverbs, by the
application of particles.
Examples of primitive verbs are _pukul_, to strike; _makan_, to eat;
_lari_, to run; of derivative verbs, _ber-kaki_, to have feet, from
_kaki_, a foot; _panjang-kan_, to lengthen or make long, from _panjang_,
long.
The primitive verb, which is generally a dissyllable, is either
transitive, as _tangkap_, to seize, or intransitive, as _tidor_, to
sleep; but a transitive sense may be given to an intransitive verb by
the addition of the particle _-kan_, as _lari_, _me-lari_, to run;
_me-lari-kan_, to carry off.
Though the examples of primitive verbs given above are translated for
the sake of convenience by our infinitive, their signification is not
necessarily rendered by that mood. Favre translates them by the past
participle (as _ambil_, taken, _buang_, thrown[2]), but this is rather
fanciful than accurate. The fact is, that the meaning of the radical or
primitive is indefinite, and depends for its precise signification on
its position (with respect to other words) in the sentence, or on the
particles which may be added before or after it. Thus _lari_ means
simply run, though syntax will show that it may mean to run, I run, he
runs, run thou, &c., according to its position in the sentence.
[Footnote 2: Grammaire de la Langue Malaise, 56.]
Marsden distinguishes the following moods--the imperative, the
indicative or assertive, the conditional, and the infinitive or
indefinite--"which admit, for the most part, of being expressed in the
present, the past, and the future tenses or times."
It is not proposed, in an elementary work like the present, to go deeply
into a scientific arrangement, which, however well suited to the Latin
and Greek languages, is adapted with less propriety to uncultivated
languages like Malay. It is believed that an explanation of the use of
auxiliaries and particles, and a paradigm showing the most common
changes of which the verb is susceptible, will be sufficient, and that
the student may be left to gain further knowledge as to the mode of
expressing variations of mood and tense as he advances in the study of
the language.[3]
[Footnote 3: "It is difficult to eradicate the belief that the
forms in which we think are identical with the thought itself; and
it is only linguistic science that enables us to see that many of
the forms of grammar which we imagine necessary and universal are,
after all, but accidental and restricted in use. The cases of
Latin and Greek do not exist in the majority of languages; the
Polynesian dialects have no true verbs; and the Esquimaux gets on
well enough without 'the parts of speech' that figure so largely
in our own grammars." --_Sayce, Introduction to the Science of
Language_, ii. 328.]
USE OF PARTICLES.
The inseparable affix _-kan_ always denotes a verb used in a
_transitive_ sense; as _men-jalan-kan_, to cause to walk. It is an
abbreviation of the preposition _akan_. Thus _buat-kan_ (to do) means to
do something _to_ (_akan_) something or somebody.
The inseparable affix _-i_ also denotes the transitive sense; as
_kras-i_, to oppress (from _kras_, hard); _halus-i_, to treat carefully
(from _halus_, fine, close).
The inseparable prefix _ber-_ (_bel-_, _be-_) is the mark of a verb
which expresses a state or condition of being; as _ber-jalan_, to walk,
or to be in the act of walking; _ber-wang_, to have money; _ber-misei_,
to wear moustaches; _ber-pukul_, to strike, _i.e._, to be in the act or
condition of striking (not to strike another, _transitive_, which would
be expressed by _pukul-_ or _me-mukul-kan_).
The inseparable prefix _me-_ (in all its various forms, _mem_, _meng_,
_men_, and _meny_) is the mark of a verb which expresses an action; as
_men-jalan-kan_, to cause to walk, _mem-buat_, to make; _menyakit-kan_,
to afflict (from _sakit_); _meng-ambil_, to take.
According as the primitive verb has a transitive or intransitive sense,
the derivative verbs formed from it will take _ber-_ or _me-_ as the
case may be. Thus from _adu_, to sleep, is formed _ber-adu_, not
_meng-adu_; while from _adu_, to complain, is formed _meng-adu_, not
_ber-adu_.
Often both particles may be used, and both transitive and intransitive
derivative verbs may be formed from the same primitive. Thus from
_taroh_, to put, are formed _menaroh_, to put (the act of a person who
puts), and _ber-taroh_, to bet (the condition of a person who stakes).
From _tidor_, to sleep, are formed _menidor-kan_, to put to sleep, and
_ber-tidor_, to be sleeping or lying down; and from _ajar_, instruct,
_meng-ajar_, to teach (impart instruction), and _bel-ajar_, to learn
(get instruction).
_Mem-bawa_, to bring, _mem-bunoh_, to kill, and _me-makan_, to eat, are
formed from _bawa_, _bunoh_, and _makan_ respectively, which, as they
express actions, not states, do not take the prefix _ber-_.
_Ber-gantong_ is to hang (intransitive), that is, to be in a state or
condition of hanging; _meng-gantong-kan_ is to hang (transitive), that
is, to perform the action of hanging something.
The particle _per-_ (Sansk. _pra_), a prefix used with transitive verbs,
does not seem always to effect a change in the sense. It is used more
generally in literature than in the colloquial dialects, and seems to be
introduced frequently for the sake of euphony only. The difference, for
instance, between _meng-himpun-kan_, to assemble, to collect persons
together, and _mem-per-himpun-kan_, to cause persons to collect
together, is not very marked. No general rule applicable to all
transitive verbs can be laid down for the use of this form with
_mem-per-_; practice and experience must form the only guide.
AUXILIARIES.
The auxiliary verbs and adverbs are--
_Ada_, is, was, are, were.
_Sudah_, was, did, has been.
_T[)e]lah_, was, did, has been.
_Mahu_, will, shall, would, must.
_Handak_, will, shall, would, must, is, was, or were about to.
_Jadi_, is, was, become, became.
PARADIGMS.
_Tidor_, sleep.
_Sahaya tidor_, I sleep, or I was sleeping.
_Tidor-lah dia_, he was sleeping or slept.
_Ber-tidor_, asleep, sleeping.
_Sahaya sudah tidor_, I have slept.
_Dia telah tidor_, he had slept.
_Sahaya maku tidor_, I will sleep, or I want to sleep.
_Sahaya handak tidor_, I shall sleep, or I am about to sleep.
_Dia akan tidor_, he will sleep or is going to sleep.
_Tidor-lah_, sleep thou.
_Mahu-lak angkau tidor_, you must sleep.
_Biar iya tidor_, let him sleep.
_Handak-lah di-tidor-nia_, it must be slept by him, _i.e._, he
intends to sleep.
_Menidor-kan_ or _menidor-i_, to lay down (transitive).
_Mem-per-tidor-kan_ or _mem-per-tidor-i_, to cause to sleep.
_Penidor_, a soporific; that which causes to sleep.
_Penidor-an_, act of causing to sleep.
_Per-tidor-an_, that which belongs to sleep; a bed.
_Ka-tidor-an_, the act of sleeping; there was sleeping on the part
of ----.
_Sa-ka-tidor-an_, the act of sleeping with another; there was
sleeping with ----.
_Si-tidor_, the sleeper.
_Ter-tidor_, gone to sleep.
_Lari_, run.
_Sahaya lari_, I run, or I was running.
_Lari-lah dia_, he ran, or was running.
_Ber-lari_, run, running.
_Ber-lari-lari_, running about incessantly.
_Sahaya sudah lari_, I have or had run.
_Dia telah lari_, he had run.
_Sahaya mahu lari_, I will run, or I want to run.
_Sahaya handak lari_, I will run, or I am about to run.
_Dia akan lari_, he will run.
_Lari-lah_, run thou.
_Mahu lah angkau lari_, you must run.
_Biar iya lari_, let him run.
_Handak-lah di lari-nia_, it must be run by him, _i.e._, he intends
to run.
_Me-lari-kan_, to carry off (transitive).
_Lari-an_, a running, a course.
_Ber-lari-an_, the act of running; there was running on the part
of ----.
_Ber-lari-lari-an_, incessant running; running to and fro; there was
incessant running on the part of ----.
_Ka-lari-an_, flight; act of running.
_Pe-lari_, a runaway, a fugitive.
_Pe-lari-an_, flight.
_Di-lari-kan_ (passive), is, are, was, were, have, has, or had been
run away with.
_Di-lari-kan-nia_, is, are, was, were, have, has, or had been run
away with by him, her, or them.
_Ter-lari_, run, run away (past).
_Bawa lari_, to carry off, run off with. (Here _lari_ is the past
participle after _bawa_, to take, bring, and may be used with that
verb in all its forms.)
_Ada_, be.
_Sahaya ada_, I am or was.
_Ber-ada_, have (possess.), has or had.
_Meng-ada_, to cause to be, to make, invent.
_Sudah ada_, have got, have been.
_Telah ada_, was, have been.
_Mahu ada_, must be.
_Meng-ada-ngada_, to make or invent repeatedly.
_Meng-ada kan_, to create, to cause to exist.
_Ber-ada-kan_, possess, own.
_Mem-per-ada-kan_, to produce, to cause to exist.
_Ter-ada-kan_, produced, created.
_Ada-an_, being, existence.
_Ka-ada-an_, state, existence.
_Bawa_, bring.
_Sahaya bawa_, I bring or was bringing.
_Mem-bawa_, bring, to bring.
_Sudah bawa_, has brought.
_Telah bawa_, had brought.
_Mahu bawa_, will or must bring.
_Aku handak bawa_, I will bring, or am about to bring.
_Bawa-lah_, bring thou.
_Biar iya bawa_, let him bring.
_Mem-bawa-kan_ or _mem-bawa-i_, to cause to be brought or taken.
_Pem-bawa_, a bringer.
_Bawa-an_, that which is brought; a burden.
