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[Illustration: Plate I. Figure 1.--Hydnum Erinaceum.
Original Specimen 20 x 16. Found on Mt. Logan near Chillicothe, Ohio.]
THE MUSHROOM
EDIBLE AND OTHERWISE
ITS HABITAT AND ITS TIME OF GROWTH
WITH
PHOTOGRAPHIC ILLUSTRATIONS
OF
NEARLY ALL THE COMMON SPECIES
A GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF MUSHROOMS, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE
EDIBLE AND POISONOUS VARIETIES, WITH A VIEW OF OPENING UP
TO THE STUDENT OF NATURE A WIDE FIELD OF USEFUL
AND INTERESTING KNOWLEDGE
BY
M. E. HARD, M. A.
Superintendent of Public Instruction
Kirkwood, Mo.
THE OHIO LIBRARY CO.
DISTRIBUTORS
COLUMBUS, OHIO
Press of
THE NEW FRANKLIN PRINTING CO.
COLUMBUS, OHIO.
Halftones by BUCHER ENGRAVING CO.
Copyright 1908
by the
MUSHROOM PUBLISHING COMPANY
Columbus, Ohio
(All rights reserved)
_AUTHOR'S EDITION_
_No._ ____
[Illustration: Author.]
_TO MY WIFE_
_Whose thorough knowledge of plant life,
and whose patience in preserving fungal specimens--sometimes
beautiful but often odorous--scattered
from the back porch to the author's library,
whose eyes, quick to detect structural differences,
and whose kindly and patient help have been a constant
benediction, this work's inscribed._
INTRODUCTION
I would agree with those who might maintain that no Introduction is
needed for this book on mushrooms. Nevertheless a word may not be out of
place for the inception of the work is out of the ordinary. Mr. Hard did
not decide that a book on this subject was needed and then set about
studying these interesting plants. He has observed them, collected them,
induced many friends to join in eating those which proved to be
palatable and delicious--really meddled for years with the various kinds
which are edible and otherwise, and then recently he has decided to
publish a book on his favorite subject. The interesting occupation of
photographing the mushrooms and the toadstools doubtless has contributed
largely to the determination culminating in the materialization of the
treatise.
If I have correctly apprehended the origin and the contributing causes,
we would expect this book to be different from the other books on
mushrooms--not of course in scope and purpose; but the instruction and
suggestions given, the descriptions and general remarks offered, the
wide range of forms depicted in word and picture, the whole make up of
the book in fact, will appeal to the people at large rather than the
college student in particular. The author does not write for the
specially educated few, but for the mass of intelligent people--those
who read and study, but who observe more; those who are inclined to
commune with nature as she displays herself in the glens and glades, in
the fields and forests, and who spend little, if any, time chasing the
forms or sketching the tissues that may be seen on the narrow stage of a
compound microscope.
The book then is for the beginner, and for all beginners; the college
student will find that this is the guide to use when he is ready to
begin studying the mushrooms; the teachers in the schools should all
begin to study mushrooms now, and for the purpose they will find this
book advantageous; the people who see mushrooms often but do not know
them may find here a book that really is a help.
We might wish for color photography when the subject is a delicately
tinted mushroom; but if with it we should lose detail in structure then
the wish would be renounced. The colors can be, approximately,
described, often not so the characteristic markings, shapes and forms.
The halftones from the photographs will, we anticipate, prove a valuable
feature of the book, especially if the plants be most carefully examined
before turning to the pictures. For half an hour the pages may be turned
and the illustrations enjoyed. That, however, would give one no real
knowledge of mushrooms. If such use only is made of the pictures, better
had they never been prepared by Mr. Hard and his friends. But if a
charming little toadstool, a delicately colored mushroom, a stately
agaric, be carefully removed from the bed of loam, the decaying stump,
or the old tree-trunk, then turned over and over again, and upside down,
every part scrutinized, the structure in every detail attentively
regarded--not with repugnant feeling, rather with a sympathetic interest
that should naturally find all organisms inhabiting our globe--then in
due time coming to the picture, a real picture, in the book, it must
surely bring both pleasure and profit. Ponder the suggestion. Then, to
conclude in a word, if Mr. Hard's book will induce people to _learn_ and
_enjoy_ the mushrooms that we have, it will be a success, and great will
be his reward.