_Pem-bawa-an_, act of bringing, transport.
_Di-bawa_ and _di-bawa-kan_, brought, passive.
_Di-bawa-nia_ and _di-bawa-kan-nia_, is, are, was, were, have, has,
or had been brought by him, her, or them.
_Ter-bawa_, brought.
_Ambil_, take.
_Sahaya ambil_, I take.
_Meng ambil_, take, to take.
_Sudah ambil_, has or had taken.
_Telah ambil_, had taken.
_Mahu ambil_, will or must take.
_Handak ambil_, shall take or about to take.
_Ambil-lah_, take thou.
_Mahu-lah angkau ambil_, you must take.
_Biar iya ambil_, let him take.
_Handak-lah di ambil-nia_, he must take or intends to take.
_Meng-ambil-kan_, to take or cause to take.
_Ambil-an_, a thing taken.
_Peng-ambil-an_, the act of taking.
_Di-ambil_ or _di-ambil-kan_, is or was, &c., taken (passive).
_Di-ambil-nia_ or _di-ambil-kan-nia_, is or was. &c., taken by him,
her, or them.
_Ter-ambil_, taken, having been taken.
_Suroh_, order.
_Sehaya suroh_, I order.
_Menyuroh_, order, to order.
_Sudah suroh_, has ordered.
_Telah suroh_, had ordered.
_Mahu suroh_, will or must order.
_Handak suroh_, shall order or about to order.
_Suroh-lah_, order thou.
_Mahu-lah angkau suroh_, you must order.
_Biar iya suroh_, let him order.
_Handak-lah di suroh-nia_, he must order or intends to order.
_Menyuroh-kan_, to issue orders, to commission.
_Pe-suroh_ and _penyuroh_, one who is commissioned; a messenger.
_Penyuroh-an_, an order, command; the act of commanding.
_Suroh-suroh-an_, people who are at the orders or command of another.
_Suroh-menyuroh_, to issue orders incessantly.
_Di-suroh_ or _di-suroh-kan_, is or was, &c., ordered.
_Di-suroh-nia_ or _di-suroh-kan-nia_, is, or was, &c., ordered by
him, her, or them.
_Ter-suroh_, ordered, having been ordered.
The facts to be derived from a careful study of the foregoing examples
may be summarised as follows:--
1st. The tense of the verb standing alone is indefinite. It may be
present, imperfect, present or past, &c., according to the context; as
_dia ada_, he is; _tatkala sahaya ada di sana_, when I was there; _kalau
sahaya ada d[)e]kat_, if I am, should be, were, or had been near. This
applies equally to the forms created by prefixing _ber-_ and _me-_,
_mem-_, _men-_, _meng-_, _meny-_ to the radical. Examples: _kita
ber-jalan_, we _are_ or _were_ walking; _nanti sampei sahaya ber-balik_,
wait till I _shall have_ returned; _mati-mati ber-minyak_, if you
_should_ use oil; _raja meng-angkat kalmarin dahulu_, the raja _set_ out
the day before yesterday.
2d. The Imperfect may sometimes be expressed by making the verb,
followed by the particle _-lah_, precede the pronoun; as _diam-lah dia
orang_, they were silent; _maka pergi-lah raja kapada tuan putri_, and
the king went to the princess.
3d. _Past._-- Though the past may be expressed by the primitive verb, as
shown above, if the context shows that the act spoken of is past, it is,
nevertheless, more emphatically marked by the use of the auxiliaries
_sudah_ and _t[)e]lah_, has or had; as _dia sudah tidor_, he has gone to
sleep; _telah lari-lah pe-rompah sumua_, the pirates have (or had) all
run away.
4th. _Future._-- The verb standing alone may express the future when
there is something in the sentence which indicates that a future tense
is meant, such as the word "to-morrow" or "hereafter;" as _esok hari
kita ber-p[)e]rang pula_, to-morrow we shall be fighting again.
The future is also expressed by the auxiliaries _mahu_ and _handak_; as
_dia mahu jual_, he will sell it; _tiada mahu dia datang_, he would not
come; _kapal handak masok sungei_, a ship is about to enter the river;
_di-panggil-nia orang-besar-besar mushawarat handak di-buat meligei_, he
summoned the chiefs to consult about building a palace.
Another mode of forming the future is by the word _nanti_ (lit. wait),
placed, like the French verb _aller_, before the verb; as _sahaya nanti
chahari_, _je vais chercher_, I am going to seek, or _j'irai chercher_,
I shall go to seek.
The preposition _akan_, in order to, in order that, is sometimes used to
convey the sense of the future; as _penyakit itu tiada akan semboh_,
that disease is not to be cured; _siapa akan tahu?_ who shall know?
(= who can tell?); _jikalau raja yang anyaya naraka akan tampat-nia_, if
a king is unjust hell will be his place hereafter.
5th. _Imperative._-- To convey an order or command the radical is used
either by itself or with the affix _-lah_; _kamu_, thou, being either
expressed or understood. The particle adds additional emphasis to the
command. Examples: _pergi_, go; _pergi-lah_, be off, get away; _ka-luar_
or _ka-luar-lah_, go out; _ka-luar-kan-lah_, take (it) out, or turn
(him) out.
_Mahu_ and _handak_ with the affix _-lah_ signify must; as _mahu-lah
kamu turut_, ye must obey; _handak-lah ayam yang puteh_, there must be a
fowl that is white, or, the fowl must be a white one; _handak-lah segala
pegawei raja itu duduk dengan adab dan diam_, the king's officers must
sit with reverence and in silence.
The third person of the imperative mood, which we express by "let him,"
may be rendered in Malay by the use of the word _biar_ or _biar-lah_,
with the verb in the manner shown by the following examples:-- _Biar-lah
dia masok_, let him come in; _biar-lah aku mati_, let me die.
6th. From many verbs are formed verbal nouns by prefixing the particle
_pe-_ (_peng_, _pem_, _pen_, _peny_) to the radical. This prefix
operates like the syllable _-er_ in such words as robber, purchaser,
teacher; as _churi_, to steal; _pen-churi_, a robber; _b[)e]li_, to buy;
_pem-b[)e]li_, a purchaser; _ajar_, to teach; _peng-ajar_, a teacher.
Substantives of this kind and others formed from the verb with the
particles _ka-_ and _-an_ have already been noticed under the head of
the Substantive. But the form arrived at by prefixing to the simple verb
the particle _ka-_ and annexing the particle _-an_ is not merely a noun,
but, as Marsden says, "a gerund in form as well as in sense, being in
fact a verbal noun infinitively applied in construction;" as,
_ka-dengar-an sampei Sayong_, it was to be heard as far as Sayong;
_tiada ka-tahu-an_, not to be understood; _mata-hari tiada ka-lihat-an
sebab ka-lindong-an-lah sayap-nia_, the sun was not to be seen by reason
of the shadowing of its wings.
7th. _Passive._-- In Malay the passive voice is denoted by the particle
_di-_ prefixed to the verb. The place of the nouns which express the
agent and subject respectively will be understood from the following
examples:--
_Hamba di-pukul orang_, I was beaten by men.
_Orang di-pukul hamba_, the men were beaten by me.
_Rumah di-makan api_, the house was consumed by fire.
_Api di-padam-kan orang_, the fire was extinguished by men.
Here the personal pronoun or other agent follows the verb and the
subject precedes it.
Sometimes the preposition "by" finds an equivalent in Malay, the word
_uleh_ being expressed instead of being understood (as in the preceding
sentences). Examples:--
_Maka uleh baginda pun di-sambut dengan seperti `adat_, they were
received by the king with the customary ceremony.
_Di-titah-kan-lah uleh baginda_, it was commanded by the king.
The passive participle is formed by prefixing to the verb the
inseparable particle _ter-_; as _ter-pukul_, struck; _ter-tulis_,
written. When _ter-_ precedes _per-_, one of the particles drops its
final letter; as _te-per-sayang_, compassionated; _ter-pe-lanting_, sent
flying.
_Other forms of the Verb._-- In the preceding paradigms generally those
changes have been inserted which result from the application of
inseparable particles. But there are moods and tenses of the English
verb which are translatable in Malay, though they are not included above
because they involve the use of other words, which, though united to the
verb in construction, do not form part of it.
_Conditional or Potential._-- In expressing a conditional or potential
sense the verb undergoes no change, though following such conjunctions
as "if," "provided that," "in order that;" as _jika tuan datang_, if you
come; _kalau raja me-larang_, if the king should forbid; _dapat kami
ber-untong_, provided we are successful; _sapaya jangan hamba k[)e]na
rugi_, in order that I may not incur a loss; _agar sapaya anak-nia
menjadi `alim_, in order that his children may become learned.
_Optative._-- An optative sense is generally indicated by such words as
_apa-lah_, _apa-lah kira-nia_, prithee, expressions of entreaty, or
_garangan_, forsooth, conveying the notion of a doubt or query; as
_barang di-sampei-kan Allah apa-lah kira-nia_, may God in his goodness
cause it to arrive. But sometimes these are understood; as _di-bri Allah
kamarau sadikit_, may God grant a little fair weather.
_Participle Present._-- Continuity or existing duration of action is
often expressed by the use of such words as _lagi_, still more,
_sambil_, _seraya_, and _serla_, whilst at the same time the verb
remains unaltered in form; as _lagi datang_, coming; _lagi tidor_,
sleeping or still asleep; _ber-jalan sambil ber-sinnyum_, walked on
smiling; _meniambah serta meniapu ayer mata-nia_, made obeisance, at the
same time wiping away her tears.