W. A. Kellerman, Ph. D.
_Botanical Department,
Ohio State University,
Columbus, O._
AUTHOR'S NOTE
IN MEMORIAM
It is with feelings of profound sadness that I am impelled to supplement
the above Introduction by a brief tribute to the memory of that genial
gentleman and lovable companion, as well as enthusiastic scientist, the
late Dr. W. A. Kellerman.
Spending his life in the pursuit of science, the Angel of Death overtook
him while still in search for wider knowledge of Nature and her works,
and with icy fingers sealed the lids over eyes ever on the alert for the
discovery of hidden truths.
Quiet, reticent, and unassuming, it was given to but few to know the
great-hearted, unselfish sweetness of nature underlying his whole life.
Yet the scientific world in general and Nature students especially,
recognize in Dr. Kellerman's death a loss long to be regretted and not
soon to be repaired.
The foregoing "Introduction" from his pen was one of the latest, if not
the last of his public writings, done but a few weeks before being
stricken with the fatal fever which fell upon him in the forests of
Guatemala, and so quickly ended his earthly hopes and aspirations.
It seems doubly sad that one so well and widely known in his life should
be called upon to lay its burdens and its pleasures down while so far
away from all who knew and loved him well; and to rest at last among
strangers in a strange land.
To this beloved friend and companion of so many pleasant days in woods
and fields the author of this book desires to pay the tribute of a
loving remembrance and heartfelt appreciation.
The Author.
PREFACE
"Various as beauteous, Nature, is thy face;
* * * all that grows, has grace.
All are appropriate. Bog and moss and fen
Are only poor to undiscerning men.
Here may the nice and curious eye explore
How Nature's hand adorns the ruby moor;
Beauties are these that from the view retire,
But will repay th' attention they require."
Botany and geology have been favorite studies of the author since
leaving college, thanks to Dr. Nelson, who lives in the hearts of all
his students. He, by his teachings, made these subjects so attractive
and interesting that by one, at least, every spare moment has been given
to following up the studies of botany and paleontology. But the
mycological part of botany was brought practically to the author's
attention by the Bohemian children at Salem, Ohio, at the same time
arousing a desire to know the scientific side of the subject and thus to
be able to help the many who were seeking a personal knowledge of these
interesting plants.
Every teacher should be able to open the doors of Nature to his pupils
that they may see her varied handiwork, and, as far as possible, assist
in removing the mist from their eyes that they may see clearly the
beauties of meadow, wood or hillside.
In beginning the fuller study of the subject the writer labored at great
disadvantage because, for a number of years, there was but little
available literature. Every book written upon this subject, in this
country, was purchased as soon as it came out and all have been very
helpful.
The study has been a very great pleasure, and some very delightful
friendships have been made while in search for as great a variety of
species as possible.
For a number of years the object was simply to become familiar with the
different genera and species, and no photographs of specimens were made.
This was a great mistake; for, after it was determined to bring out this
work, it seemed impossible to find many of the plants which the author
had previously found in other parts of the state.
However, this failure has been very largely overcome through the
generous courtesy of his esteemed friends,--Mr. C. G. Lloyd, of
Cincinnati; Dr. Fisher, of Detroit; Prof. Beardslee, of Ashville, N. C.;
Prof. B. O. Longyear, of Ft. Collins, Col., and Dr. Kellerman, of Ohio
State University,--who have most kindly furnished photographs
representing those species found earlier in other parts of the state.
The species represented here have all been found in this state within
the past few years.