_Tengah_, half, middle, is often used with the verb in a similar way; as
_dia tengah makan nasi_, he was in the act of eating his dinner.
VI. ADVERBS.
Adverbs in Malay are not distinguished by any prevailing termination
corresponding to the English _-ly_ or the French _-ment_. Many
adjectives and some prepositions are used adverbially.
The following are some of the most useful adverbs:--
ADVERBS OF TIME.
_sakarang_, now.
_tadi_, just now.
_dahulu_, before, formerly.
_sa'buntar_, presently.
_b[)e]lum_, not yet.
_pagi-pagi_, early.
_esok_, _besok_, to-morrow.
_kalmarin_,[4] yesterday.
_tatkala_, _sa-katika_, when (_relative_).
_kemdian_, afterwards.
_pernah_, ever.
_ta'pernah_, never.
_s[)e]dang_, while.
_kadang_, sometimes.
_apa-bila_, _apa-kala_, _bila-mana_, _bila_, when? (_interrogative_).
_kalmarin dahulu_, the day before yesterday.
_lusa_, the day after to-morrow.
_tulat_, the third day from this.
[Footnote 4: In Perak _kalmarin_ means "formerly." _P[)e]tang_ is
"yesterday."]
ADVERBS OF PLACE.
_sini_, _ka-mari_, here.
_situ_, _sana_, _nun_, there.
_mana_, where, wherever (_rel._).
_di-mana_, where? (_inter._).
_hampir_, near, nearly.
_luar_, outside.
_dalam_, inside.
_sab[)e]rang_, across.
_jauh_, far.
_atas_, above.
_bawah_, below.
_sab[)e]lah_, beside.
_balik_, behind.
_d[)e]kat_, near.
MISCELLANEOUS.
_bagini_, like this.
_bagitu_, like that.
_bageimana_, how?
_ya_, yes.
_bukan_, no, not.
_sahaja_, only.
_makin_, so much the more.
_naschaya_, certainly.
_tidak_, no.
_tentu_, certainly.
Adverbs expressing intensity will be found enumerated in Lesson 4.
Among the examples above given several are also prepositions, and will
be found under that heading.
VII. PREPOSITIONS.
The principal prepositions of place and motion are _di_, at, in, on;
_ka_, to, towards; _deri_, from. A great many so-called prepositions are
formed from these three compounded with certain other words, such as:--
_di-atas_, on the top of.
_ka-atas_, to the top of.
_deri-atas_, from the top of.
_di-dalam_, in the interior of.
_ka-dalam_, to the interior of.
_deri-dalam_, from the interior of.
_di-b[)e]lakang_, at the back of.
_ka-b[)e]lakang_, to the back of.
_deri-b[)e]lakang_, from the back of.
_di-sab[)e]rang_, on the farther side of.
_ka-sab[)e]rang_, to the farther side of.
_deri-sab[)e]rang_, from the farther side of.
_di-bawah_, at the bottom of.
_ka-bawah_, to the bottom of.
_deri-bawah_, from the bottom of.
_di-hadap-an_, in front of.
_ka-hadap-an_, to the front of.
_deri-hadap-an_, from the front of.
_di-luar_, at the outside of.
_ka-luar_, to the outside of.
_deri-luar_, from the outside of.
These twenty-one words are used like prepositions, and are often
classified as such, but the true prepositions are the three initial
words.
_Atas_, _bawah_, _dalam_, _hadap-an_, _b[)e]lakang_, _luar_, and
_sab[)e]rang_ here are really substantives governed by the prepositions
_di_, _ka_, and _deri_. Some of these words aptly illustrate the
difficulty of classifying Malay words according to the parts of speech
usually recognised by grammarians. _Dalam_, for instance, has already
been classified in the preceding section as an adverb. It is also
substantive, adjective, and preposition.
_Dalam_ (subs.), interior, depth; as _penghulu dalam_, the guardian
of the interior (inner apartments); _dalam-nia tiga depa_, its
depth is three fathoms.
_Dalam_ (adj.), deep; as _ter-lalu dalam sungei ini_, this river is
very deep.
_Dalam_ (adv.), inside; as _ada orang dalam_, there are people inside.
_Dalam_ (prep.), in; as _kain yang dalam g[)e]dong itu_, cloth in that
warehouse.
In Malay a substantive in the possessive case immediately follows the
substantive denoting the possessor (_supra_, p. 47). In the sentences
_b[)e]lakang gunong_, the back of the mountain; _hadap-an raja_, the
presence of the king; _sab[)e]rang sungei_, the farther side of the
river, all the words are substantives, _gunong_, _raja_, and _sungei_
being in the possessive case.
Now let the prepositions _di_, _ka_, and _deri_ be added to these
sentences.
_Di-b[)e]lakang gunong_, at the back of the mountain, may be more
shortly translated _behind_ the mountain; so _ka-hadap-an raja_ may be
rendered _before_ the king, and _deri-sab[)e]rang sungei_ _from beyond_
the river.
Here, though the purport of the Malay phrases _di-b[)e]lakang_,
_ka-hadap-an_, and _deri-sab[)e]rang_ are correctly rendered by English
prepositions, only the first portion of each phrase is a Malay
preposition.
Of the remaining prepositions the following are the chief:--
_pada_, _kapada_, at, to, on, towards.
_deri-pada_, from, than.
_akan_, to, for, as to, as for.
_uleh_, by.
_atas_, on, upon.
_datang_, }
_sampei_, } until, as far as.
_hingga_, }
_antara_, between.
_samantara_, until.
_ganti_, instead of.
_balik_, behind.
_serta_, with.
_sama_, with, to.
_dengan_, with.
_dalam_, in, into.
_l[)e]pas_, after.
_karana_, }
_krana_, } on account of.
_sebab_, }
_sa-kadar_, according to.
_demei_, by.
_d[)e]kat_, near.
_tentang_, concerning, opposite.
_bagi_, to.
_trus_, through.
VIII. CONJUNCTIONS.
The following list includes the most useful of the conjunctions in
Malay:--
_dan_, and.
_kalau_, }
_jika_, } if.
_jikalau_, }
_antah_, } perhaps.
_kunun_, }
_sapaya_, in order that.
_pula_, also, again.
_sambil_, } whilst.
_selang_, }
_seraya_, at the same time.
_tambah-an_, furthermore.
_karana_, } because.
_s[)e]bab_, }
_serta_, and, also.
_asal-kan_, provided that.
_atau_, or.
_t[)e]tapi_, but.
_me-lain-kan_, except.
_hania_, but, except.
_yang_, that.
_k[)e]lak_, forsooth.
_juga_, _jua_, also.
_sahaja_, only.
_lagi_, again, even.
_lagi pula_, again, too.
_lagi pun_, besides, also.
_saperti_, as, like.
_laksana_, } like.
_bagei_, }
_iya-itu_, that is to say.
_lamun-kan_, although.
There are also a number of conjunctions which are met with almost
exclusively in the written language, and which it would be pedantic to
use in conversation. Of such are:--
_maka_, _bahwa_, _[h.]ata_, _shahadan_, seldom necessary to the sense,
and not always requiring translation. They answer in some degree
to such words as "now," "next," "but," "then," "again," "so."
_sa-ber-mula_, first, now.
_sa-bagei-lagi_, further, again.
_arkian_, now, then.
_agar_, in order that.
_y`ani_, that is to say.
_wab`adahu_,[5] and then, afterwards.
_walakin_ (Arab. _wa_, and _lakin_, but), but, though, nevertheless.
[Footnote 5: Arabic _wa_, and, _b`adahu_, afterwards--often used
by a pleonasm with _kemdian_, afterwards; _wab`adahu kemdian
deri-pada itu_, and after that.]
IX. INTERJECTIONS.
The interjections in most common use are:--
_hei!_ O! _ya!_ O! (Arabic).
_aho!_ O! (Sansk.).
_aduh!_ _aduhi!_ oh! alas! (pain, lamentation).
_niah!_ _niah-lah!_ be off! begone!
_ai!_ _wah!_ oh! alas! (astonishment or affliction).
_ayo!_ _ayohi!_ ah! (affection).
_cheh!_ fie!
_wayi!_ alas!
_demei Allah!_ by God!
_nah!_ there! take it!
_jum!_[6] forwards!
[Footnote 6: This is a Kedah word. _Mah!_ is used in the same
sense in Perak.]
Many other words are used like interjections; such as _kasi-han_ (lit.
affection), what a pity! _sayang_ (lit. concern), 'tis pity! alas!
_karam_ (lit. wrecked), woe to thee! _me-rachun_ (may I be poisoned),
no! (emphatic denial), &c., &c.
A number of Arabic expressions common to all Muhammadans in all parts of
the world are used by Malays, such as _In sháa-lláh_, if it be the will
of God; _Alláhu a`alam_, God is all-knowing; _Astaghfir alláh_, I beg
forgiveness of God; _Wa-llahi_ and _Wa-llah_, by God! _Yá rabb_, O Lord!
_Bi-smi-llah_, in the name of God! _El-[h.]amdu li-llah_, praise be to
God! _Alláhu akbar_, God is most great.
X. NUMERALS.
The numerals in Malay are exceedingly simple. The first ten are:--
1. _sa_, _satu_, _suatu_, one.
2. _dua_, two.
3. _tiga_, three.
4. _ampat_, four.
5. _lima_, five.
6. _anam_, six.
7. _tujoh_, seven.
8. _d[)e]lapan_, eight.
9. _sambilan_, nine.
10. _sapuloh_, ten.
From eleven to nineteen inclusive the numerals are formed from the
digits with the termination _b[)e]las_:--
11. _sa-b[)e]las_, eleven.