The writer is under great obligation to Prof. Atkinson, of Cornell
University, for his very great assistance and encouragement in the study
of mycology. His patience in examining and determining plants sent him
is more fully appreciated than can be expressed here. Dr. William
Herbst, Trexlertown, Pa., has helped to solve many difficult problems;
so also have Mr. Lloyd, Prof. Morgan, Capt. McIlvaine and Dr. Charles H.
Peck, State Botanist of New York.
The aim of the book has been to describe the species, as far as
possible, in terms that will be readily understood by the general
reader; and it is hoped that the larger number of illustrations will
make the book helpful to those who are anxious to become acquainted with
a part of botany so little studied in our schools and colleges.
No pains have been spared to get as representative specimens as it was
possible to find. A careful study of the illustrations of the plants
will, in most cases, very greatly assist the student in determining the
classification of the plant when found; but the illustration should not
be wholly relied upon, especially in the study of Boleti. The
description should be carefully studied to see if it tallies with the
characteristics of the plant in hand.
In many plants where notes had not been taken or had been lost, the
descriptions given by the parties naming the plants were used. This is
notably so of many of the Boleti. The author felt that Dr. Peck's
descriptions would be more accurate and complete, hence they were used,
giving him credit.
Care has been taken to give the translation of names and to show why the
plant was so called. It is always a wonder to the uninitiated how the
Latin name is remembered, but when students see that the name includes
some prominent characteristic of the plant and thus discover its
applicability, its recollection becomes comparatively easy.
The habitat and time of growth of each plant is given, also its
edibility. The author was urged by his many friends throughout the
state, while in institute work and frequently talking upon this subject,
to give them a book that would assist them in becoming familiar with the
common mushrooms of their vicinity. The request has been complied with.
It is hoped that the work will be as helpful as it has been pleasant to
perform.
M. E. H.
Chillicothe, Ohio, January 11, 1908.
CONTENTS
Introduction by Dr. W. A. Kellerman vii
Preface ix
Chapter I. Why Study Mushrooms? 1
Mushrooms and Toadstools 3
What Any One May Eat 4
How to Preserve Mushrooms 5
Terms Used 5
What Is a Fungus or a Mushroom? 10
Six Groups of Mushrooms 12
Group I--Hymenomycetes 13
Family I--Agaricaceae 13
Spore Prints 14
Analytical Key 16
Chapter II. The White-Spored Agarics 20
Chapter III. The Rosy-Spored Agarics 236
Chapter IV. The Rusty-Spored Agarics 257
Chapter V. The Purple-Brown-Spored Agarics 307
Chapter VI. The Black-Spored Agarics 331
Chapter VII. Polyporaceae. Tube-Bearing Fungi 350
Chapter VIII. Fungi With Teeth 432
Chapter IX. Thelephoraceae 450
Chapter X. Clavariaceae--Coral Fungi 459
Chapter XI. Tremellini 477
Chapter XII. Ascomycetes--Spore-Sac Fungi 485
Chapter XIII. Nidulariaceae--Bird's Nest Fungi 517
Chapter XIV. Group Gastromycetes 522
Chapter XV. Lycoperdaceae--Puff-Balls 531
Chapter XVI. Sphaeriaceae 573
Chapter XVII. Myxomycetes 577
Chapter XVIII. Recipes for Cooking Mushrooms 582
Chapter XIX. How to Grow Mushrooms 586
Glossary 595
A Brief History of Mycologists 598
CHAPTER I.
=WHY STUDY MUSHROOMS.= Some years ago, while in charge of the schools of
Salem, Ohio, we had worked up quite a general interest in the study of
botany. It was my practice to go out every day after flowers, especially
the rarer ones, of which there were many in this county, and bring in
specimens for the classes. There was in the city a wire nail mill,
running day and night, whose proprietors brought over, from time to
time, large numbers of Bohemians as workers in the mill. Very
frequently, when driving to the country early in the morning, I found
the boys and girls of these Bohemian families searching the woods,
fields and pastures at some distance from town, although they had not
been in this country more than a week or two and could not speak a word
of English. I soon found that they were gathering mushrooms of various
kinds and taking them home for food material. They could not tell me how
they knew them, but I quickly learned that they knew them from their
general characteristics,--in fact, they knew them as we know people and
flowers.
I resolved to know something of the subject myself. I had no literature
on mycology, and, at that time, there seemed to be little obtainable.
About that time there appeared in Harper's Monthly an article by W.
Hamilton Gibson upon Edible Toadstools and Mushrooms--an article which I
thoroughly devoured, soon after purchasing his book upon the subject.
Salem, Ohio, was a very fertile locality for mushrooms and it was not
long till I was surprised at the number that I really knew. I remembered
that where there is a will there is a way.
In 1897 I moved to Bowling Green, Ohio; there I found many species which
I had found about Salem, Ohio, but the extremely rich soil, heavy timber
and numerous old lake beaches seemed to furnish a larger variety, so
that I added many more to my list. After remaining three years in
Bowling Green, making delightful acquaintance with the good people of
that city as well as with the flowers and mushrooms of Wood county,
Providence placed me in Sidney, Ohio, where I found many new species of
fungi and renewed my acquaintance with many of those formerly met.
Since coming to Chillicothe I have tried to have the plants photographed
as I have found them, but having to depend upon a photographer I could
not always do this. I have not found in this vicinity many that I have
found elsewhere in the state, although I have found many new things
here, a fact which I attribute to the hilly nature of the county. For
prints of many varieties of fungi obtained before coming here, I am
indebted to my friends. I should advise any one intending to make a
study of this subject to have all specimens photographed as soon as they
are identified, thus fixing the species for future reference.
It seems to me that every school teacher should know something of
mycology. Some of my teachers have during the past year made quite a
study of this interesting subject, and I have found that their pupils
kept them busy in identifying their finds. Their lists of genera and
species, as exhibited on the blackboards at the close of the season were
quite long. I found from my Bohemian boys and girls that their teachers
in their native country had opened for them the door to this very useful
knowledge. Observation has proven to me conclusively that there is a
large and increasing interest in this subject throughout the greater
part of Ohio.
Every professional man needs a hobby which he may mount in his hours of
relaxation, and I am quite sure there is no field that offers better
inducement for a canter than the subject of botany, and especially this
particular department of botanical work.
I have a friend, a professional man who has an eye and a heart for all
the beauties of nature. After hours of confinement in his office at
close and critical work he is always anxious for a ramble over the
hillsides and through the woods, and when we find anything new he seems
to enjoy it beyond measure.
Many ministers of the gospel have become famous in the mycological
world. The names of Rev. Lewis Schweiwitz, of Bethlehem, Pa.; Rev. M. J.
Berkeley and Rev. John Stevenson, of England, will live as long as
botany is known to mankind. Their influence for good and helpfulness to
their fellowmen will be everlasting.
With such an inspiration, how quickly one is lost to all business cares,
and how free and life-giving are the fields, the meadows and the woods,
so that one must exclaim with Prof. Henry Willey in his "Introduction to
the Study of the Lichen":
"If I could put my woods in song,
And tell what's there enjoyed,
All men would to my garden throng,
And leave the cities void.
In my lot no tulips blow;
Snow-loving pines and oaks instead;
And rank the savage maples grow,
From Spring's first flush to Autumn red;
My garden is a forest ledge,
Which older forests bound."
MUSHROOMS AND TOADSTOOLS
=HOW TO TELL MUSHROOMS FROM TOADSTOOLS.= In all probability no student
of mycology has any one query more frequently or persistently pressed
upon his attention than the question, "How do you tell a toadstool from
a mushroom?"--or if in the woods or fields, in search for new species,
with an uninitiated comrade, he has frequently to decide whether a
certain specimen "is a mushroom or a toadstool," so firmly fixed is the
idea that one class of fungi--the toadstools--are poisonous, and the
other--the mushrooms--are edible and altogether desirable; and these
inquiring minds frequently seem really disappointed at being told that
they are one and the same thing; that there are edible toadstools and
mushrooms, and poisonous mushrooms and toadstools; that in short a
toadstool is really a mushroom and a mushroom is only a toadstool after
all.