12. _dua-b[)e]las_, twelve.
13. _tiga-b[)e]las_, thirteen.
14. _ampat-b[)e]las_, fourteen.
15. _lima-b[)e]las_, fifteen.
16. _anam-b[)e]las_, sixteen.
17. _tujoh-b[)e]las_, seventeen.
18. _d[)e]lapan-b[)e]las_, eighteen.
19. _sambilan-b[)e]las_, nineteen.
20. _dua-puloh_, twenty.
Multiples of ten up to ninety inclusive have the termination _puloh_,
ten:--
20. _dua-puloh_, twenty.
30. _tiga-puloh_, thirty.
40. _ampat-puloh_, forty.
50. _lima-puloh_, fifty.
60. _anam-puloh_, sixty.
70. _tujoh-puloh_, seventy.
80. _d[)e]lapan-puloh_, eighty.
90. _sambilan-puloh_, ninety.
The intermediate numbers are formed simply by adding the units; as--
21. _dua-puloh-satu_, twenty-one.
32. _tiga-puloh-dua_, thirty-two.
43. _ampat-puloh-tiga_, forty-three.
54. _lima-puloh-ampat_, fifty-four.
65. _anam-puloh-lima_, sixty-five.
76. _tujoh-puloh-anam_, seventy-six.
87. _d[)e]lapan-puloh-tujoh_, eighty-seven.
98. _sambilan-puloh-d[)e]lapan_, ninety-eight.
Above a hundred the numbers proceed with equal regularity:--
100. _sa-ratus_, one hundred.
200. _dua-ratus_, two hundred.
300. _tiga-ratus_, three hundred.
400. _ampat-ratus_, four hundred.
1000. _sa-ribu_, one thousand.
2000. _dua-ribu_, two thousand.
3000. _tiga-ribu_, three thousand.
4000. _ampat-ribu_, four thousand.
Any sum, however great, may be expressed by the numerals in
juxtaposition without the insertion of a conjunction; as,
_sa-ribu-d[)e]lapan-ratus-tujoh-puloh-sambilan_, one thousand eight
hundred (and) seventy nine, 1879.
Certain terms for high numbers have been borrowed from the Sanskrit
language and misapplied in adoption, namely, _la[k.]sa_ (Sansk.
_laksha_, 100,000), _keti_ (Sansk. _ko[t.]i_, 10,000,000), and _juta_
(Sansk. _ayuta_, 10,000).
The numbers represented by these words in Malay are _sa-la[k.]sa_, ten
thousand; _sa-keti_, one hundred thousand; _sa-juta_, one million.
In reckoning the numbers from 20 to 30, _lekor_, a score, is sometimes
used instead of _dua-puloh_ (especially in mentioning dates), but in
that case the unit precedes instead of following the decimal; as
_sa-lekor_, twenty-one; _dua-lekor_, twenty-two; _tiga-lekor_,
twenty-three, &c.
To express a quantity which approaches what we call a round number, it
is sometimes convenient to state the latter qualified by the figure in
which it is deficient, as is done in the old-fashioned phrase "forty
stripes save one." Thus, instead of _sambilan-puloh-d[)e]lapan_,
ninety-eight, the phrase _korang dua sa-ratus_, one hundred save two,
may be used.
The use of the word _tengah_, half, before a numeral serves in the same
way to reduce it by half of one. Thus, _tengah dua_ signifies "one and a
half," or "two, less half a one," as if the full phrase were _korang
sa-tengah dua_; so _tengah tiga-puloh_, twenty-five (lit. "three tens
save half"); _tengah lima ratus_, four hundred and fifty (lit. "five
hundreds save half").
ORDINAL NUMBERS.
_pertama_ (Sansk. _prathama_), first.
_ka-dua_, second.
_ka-tiga_, third.
_ka-sa-b[)e]las_, eleventh.
_ka-dua-puloh_, twentieth.
_ka-sa-ratus_, hundredth.
The word _yang_ placed before ordinals corresponds to the definite
article in English; as _yang pertama_, the first; _yang ka-dua_, the
second; _yang ka-sa-ribu_, the thousandth.
FRACTIONAL NUMBERS.
_Tengah_, _sa-tengah_, half; _suku_, _sa-suku_, quarter; _sa-per-dua_,
one-half; _sa-per-tiga_, one-third; _dua-per-tiga_, two-thirds;
_tiga-per-ampat_, three-fourths. Similar fractions may be formed with
other numbers by placing the particle _per_ between the dividend and the
divisor.
COLLECTIVE NUMBERS.
Phrases like "a score," "a dozen," "a couple," are formed in Malay by
the use of the particle _ber_ with the numeral; as--
_ber-dua_, the two, or the pair.
_ber-tiga_, the three.
_ber-puloh-puloh_, by tens.
_be-ratus-ratus_, by hundreds.
_be-ribu-ribu_, by thousands.
The word _ganda_, which in Hindustani is a collective numeral meaning "a
four," is used in Malay in conjunction with numerals in a sense
corresponding to the English word "times;" as _dua-ganda_, double,
twice; _tiga-ganda_, triple, three times.
NUMERAL CO-EFFICIENTS.
In Malay, as in Burmese, Siamese, and Chinese, "there exists a set of
specific and technical terms, called by the grammarians _numeral
affixes_, some one or other of which is always used as a co-efficient to
the numeral, the term being selected according to the class under which
the object falls."[7] The use of these terms will be best understood by
comparing it with the analogous use in English of such phrases as so
many _head_ of cattle; so many _file_ of soldiers; so many _sail_ of
ships; so many _stand_ of rifles.
[Footnote 7: Col. Yule, Journ. Anthropol. Inst. Feb. 1880. This
peculiarity in the Indo-Chinese languages has attracted much
attention among ethnologists. See Peschel, Races of Man, 117;
Tylor, Early History of Mankind, 208; Bunsen's Universal History,
i. 409.]
1. _Orang_ (person or persons) is introduced in the enumeration of
mankind; as _China tiga orang, Malayu sa'orang_, three Chinese and a
Malay; _budak dua orang_, two children.
2. _Ekor_ (tail) is employed in speaking of animals; as _sa-ekor
kuching_, a cat; _kuda b[)e]lang dua ekor_, two piebald horses; _ikan
kechil-kechil barang lima anam ekor_, about five or six small fish.
3. _Buah_ (fruit) is applied to fruit, houses, ships, places, &c.; as
_sa-buah rumah_, a house; _sa-buah n[)e]gri_, a town or kingdom; _lima
buah kapal_, five ships.
4. _Biji_ (seed) is applied to small objects more or less round; as
_buah manggis lima-puloh biji_, fifty mangostins; _ampat biji telor_,
four eggs; _nior muda sa-biji_, one green cocoa-nut.
5. _Halei_ or _lei_, to tenuous objects, such as hair, feathers, leaves,
wearing apparel, &c.; as _bulu sa-lei_, a feather; _kain Palembang
sa-puloh halei_, ten Palembang sarongs.
6. _Batang_ (stem), to long objects; as _lembing dua batang_, two
spears; _tiang ampat batang_, four posts.
7. _Puchuk_ (young shoot), to letters, muskets, cannon, elephants'
tusks, &c.; as _tiga puchuk surat_, three letters; _sa-puchuk gading_,
one tusk: _snapang lima puchuk_, five muskets.
8. _Keping_ (piece, slice), to pieces of wood, metal, &c.; as _papan
sa-keping_, a plank; _timah tiga-puloh keping_, thirty slabs of tin.
9. _Tangga_ (ladder) and _pintu_ (door), to houses; as _rumah dua
tangga_, two houses; _rumah batu anam pintu_, six brick houses.
10. _Lapis_ (fold), to clothing; as _kapan sa-lapis_, a shroud.
11. _Rawan_, to nets and cordage; as _pukut sa-rawan_, a seine net;
_jala dua rawan_, two casting nets.
12. _Bilah_, to cutting weapons; as _kris sa-bilah_, one kris;
_p[)e]dang lima bilah_, five swords.
13. _Buntoh_, to rings, fish-hooks, &c.; as _kail sa-buntoh_, a
fish-hook; _chinchin tiga buntoh_, three rings.
14. _Bidang_, to things spread out; as _destar sa-bidang_, one
head-cloth.
15. _Butir_, to fruit, seeds, and other small round objects; as _nior
sa-butir_, a cocoa-nut; _mutiara sa-butir_, a pearl.
There are many other similar idiomatic terms, examples of which will be
given in the more advanced lessons farther on.
XI. PARTICLES.
Most of the particles have been noticed in speaking of the verb, but
there are three or four which require special mention.
_Lah_ is affixed to words of all kinds, sometimes merely for the sake of
euphony, but more frequently as a particle of intensity.
In the sentence _ada-lah kapada suatu hari_, it happened on a certain
day, _lah_ is simply expletive; but in the sentence _dia-lah yang buat_,
it was _he_ who did it, the particle serves to emphasise the word _dia_.
The latter use of the particle _lah_ is exemplified by its frequent
employment to emphasise a command; as _mari-lah_, come; _pergi-lah_, go.
_Kah_ is the interrogative particle. When affixed to words it is the
sign of a question or a doubt; as _itu-kah atau lain-kah?_ is it that or
another? _Antah sunggoh-kah atau tidak_, it is doubtful whether it be
true or not.
_Tah_ is also an interrogative particle, but of less general use than
_kah_. _Apa-tah?_ what else? is a common phrase indicating assent.