Hence the questions with the beginner is, how he may tell a poisonous
fungus from an edible one. There is but one answer to this question, and
that is that he must thoroughly learn both genera and species, studying
each till he knows its special features as he does those of his most
familiar friends.
Certain species have been tested by a number of people and found to be
perfectly safe and savory; on the other hand, there are species under
various genera which, if not actually poisonous, are at least
deleterious.
It is the province of all books on fungi to assist the student in
separating the plants into genera and species; in this work special
attention has been given to distinguishing between the edible and the
poisonous species. There are a few species such as Gyromitra esculenta,
Lepiota Morgani, Clitocybe illudens, etc., which when eaten by certain
persons will cause sickness soon after eating, while others will escape
any disagreeable effects. Chemically speaking, they are not poisonous,
but simply refuse to be assimilated in some stomachs. It is best to
avoid all such.
=HOW MUSHROOMS GROW.= There is a strong notion that mushrooms grow very
quickly, springing up in a single night. This is erroneous. It is true
that after they have reached the button stage they develop very quickly;
or in the case of those that spring from a mature egg, develop so
rapidly that you can plainly see the motion of the upward growth, but
the development of the button from the mycelium or spawn takes
time--weeks, months, and even years. It would be very difficult to tell
the age of many of our tree fungi.
=HOW TO LEARN MUSHROOMS.= If the beginner will avoid all Amanitas and
perhaps some of the Boleti he need not be much worried in regard to the
safety of other species.
There are three ways by which he can become familiar with the edible
kinds. The first is the physiological test suggested by Mr. Gibson in
his book. It consists in chewing a small morsel and then spitting it out
without swallowing the juice; if no important symptoms arise within
twenty-four hours, another bit may be chewed, this time swallowing a
small portion of the juice. Should no irritation be experienced after
another period of waiting, a still larger piece may be tried. I always
sample a new plant carefully, and thus am often able to establish the
fact of its edibility before being able to locate it in its proper
species. This fall I found for the first time Tricholoma columbetta; it
was some time after I had proven it an edible mushroom before I had
settled upon its name. A better way, perhaps, is to cook them and feed
them to your cat and watch the result.
Another way is to have a friend who knows the plants go with you, and
thus you learn under a teacher as a pupil learns in school. This is the
quickest way to gain a knowledge of plants of any kind, but it is
difficult to find a competent teacher.
Still another way, and one that is open to all, is to gain a knowledge
of a few species and through their description become familiar with the
terms used in describing a mushroom; this done, the way is open, if you
have a book containing illustrations and descriptions of the most common
plants. Do not be in a hurry to get the names of all the plants, and do
not make use of any about which you are not absolutely sure. In
gathering mushrooms to eat, do not put into your basket with those you
intend to eat a single mushroom of whose edible qualities you have any
doubt. If you have the least doubt about it, discard it, or put it in
another basket.
There are no fixed rules by which you can tell a poisonous from an
edible mushroom. I found a friend of mine eating Lepiota naucina, not
even knowing to what genus it belonged, simply because she could peel
it. I told her that the most deadly mushroom can be peeled just as
readily. Nor is there anything more valuable in the silver spoon test in
which Mr. Gibson's old lady put so much confidence. Some say, do not eat
any that have an acrid taste; many are edible whose taste is quite
acrid. Others say, do not eat any whose juice or milk is white, but this
would discard a number of Lactarii that are quite good. There is nothing
in the white gills and hollow stem theory. It is true that the Amanita
has both, but it must be known by other characteristics. Again we are
told to avoid such as have a viscid cap, or those that change color
quickly; this is too sweeping a condemnation for it would cut out
several very good species. I think I may safely say there is no known
rule by which the good can be distinguished from the bad. The only safe
way is to know each species by its own individual peculiarities--to know
them as we know our friends.