_Pun_ is annexed to all kinds of words, sometimes merely to give
roundness to a phrase, sometimes with the sense of "too," or "also"
(where the sentence is affirmative), or "nor," "neither" (where it is
negative); as _maka iya-pun datang_, then he came; _aku pun mahu_, I too
want it; _siyang pun tidak malam pun tidak_, it was neither day nor
night.
PART II.
COMPOSITION OF SENTENCES.
Owing to the absence of inflexion, the composition of simple sentences
in Malay offers few difficulties. The phrases and exercises which will
be given in this Part are simple and elementary, serving thus as a
preparation for others of progressive difficulty to be reached at a
later stage.
LESSON I.
SUBSTANTIVES.
person (man, woman, or child), _orang_.
man, _laki-laki_.
woman, _per-ampu-an_.
child, _anak_.
house, _rumah_.
water, _ayer_.
fire, _api_.
wind, _angin_.
wood, _kayu_.
carriage, _kreta_.
horse, _kuda_.
ship, _kapal_.
steamer, _kapal-api_.
boat, _sampan_.
cow, ox, _lumbu_.
dog, _anjing_.
bird, _burong_.
snake, _ular_.
fish, _ikan_.
sun, _mata-hari_.
moon, _bulan_.
star, _bintang_.
sea, _laut_.
river, _sungei_.
cloth, _kain_.
ADJECTIVES.
good, _baik_.
new, _b[)a]haru_.
naughty, wicked, _jahat_.
beautiful, _bagus_.
pretty, _chantek_.
wise, _pandei_.
stupid, _bodoh_.
large, _b[)e]sar_.
small, _k[)e]chil_.
deep, _dalam_.
swift, _laju_.
high, _tinggi_.
round, _bulat_.
old, _tuah_.
young, _muda_.
cold, _s[)e]juk_.
hot, _panas_.
far, _jauh_.
near, _d[)e]kat_.
coarse, _kasar_.
fine, _halus_.
ADVERBS.
very, _baniak_.
exceedingly, _sangat_.
Before showing how sentences may be constructed with these words by
means of the verb _ada_, and with the aid of the personal pronouns, two
of the hints already given are here repeated:--
1. Adjectives follow their substantives.
2. The verb _ada_ is frequently omitted and left to be understood.
EXAMPLES.
A bad man--
_Orang jahat._
A pretty woman--
_Perampuan chantek._
A high house--
_Rumah tinggi._
A high wind--
_Angin b[)e]sar._
Cold water--
_Ayer s[)e]juk._
This is my child--
_Ini anak sahaya_ (not, _Ini ada sahaya punya anak_).
That bullock-cart is mine--
_Kreta lumbu itu sahaya punya._
That pony-carriage is swift--
_Kreta kuda itu ada laju._
That person has a dog--
_Orang itu ada sa'ekor anjing._
That woman's cloth is very fine--
_Kain perampuan itu halus sangat._
This man has one son and two daughters--
_Orang ini ada anak laki-laki sa'orang dan anak perampuan dua
orang._
The steamer is near--
_Kapal-api ada d[)e]kat._
His child is very naughty--
_Anak dia baniak jahat._
They have a boat--
_Dia orang ada sa'buah sampan._
There are men and women--
_Ada orang laki-laki dan perampuan._
The old man has a piece of coarse cloth--
_Orang tuah itu ada kain kasar sa'lei._
EXERCISE.
I am a good man. His child is very wise. The moon is round. They have a
beautiful horse. My boat is very large. The sea is very deep. The sun
and stars are very far off. This person has a vicious dog. That man's
daughter is beautiful. This river is very swift. A small snake. This ox
is very old. That person's boat is small. There are fish. There is a
bird. The water of the river is warm. There are stupid people and there
are wise people. His ship is very far off.
LESSON II.
ON THE SECOND PERSON.
The use of the word _angkau_ and similar pronouns is to be avoided as
much as possible. When the pronoun of the second person cannot be
understood but must be expressed, _angkau_, or the local or provincial
word used in substitution for it (according to the part of the
Archipelago in which the speaker finds himself), may be employed. In
addressing natives of rank or of superior position, the appropriate
forms should be used. The word _lu_ should never be used to a Malay; it
is, however, in common use among those Chinese who use Malay as a medium
of communication with other nationalities. On the subject of the second
person see _supra_, p. 49.
SUBSTANTIVES.
animal, _b[)e]natang_.
father (common form), _bapa_.
father (polite form), _ayah_, _ayahnda_.
mother (common form), _mak_, _ibu_.
mother (polite form), _bonda_.
elder brother, _abang_.
elder sister, _kakak_.
younger brother or sister, _adek_.
boy or girl, _budak_.
brother or sister, _sudara_.
husband, _laki_.
wife, _bini_.
forest, _hutan_.
tree, _pokok_.
plain, _padang_.
shop, _k[)e]dei_.
fruit, _buah_.
sky, _langit_.
ground, _tanah_.
dollar, _ringgit_.
road, _jalan_.
age, _`umur_.
ADJECTIVES.
long, _panjang_.
short, _pendek_, _pandah_.
sweet, _manis_.
wet, _basah_.
dry, _k[)e]ring_.
many, _baniak_.
rich, _kaya_.
poor, _miskin_.
strong, _kuat_.
hard, _k[)e]ras_.
soft, _lumbut_.
few, _sadikit_.
VERBS.
to say, _kata_.
to go, _pergi_.
to run, _lari_.
to talk, _chakap_.
to tell, _bilang_.
to arrive, _sampei_.
to sit, _duduk_.
to dwell, _tinggal_.
to send, _kirim_.
to bring, _bawa_.
EXAMPLES.
_To a Raja._
Your house is very large--
_Rumah tunku baniak besar._
Your father is very old--
_Ayahnda tunku tuah sangat._
This is your horse--
_Ini tunku punya kuda._
_To a respectable Chinese._
There is a quantity of cloth in your shop--
_Ada baniak kain-kain didalam baba punya k[)e]dei._
When did you arrive?--
_Towkay bila sampei?_
Your elder brother is very rich--
_Towkay punya abang baniak kaya._
Your carriage and mine are alike--
_Kreta baba dengan kreta sahaya ada sama._
_To a Malay Headman._
There are a number of people in your house--
_Ada baniak orang di-dalam rumah datoh._
Your son is very strong--
_Anak datoh, baniak kuat._
Where do you live?--
_Datoh di-mana tinggal?_
_To a Malay of superior rank._
What do you say to it?--
_Apa kata inche?_
Who told it to you?--
_Siapa bilang kapada inche?_
Your elder sister has a great many fruit-trees--
_Inche punya kakak ada baniak pokok buah._
_To a Sayyid or Haji._
Where are you going to?--
_Tuan handak pergi ka-mana?_
What is your age?--
_B[)e]r-apa `umur tuan?_
I wish to talk a little with you--
_Sahaya handak chakap sadikit dengan tuan._
_To Persons of inferior rank._
Who are you?--
_Siapa kamu?_
Is this yours?--
_Angkau punya-kah ini?_
Where is your house?--
_Di-mana rumah angkau?_
Bring your hat--
_Bawa topi s[)e]ndiri._
Where do you live?--
_Di-mana tinggal?_
Have you got a light?--
_Ada api?_
Why are you so late?--
_Apa buat lambat ini?_
When you were at the shop just now, who was there?--
_Apabila angkau di k[)e]dei tadi siapa ada di-situ?_
EXERCISE.
Where is your shop? Is this your mother? You and your brother were
running. You are very stupid. Have you told your elder sister? Your son
has arrived. Was it you who sent fruit? What did you say to him? When
will you go? You will bring a boat. You went to the jungle.
LESSON III.
SUBSTANTIVES.
news, _khabar_.
workman, _tukang_.
cat, _kuching_.
rat, _tikus_.
sugar, _gula_.
needle, _jarum_.
form, _rupa_.
elephant, _gajah_.
ADJECTIVES.
excellent, _endah_.
careful, _jimat_.
worthless, _burok_.
difficult, _susah_.
VERBS.
To do, make, _buat_.
To seek, _ch[)a]hari_.
To conceal, _sembunyi_.
To find, obtain, _dapat_.
ON THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON.
One form of the comparative degree is similar in construction to the
Hindustani comparative, that is to say, the object with which the
comparison is made is put in the ablative case (by the use of the
preposition _deri_ or _deri-pada_), while the adjective remains
unmodified by adverb or particle. Thus the phrase "This house is larger
than that," may be rendered _Besar rumah ini deri rumah itu_ (_Yih ghar
us ghar se ba[r.][-a] hai_).
EXAMPLES.
The rumour is better than the reality--
_Endah khabar deri rupa._
The Chinese workman is more skilful than the Kling--
_Pandei tukang China deri tukang Kling._
The cat is larger than the mouse--
_Besar kuching deri tikus._
This is better than that--
_Baik ini deri-pada itu._
(_Note that the adjective always precedes the objects compared._)
The comparative degree is also formed by the use of the adverb _lebeh_
or _ter-lebeh_, more, prefixed to the adjective, which is followed by
the preposition _deri_ or _deri-pada_.
Hotter than before--
_Lebeh panas deri dahulu._
Sweeter than honey--
_Lebeh manis deri gula._
It is better to go than to remain--
_Ter-lebeh baik pergi deri-pada tinggal._
The adverb _lagi_, more, is sometimes used instead of _lebeh_.
You must make it larger--
_Mahu buat besar lagi._
This is better--
_Ini lagi baik._
Another form of comparison is constructed with the adverb _korang_,
less, prefixed to the adjective; as _korang baik_, not very good;
_korang biasa_, inexperienced (lit. less accustomed).
The superlative degree is formed in several ways: First, by making a
comparison of universal application; as--
This is the best (lit. this is better than all)--
_Baik ini deri sumua._
The finest needle of all--
_Jarum yang lebeh halus deri-pada sumua-nia._
The hardest of all to obtain--
_Yang ter-lebeh susah men-dapat deri-pada sumua-nia._
Secondly, by the use of the adverb _sakali_, very, exceedingly, after
the adjective when the latter is preceded by the relative pronoun
_yang_; as--
The best--
_Yang baik sakali._
The worst--
_Yang burok sakali._
Such-a-one was the handsomest--
_Yang elok sakali si-anu._
Thirdly, by duplication of the adjective, which then takes the particle
_sa_ before it; as--
The quickest pace of an elephant is the slowest walk of a man--
_Sa-chepat-chepat jalan-an gajah, sa-lambat-lambat jalan an orang._
The very least--
_Sa-korang-korang._
Utterly and completely guilty--
_Sa-penoh-penoh salah._
The most just king--
_Sa-adil-adil raja._
With the greatest care--
_Dengan sa-habis-habis jimat._
You must look out for the very best article--
_Handak ch[)a]hari yang sa-baik-baik-nia._
He hides it with the greatest pains--
_Di-sembunyi-kan-nia dengan sa-buleh-buleh-nia._
EXERCISE.
My horse is better than your horse. These people are more stupid than
those. The form of the horse is handsomer than that of the elephant. The
men are more wicked than the women. The pace of the horse is swifter
than that of the elephant. That woman is the handsomest, but this one is
the wisest. His house is the worst of all. Bring the slowest elephant of
all. The father is wiser than the child. It is better to bring the ox
than the horse.
LESSON IV.
ON INTENSIVES.
SUBSTANTIVES.
reception-hall, _balei_.
room, _bilek_.
stairs, _tangga_.
a play, _per-main-an_.
conduct, _ka-laku-an_.
body, _tuboh_.
head, _kapala_.
year, _tahun_.
month, _bulan_.
price, _harga_.
country, _n[)e]gri_.
queen, _permeisuri_.
king, _raja_.
minister, _mantri_.
patience, _sabar_.
ADJECTIVES.
ill, painful, _sakit_.
cheap, _morah_.
dear, _mahal_.
wide, _luas_.
astonished, _heiran_.
thin, _kurus_.
fat, _gumok_.
illustrious, _mulia_.
narrow, _simpit_.
glad, _suka_.
VERBS.
to see, _lihat_.
to demand, _minta_.
to be able, _buleh_.
to hear, _dengar_.
to play, _main_.
to look, _tengok_.
to enter, _masok_
to order, _suroh_.
_On Intensives._-- To express an intensive degree the particle _ter_ is
prefixed to adjectives and adverbs; as _ter-b[)e]sar_, very large;
_ter-kuasa_, very powerful; _ter-lebeh_, most; _ter-lalu_, excessively;
_ter-lampau_, surpassing; _ter-amat_, most exceedingly.
The adjective may also be intensified by duplication; as _ikan yang
besar-besar_, great big fish; _burong kechil-kechil_, very small birds;
_n[)e]gri jauh-jauh_, far-distant lands; _dia harti baik-baik_, he
understands very well.
The following adverbs are of frequent use in heightening the sense of
words:--
_baniak_, very.
_amat_, exceedingly.
_sangat_, very.
_sakali_, quite, most.
_ter-lebeh_, most.
_ter-lalu_, excessively.
_ter-langsong_, } surpassingly.
_ter-lampau_, }
_ter-amat_, most exceedingly.
All of these precede the positive except _sakali_, which invariably
follows it. _Amat_ and _sangat_ are also sometimes placed after the
adjective which they qualify.
It is common to use more than one of these words with the same
adjective, just as we say "the very most."
EXAMPLES.
There were a very great number of people in the reception-hall--
_Di balei itu ter-amat-lah baniak orang._
His body was very thin--
_Tuboh-nia sangat kurus._
The performance was exceedingly pretty--
_Sangat-lah chantek itu per-main-an._
He was immensely astonished at seeing it--
_Dia ter-lalu heiran me-lihat-kan._
This year all fruit is very plentiful and cheap--
_Tahun ini sagala buah-buah sangat-lah baniak dan morah harga-nia._
You must be exceedingly patient--
_Handak-lah dengan sabar sangat._
Very stupid in appearance--
_Ter-lalu bodoh rupa-nia._
The road is very bad--
_Jalan itu burok sakali._
Most exceedingly painful--
_Yang ter-lebeh sangat sakit._
It was a very large country--
_Ter-lalu amat besar negri itu._
His conduct was too bad--
_Ter-lampau jahat ka-laku-an-nia._
The adjective _maha_, great, is similarly used; as _maha besar_, very
great; _maha mulia_, most illustrious; _maha kuasa_, all-powerful.
EXERCISE.
He demanded a very high price. He is very ill. Your father was
exceedingly wise. It is a very large river. I am very frightened. The
water is very deep. Those Chinese are very wicked. The most illustrious
and most mighty queen. The old man's cow is very thin. I was much
surprised at hearing it. He brought some very big horses. Some very
large ships have arrived. This month fish is very cheap. The room is
very wide. The river was much too narrow, the ship could not enter. I
have a very bad headache.
LESSON V.
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.
In asking a question, the tone of the voice sometimes marks the
interrogation sufficiently.
Sometimes the interrogation is marked by the use of the particle _-kah_
affixed to the emphatic word of the sentence.
Sometimes the interrogative form of a sentence is shown by the use of
such words as--
_apa_, what?
_siapa_, who?
_ka-mana_, where?
_b[)e]r-apa_, how many?
_mana_, who, which, how?
_bagei-mana_, how?
_apa sebab_, or }
_apa buat_, or } why?
_mengapa_ }
SUBSTANTIVES.
time, _kali_.
rain, _hujan_.
market, _pasar_.
stone, _batu_.
use, _guna_.
iron, _besi_.
steel, _baja_.
tin, _timah_.
lead, _timah hitam_.
copper, _tambaga_.
box, _p[)e]ti_.
kind, sort, _macham_.
tobacco, _tambakau_.
coffee, _kahwah_.
tea, _teh_, _cha_.
tea (dry), _daun teh_.
tea (liquid), _ayer teh_.
money, _wang_.
jacket, _baju_.
trousers, _saluar_.
EXAMPLES.
What is the matter?--
_Apa korang?_
What is to be done? (_i.e._, there is nothing to be done)--
_Apa bulik buat?_
What is the use?--
_Apa guna?_
Whence do you come?--
_Deri-mana datang kamu?_
Where are you going?--
_Handak pergi ka-mana?_
Why did you not tell me sooner?--
_Apa buat ta'bilang dahulu?_
What do you say?--
_Apa kata kamu?_
Why do ye run?--
_Mengapa kumu orang lari?_
Where did you get that?--
_Di-mana-kah angkau dapat itu?_
Which tree shall I cut down?--
_Pokoh mana handak tebang?_
How many days ago?--
_B[)e]rapa hari sudah?_
When was he at the market?--
_Bila-mana dia di pasar?_
Whose house is this?--
_Rumah ini siapa punya?_
Are there many Chinese in Patani?--
_Baniak-kah orang China di Patani?_
Was it truly he who did it?--
_Sunggoh-kah dia yang buat?_
Is it this one or another?--
_Ini-kah atau lain-kah?_
Is it going to rain?--
_Handak hujan-kah?_
What is the price of this?--
_B[)e]rapa harga ini?_
What is the news? (How goes it?)--
_Apa khabar?_
How could I dare to do it ?--
_Macham mana sahaya b[)e]rani buat?_
EXERCISE.
Where is my jacket? What did he say? Why do you come here? Are there any
dollars in the box? How many times has it rained this month? Whose tin
is this? Who brought this tobacco? Did you demand the money from his
father? Whence did you obtain this news? Did you order him to bring the
coffee? How many miles (lit. _stones_) is it to the market? Shall I cut
down this tree? Have you seen that play? Who was that who brought the
fish? What kind of animal is that? When were you at the house? Why do
they not enter?
Sometimes the word _apa_ at the commencement of a sentence gives it an
interrogative sense;[1] as _apa, tuan ta' makan daging karbau?_ do you
not eat buffalo meat? _apa tiada-kah sukar leher bangau itu?_ what!
would not the stork's neck be inconveniently long? _apa tiada-kah
tuan-hamba kenal akan bangau itu?_ does not my lord recognise that
stork?[2]
[Footnote 1: Like the Hindustani _kya_ or the Latin _an_, _num_.
Forbes' Hindustani Manual.]
[Footnote 2: Sri Rama. Favre's Grammar, p. 92.]
LESSON VI.
FORMATION OF NEGATIVE SENTENCES.
_Tidak_, no.
_Tiada_, is not (are, was, were, do, did not, &c.).
_Bukan_, no, not.
_Jangan_, don't, let not.
_Antah_, I know not; who knows? there is no saying.
_Jangan-kan_, not only, not, so far from.
_Bukan_ is a more emphatic denial than _tidak_. It is also used, either
alone or with the affix _-kah_, to signify _is it not?_ _is it not so?_
_Tiada_ is generally abbreviated colloquially to _t'ada_ and _t'a'_ (in
Java _trada_ and _tra_).
_Antah_ is an expression of doubt.
EXAMPLES.
Yes or no?--
_Ya atau tidak._
That which is he causes not to be; that which is not he causes to be--
_Yang ada dia tidak-kan, yang tidak dia ada-kan._
It is nothing = never mind--
_Tidak apa._
He got no small quantity of fish--
_Dia men-dapat ikan bukan sadikit._
Her beauty was of no ordinary kind--
_Molek-nia bukan alang-kapalang._
Is this his house or not?--
_Ini-kah rumah dia atau bukan?_
Indescribable, wonderful--
_Bukan buat-an lagi_ (lit. _it was no longer doing_).