The student of mycology has before him a description of each species,
which must tally with the plant in hand and which will soon render him
familiar with the different features of the various genera and species,
so he can recognize them as readily as the features of his best friends.
=WHAT ANYONE MAY EAT.= In the spring of the year there comes with the
earliest flowers a mushroom so strongly characteristic in all its forms
that no one will fail to recognize it. It is the common morel or sponge
mushroom. None of them are known to be harmful, hence here the beginner
can safely trust his judgment. While he is gathering morels to eat he
will soon begin to distinguish the different species of the genera. From
May till frost the different kinds of puff-balls will appear. All
puff-balls are good while their interior remains white. They are never
poisonous, but when the flesh has begun to turn yellow it is very
bitter. The oyster mushroom is found from March to December and is
always a very acceptable mushroom. The Fairy Rings are easily recognized
and can be found in any old pasture during wet weather from June to
October. In seasonable weather they are usually very plentiful. The
common meadow mushroom is found from September to frost. It is known by
its pink gills and meaty cap. There is a mushroom with pink gills found
in streets, along the pavements and among the cobble stones. The stems
are short and the caps are very meaty. It is A. rodmani. These are found
in May and June. The horse mushroom has pink gills and may be found
from June to September. The Russulas, found from July to October, are
generally good. A few should be avoided because of their acrid taste or
their strong odor. There is no time from early spring till freezing
weather when you can not find mushrooms, if the weather is at all
favorable. I have given the habitat and the time when each species can
be found. I should recommend a careful study of these two points. Read
the descriptions of plants which grow in certain places and at certain
times, and you will generally be rewarded, if you follow out the
description and the season is favorable.
=HOW TO PRESERVE MUSHROOMS.= Many can be dried for winter use, such as
the Morels, Marasmius oreades, Boletus edulis, Boletus edulis, va.
clavipes, and a number of others. My wife has very successfully canned a
number of species, notably Lycoperdon pyriforme, Pleurotus ostreatus and
Tricholoma personatum. The mushrooms were carefully picked over and
washed, let stand in salt water for about five minutes, in order to free
them of any insect-life which may be in the gills, then drained, cut
into pieces small enough to go into the jars easily. Each jar was packed
as full as possible with mushrooms and filled up with water salt enough
to flavor the mushroom properly. Then put into a kettle of cold water on
the stove, the lids being loosely placed on the top, and allowed to cook
for an hour or more after the water in the kettle begins to boil. The
tops were then fastened on securely and after trying the jars to see if
there was any leak, they were set away in a cool, dark place.
In canning puff-balls they should be carefully washed and sliced, being
sure that they are perfectly white all through. They do not need to
stand in salt water before packing in the jar as do those mushrooms
which have gills. Otherwise they were canned as the Tricholoma and
oyster mushroom. Any edible mushroom can easily be kept for winter use
by canning. Use glass jars with glass tops.
TERMS USED
=SOME OF THE MOST COMMON TERMS USED.= In describing mushrooms it is
necessary to use certain terms, and it will be incumbent upon anyone who
wishes to become familiar with this part of botanical work to understand
thoroughly the terms used in describing the plants.
The substance of all mushrooms is either fleshy, membranaceous, or
corky. The _pileus_ or _cap_ is the expanded part, which may be either
sessile or supported by a stem. The pileus is not made up of cellular
tissue as in flowering plants, but of myriads of interwoven threads or
hyphae. This structure of the pileus will become evident at once if a
thin portion of the cap is placed under the microscope.
The _gills_ or _lamellae_ are thin plates or membranes radiating from the
stem to the margin of the cap. When they are attached squarely and
firmly to the stem they are said to be _adnate_. If they are attached
only by a part of the width of the gills, they are _adnexed_. Should
they extend down on the stem, they are _decurrent_. They are _free_ when
they are not attached to the stem. Frequently the lower edge is notched
at, or near, the stem and in this case they are said to be _emarginate_
or _sinuate_.