You said just now that you went home first, did you not?--
_Kata kamu tadi sudah pulang ka rumah dahulu, bukan-kah?_
He is not my child--
_Bukan-lah iya anak hamba._
He will not come--
_Dia ta' mahu datang._
I asked him a great many times, but he would not--
_Sahaya minta b[)e]rapa kali tiada dia mahu._
There are no fish in the market--
_T'ada ikan di pasar._
I do not know where he has gone--
_Antah ka-mana pergi-nia._
There is no saying how many of them died--
_Antah ber-apa baniak-nia yang mati._
It cannot be otherwise--
_Ta' dapat tiada._
He cannot enter--
_Dia ta'bulih masok._
Do not go--
_Jangan pergi._
Do not believe what people say--
_Jangan perchaya akan perkata-an orang._
Shall I enter the house or not?--
_Masok-kah aku dalam rumah atau jangan-kah?_
So far from obtaining it, we did not even see it--
_Jangan-kan dapat, me-lihat-pun tidak._
Not to speak of _you_, of _me_, even, they are afraid--
_Jangan-kan tuan, hamba-tuan pun dia orang takut._
EXERCISE.
He said no. That conduct is not proper. He cannot write. The children
are not in the house. So far from getting a pony-carriage, we cannot
even get a bullock-cart. Not to speak of the night, by day even people
are afraid to go there. There is no saying how it happened. Do not go
near. Shall I give the fruit to the woman or not? There are not many
horses here. Do you not know that? The Chinaman will not say yes or no.
Do not be afraid. If the seed is good it cannot but be that the fruit is
good also. The wind was of no ordinary force (_kuat_).
_New words in this Lesson to be learned by heart._
Beautiful, beauty, _molek_; dead, to die, _mati_; to believe,
_perchaya_; saying, speech, _per-kata-an_ (from _kata_, to say); to
fear, _takut_; to write, _tulis_; night, _malam_; daylight, _siyang_;
seed, _biji_; doing, making, fabrication, manufacture, _buat-an_ (from
_buat_, to do, to make); to go away, go home, _pulang_.
LESSON VII.
ON THE USE OF PREPOSITIONS.
For a list of the most useful prepositions see _supra_, p. 63.
EXAMPLES.
We are going _up_ the mountain--
_Kita handak naik ka-atas gunong._
_For_ every _orlong_ (land-measure) ten cents--
_Pada satu orlong sa-puloh duit._[3]
The clerks who are _under_ him--
_Krani-krani yang di-bawah-nia._
Many people have settled _at_ that place--
_Baniak orang sudah masok di tampat itu._
He saw it _from_ outside--
_Deri luar iya me-lihat-kan._
People have remarked upon the subject _before_ me (in my presence)--
_Ada juga orang ter-kenang-kan hal itu di hadap-an sahaya._
The Raja gave a present _to_ him--
_Raja memb[)e]ri hadia kapada-nia._
Che Ismail has made preparations for marrying his daughter
_to (with)_ Haji Daud--
_Che Ismail sudah siap handak me-nika[h.]-kan anak-nia dengan Haji
Daud._
They were sentenced _by_ the judge--
_Di-[h.]ukum-kan uleh [h.]akim._
_Among_ the four men three were wounded and one ran away--
_Di-dalam ampat orang itu tiga luka satu lari._
I want to know _about_ that affair--
_Sahaya handak tahu deri-pada hal itu._
The case was begun _on_ the first day of the month--
_Kapada satu hari bulan di-mula-i bichara-nia._
_With_ great haste--
_Dengan sangat gopoh._
He has gone _towards_ the kitchen--
_Sudah dia jalan sa-b[)e]lah dapor._
_On_ both sides of the road--
_Antara ka-dua b[)e]lah jalan._
_Regarding_ the subject of that document--
_Akan hal surat itu._
_After_ a few days--
_Lepas sadikit hari._
He was buried _near_ his father--
_Di-[k.]ubur-kan d[)e]kat ayah-nia._
_According to_ their circumstances--
_Atas [k.]adar-nia._
_According to_ his strength--
_Sa-kadar kuasa-nia._
Go _to_ your master--
_Pergi sama tuan kamu._
He inquired _about_ a murder--
_Dia pre[k.]sa fasal bunoh._
Another version _behind_ your back--
_Balik b[)e]lakang lain bichara._
_Between_ earth and sky--
_Antara bumi dan langit._
To walk _through_ the water--
_Ber-jalan trus ayer._
_For the sake of_ God--
_Karana Allah._
_As far as_ the cross-roads--
_Hingga sempang jalan._
_Until_ now--
_Sampei sakarang._
[Footnote 3: In Penang 1 _duit_ = 1 cent.; in Singapore and
Malacca ¼ cent.]
EXERCISE.
He lives upon the hill. On the tenth day of the month. They came before
the raja. His master gave a dollar to him. He was buried by his
brothers. After that all went away. Among those ten persons six are men
and four are women. As regards the subject of that case, inquiry is now
being made. Each man received according to his circumstances. In which
direction has he gone, towards the right or towards the left? Between
the house and the river. How much will you receive for every pikul of
tin? The dogs are under the house. They sat upon the ground. He arrived
at that place with fifteen men. They remained until night.
The following words used in this lesson should be committed to memory:--
Clerk, _krani_; place, _tampat_; affair, subject, _hal_; gift, present,
_hadia_; judge, _[h.]akim_; order, sentence, _[h.]ukum_; case,
negotiation, _bichara_; hurried, haste, _gopoh_; kitchen, _dapor_; a
grave, _[k.]ubur_; to bury, _[k.]ubur-kan_; rate, condition,
circumstances, _[k.]adar_; strength, power, _kuasa_; the back,
_b[)e]lakang_; the earth, _bumi_; God, _Allah_; fork (of a road),
_sempang_; side, _b[)e]lah_.
To ascend, _naik_; to reflect, consider, _kenang_; wounded, to wound,
_luka_; to marry, _nika[h.]_; to give in marriage, _nika[h.]-kan_; to
examine, inquire into, _pre[k.]sa_; to kill, _bunoh_; to receive,
_t[)e]rima_.
LESSON VIII.
ON THE WORDS _SUDAH_ AND _HABIS_.
SUBSTANTIVES.
a lock, _kunchi_.
a key, _anak kunchi_.
accounts, _kira-kira_.
skill, _ka-pandei-an_.
anger, _ka-marah-an_.
small-pox, _ka-tumboh-an_.
loss, _rugi_.
disease, _penyakit_.
an egg, _t[)e]lor_.
an axe, _kapak_.
the foot, _kaki_.
cold (in the head), _sardi_.
dagger, kris, _kris_.
rocks, reef, _karang_.
a fine, _denda_.
blemish, _chachat_.
VERBS.
to lock, _kunchi-kan_.
to try, attempt, _choba_.
to expend, _b[)e]lanja_.
to be silent, _diam_.
to break, _pechah_.
to stab, _tikam_.
to beat, _pukul_.
to be destroyed, _binasa_.
to burn, _bakar_; burnt, _ter-bakar_.
to be angry, _marah_.
to loose, _lepas_; loosed _ter-lepas_.
to disobey, _bantah_.
to cheat, _tipu_.
to be damaged, _rosak_.
to rob, _samun_.
to bite (as a snake), _pagut_.
ADJECTIVES.
guilty, _salah_.
black, _hitam_.
slow, _lambat_.
rotten, _busuk_.
severe, _t[)e]rok_.
fit, suitable, probable, _harus_.
ADVERBS.
quickly, _l[)a]kas_.
slowly, _perlahan_.
_Sudah_ is classed as an adverb, but its most common use is to serve as
a kind of auxiliary verb in forming the past tenses. It is
translateable, according to the context, by the words and phrases, has,
had; has, have, and had been, or become; done, finished, completed, &c.
_Habis_ signifies done, finished, exhausted, expended; utterly,
completely. The use of these words with verbs will be seen from the
following examples:--
EXAMPLES.
Have you locked the door?--
_Sudah kunchi-kan pintu-kah?_
I have--
_Sudah._
When I reached the house he was already there (lit. had become
present before)--
_Tatkala sahaya sampei di rumah dia sudah ada dahulu._
It is not yet finished--
_Belum sudah._
It is half finished (just being finished)--
_Tengah handak sudah._
Nearly finished--
_Dekat mahu sudah._
Long ago--
_Lama sudah._
A month ago, more or less--
_Lebih korang sa'bulan sudah._
That is enough--
_Sudah-lah._
It has gone bad--
_Sudah busuk._
It is over--
_Sudah habis._
His father is an old man (has become old)--
_Bapa-nia sudah tuah._
Try to complete this--
_Choba-lah bagi sudah._
He understands (has arrived at understanding) accounts very well--
_Pasal kira-kira sudah iya harti baik-baik._
Now it is (has become) near--
_Sakarang sudah d[)e]kat._
They are all dead and gone--
_Sumua-nia mati habis._
Entirely destroyed--
_Habis binasa._
It is all spent--
_Sudah b[)e]lanja habis._
When he had finished speaking--
_Apabila sudah habis chakap._
All were quite silent--
_Habis-lah diam sumua._
The utmost of his skill--
_Sa-habis ka-pandei-an dia._
EXERCISE.
He is dead. He died long ago. He had made preparations for going away.
Are they all ready? The workman says that the box is not yet finished.
He has gone to Malacca. I have seen this before. The tea is finished.
All the eggs are broken. The house was entirely burnt. He spent all his
father's money. Finish that quickly. They have gone back to their own
country. That house is nearly finished. I arrived here a year ago. When
you have finished writing that letter go home. It is now at a distance.
I am just finishing this letter.
LESSON IX.
ON THE VERB _K[)E]NA_.
_K[)e]na_, in the sense of "to incur," is frequently used with other
words to express the passive mood. Thus, instead of "he was fined,"
Malays will say "he incurred a fine;" instead of "he was blamed," "he
incurred anger." _K[)e]na_ also means to touch, strike, hit, affect.
_K[)e]na apa?_ "affected by what?" is frequently pronounced as a single
word, _kenapa_, meaning "why?"
He was prosecuted--
_Dia k[)e]na bichara._
They were sentenced to five years each--
_K[)e]na hukum atas sa'orang lima tahun._
He incurred the displeasure of his father--
_Dia k[)e]na ka-marah-an deri-pada bapa-nia._
The axe slipped in his hand and took effect on the back of his leg--
_Ter lepas di tangan kapak itu, k[)e]na di b[)e]lakang kaki-nia._
Those who have not yet had small-pox--
_Orang yang belum k[)e]na ka-tumboh-an._[4]
If any one disobeys he will be fined five dollars--
_Kalau ada siapa ban tah nanti k[)e]na denda lima ringgit._
I have been cheated--
_Sahaya sudah k[)e]na tipu._
He has been found guilty--
_Dia sudah k[)e]na salah._
He died of a snake-bite--
_Dia mati k[)e]na pagut ular._
That won't do (does not hit it)--
_Ta' k[)e]na bagitu._
Don't go there, you may be injured--
_Jangan pergi sana, barangkali k[)e]na satu apa-apa._
I am always catching cold--
_Salalu sahaya k[)e]na sardi._[5]
If the medicine does not take effect it is likely that the disease
will take a long time to be cured (_i.e._, the patient will
probably die)--
_Kalau tiada k[)e]na ubat-nia harus juga lambat baik penyakit itu._
[Footnote 4: The Malay word for small-pox differs in various
localities. In Penang the common word is _ka-tumboh-an_ (lit.
_eruption_); in Malacca and Singapore, _chachar_; in Perak,
_si-tawar_ and _sakit orang baik_ (lit. "disease of the good
people," a euphuism); in some parts of Borneo, _puru nasi_.]
[Footnote 5: _Sardi_ (Persian and Hindustani) is the word used by
the Malays of Penang. _Selesima_ and _selimat_ generally mean more
than a mere cold in the head.]
EXERCISE.
He died of a stab with a _kris_. He was put to great expense. The ship
was damaged by striking on the rocks. They were fined twenty dollars
each. It did not receive a single blemish. Those who disobey will be
prosecuted. He was very severely beaten. What has happened to the dog
that he limps like that? He has been robbed on the road. He suffered no
small loss. That place won't do. This letter has been blackened by fire.
Yesterday he incurred his master's anger.
LESSON X.
ON THE VERBS _BULEH_, _BAHAGI_, &C.
The verbs _buleh_, can, or to be able; _bahagi_, to give (lit. to
divide); _kasih_ and _b[)e]ri_, to give, grant; and _biar_, to permit,
to suffer, are frequently used to govern other verbs, which they
invariably precede.
_Buleh_ is a contraction of _ber-uleh_, a verb formed from the
preposition _uleh_, by, by means of. The primary meaning of _ber-uleh_
or _buleh_ is to obtain, effect, and hence it has come to mean "to be
able." The original sense of the word may be seen in such sentences as
_ber-uleh per-minta-an_, to obtain (compliance with) a request;
_sudah-kah buleh anak?_ have you had a child?
EXAMPLES.
How can one know?--
_Mana buleh tahu?_
Can you read English?--
_Kamu buleh-kah mem-bacha surat Inggris?_
It is not to be calculated--
_Tiada-lah buleh handak di-kira-kira lagi._
Every month I remind (give to remember) him--
_Tiap-tiap bulan ada hamba-tuan b[)e]ri ingat._
To feed (lit. give to eat)--
_B[)e]ri makan._
Just read that and let me hear it--
_Choba bacha itu biar sahaya dengar._
I wished to speak to him, but they would not let me--
_Sahaya handak chakap dengan dia orang ta' bahagi._
He informed (gave to know) the Penghulu--
_Dia b[)e]ri tahu kapada Penghulu._
Send those people away--
_Kasih pulang orang-orang itu._
Let it fall--
_Biar jatoh._
EXERCISE.
I cannot open the door. He tried to stab him, but could not touch him.
Let him strike. Let the axe drop. His brother cannot understand the
accounts. Let that child go back to the house. I wanted to give him a
little tea, but they would not permit it. The raja sent (gave to go)
messengers. He brought (gave to come) his wife and children. Can I live
here? I have searched, but I cannot find it. He lets them come into the
house. When can you come?
Request, _per-minta-an_, from _minta_, to ask; messenger, _lit._ one
ordered, _penyuroh_, from _suroh_, to order; to remember, _ingat_; to
read, _bacha_; to fall, _jatoh_; every, _tiap-tiap_.
LESSON XI.
ON THE VERBS _LANGSONG_, _LALU_, &C.
In describing a proceeding which involves motion to a place or
continuous action on the part of some person or thing, it is common to
use the words _langsong_, _lanjar_ or _lanchar_, and _lalu_, to proceed,
go, direct one's course. Their signification in a sentence is not easily
translateable in English, but it is perhaps best rendered by the English
idiom, to _go and_ do a thing. Sometimes the effect is that of the
adverbs "immediately," "at last," "incontinently," "forthwith,"
"altogether." _Langsong_ is generally used in Penang, but in Perak the
Malays generally use _lanjar_ in the same sense.
EXAMPLES.
Intending to cook (food), to go and burn it--
_Handak masak langsong hangus._
He went to Meccah and never returned--
_Dia pergi ka-Makah lanjar ta' balik._
The pony fell down and immediately died--
_R[)e]bah kuda itu langsong mati._
He journeyed to Singapore and thence on to Johor--
_Ber-laiar-lah dia ka-Singgapura lalu ka-Johor._
He spat it out and then went and licked it up again--
_Sudah ludah lalu di-jilat_ (a proverb).
He took a knife and forthwith stabbed him--
_Dia ambil pisau langsong tikam._
He visited the districts down the river and thence went on to Kampar--
_Dia pergi ka-daira rantau hilir, lanjar ka-Kampar._
He has gone altogether--
_Dia sudah pergi langsong._
_Lalu_ is often used in the sense of "can," "able," instead of _buleh_.
I cannot do it--
_Sahaya ta' lalu buat._
For a day or two past she has been unable to eat--
_Sudah satu dua hari dia ta' lalu makan nasi._[6]
Will fish swallow a bare hook?--
_Ada-kah ikan lalu me-makan mata kail sahaja?_
[Footnote 6: _Makan nasi_, eat rice. Malays do not, like us, say
simply eat, read, write. It is more idiomatic to say, eat rice,
read book, write letter.]
EXERCISE.
He got up and forthwith went away. He was very angry, and at once
ordered him to go out. The ship struck on a rock and immediately sunk.
He ate rice and then went to sleep. He stabbed him twice and immediately
ran away. He came out of the house and at once fell down. He returned to
his country and died there. Do you intend to go direct to Johor?
To cook, _masak_; to burn, _hangus_; to fall down, _r[)e]bah_; to
return, _balik_; to spit, _ludah_; to lick, _jilat_; to take, _ambil_;
to eat, _makan_; to go out, _kaluar_; to sink, _tinggalam_; a sail,
_laiar_; to sail; _ber-laiar_; a knife, _pisau_; a district, _daira_;
rice, _b[)e]ras_; boiled rice, _nasi_; fish-hook, _mata kail_; reach of
a river, _rantau_; down-stream, _hilir_; up-stream, _hulu_.
LESSON XII.
ON THE WORDS _SAMPAT_ AND _DAN_.
_Sampat_, to be able, competent to, opportunity, fit time; and _dan_,
occasion, opportunity, fit time, are two useful words which are employed
with verbs in much the same manner as _buleh_, _lalu_, &c.
In some parts of the peninsula (Perak, for example), _sampang_ is used
instead of _sampat_.
These words are used more generally to state a negative proposition than
an affirmative one.
EXAMPLES.
They are not able to stand--
_Tiada-lah sampat iya ber-diri._
There was not time (for the fire) to spread to the inner part of the
house, but (it was confined) to the cook-room--
_Tiada sampang di-makan sampei ka-dalam rumah hania sa-b[)e]lah
dapor sahaja._
There was no time to render assistance--
_Tiada dan di-tulong._
He is not in a position to resist--
_Tiada sampat iya me-lawan._
I was not in time to see him; he had already started--
_Ta'dan ber-jumpa, sudah dia jalan dahulu._
Such of them as could not gain the shore--
_Barang yang tiada sampat naik ka-darat._
EXERCISE.
He ran away before I was able to seize him. They were unable to run
away, for people seized them. He went away quickly, so I had no time to
see him. That place is very far off; there is not time to reach it in
one day. He fell down and died before one could render assistance.
Yesterday I was in a great hurry and had not time to finish what I was
saying. There is not time to finish it in two days. Before I could stand
up he struck me.
To stand, _ber-diri_; except, but, _hania_; to help, _tulong_; to
resist, oppose, _lawan_; to meet, _jumpa_; land, _darat_; any, some,
each, every, _barang_.