[Illustration: Figure 2.--Small portion of a section through the
spore-bearing layer of a mushroom which produces its spores on the ends
of cells called basidium. (a) Spores, (b) basidium, (c) sterile cells.]
In some genera the lower surface of the cap is full of pores instead of
gills; in other genera the lower surface is crowded with teeth; in still
others the surface is smooth, as in the Stereums. The gills, pores and
teeth afford a foundation for the hymenium or fruit-bearing surface. It
will be readily seen that the gills, pores and teeth simply expose in a
very economical way the greatest possible spore-bearing surface.
If a section of the gills be examined by a microscope, it will be
observed that upon both sides of the surface are extended hymenial
layers. The _hymenium_ consists of elongated cells or basidia
(singular, basidium) more or less club-shaped. Figure 2 will show how
these basidia appear on the hymenial layer when strongly magnified. It
will be seen that they are placed side by side and are perpendicular to
the surface of the gills. Upon each of these basidia are in some species
two, usually four, slender projections upon which the spores are
produced. In Figure 2 a number of sterile cells will be seen which
resemble the basidia except that the latter bear four sterigmata upon
which the spores rest. Among these basidia and sterile cells will
frequently be seen an overgrown bladder-like sterile basidium which
projects beyond the rest of the hymenium, and whose use is not as yet
fully known. They are called cystidia (singular, cystidium). They are
never numerous, but they are scattered over the entire surface, becoming
more numerous along the edge of the gills. When they are colored, they
change the appearance of the gills.
[Illustration: Figure 3.--Rootlike strands of mycelium of the
pear-shaped puff-ball growing in rotten wood. Young puff-balls in the
form of small white knots are forming on the strands. Natural
size.--_Longyear._]
The spores are the seeds of the mushroom. They are of various sizes and
shapes, with a variety of surface markings. They are very small, as fine
as dust, and invisible to the naked eye, except as they are seen in
masses on the grass, on the ground, or on logs, or in a spore print. It
is the object of every fungus to produce spores. Some fall on the parent
host or upon the ground. Others are wafted away by every rise of the
wind and carried for days and finally settle down, it may be, in other
states and continents from those in which they started. Millions perish
because of not finding a suitable resting place. Those spores that do
find a favorable resting-place, under right conditions, will begin to
germinate by sending out a slender thread-like filament, or hyphae, which
at once branches out in search of food material, and which always forms
a more or less felted mass, called mycelium. When first formed the hyphae
are continuous and ramify through the nourishing substratum from which
there arises afterward a spore-bearing growth known as the sporocarp or
young mushroom. This vegetative part of the fungus is usually hidden in
the soil, or in decayed wood, or vegetable matter. In Figure 3 is a
representation of the mycelium of the small pear-shaped puff-ball with a
number of small white knobs marking the beginning of the puff-ball. The
mycelium exposed here is very similar to the mycelium of all mushrooms.
In the pore-bearing genera the hymenium lines the vertical pores; in
teeth-bearing fungi it lines the surface of each tooth, or is spread out
over the smooth surface of the Stereum.
The development of the spores is quite interesting. The young basidia as
seen in Figure 2 are filled with a granular protoplasm. Soon small
projections, called sterigma (plural, sterigmata), make their appearance
on the ends of the basidia and the protoplasm passes into them. Each
projection or sterigma soon swells at its extremity into a bladder-like
body, the young spore, and, as they enlarge, the protoplasm of the
basidium is passed into them. When the four spores are full grown they
have consumed all the protoplasm in the basidium. The spores soon
separate by a transverse partition and fall off. All spores of the
Hymenomycetous fungi are arranged and produced in a similar manner, with
their spore-bearing surface exposed early in life by the rupture of the
universal veil.
In the puff-balls the spores are arranged in the same way, but the
hymenium is inclosed within an outer sack. When the spores are ripe the
case is ruptured and the spores escape into the air as a dusty powder.
The puff-balls, therefore, belong to the Gastromycetous fungi because
its spores are inclosed in a pouch until they are matured.
Another very large group of fungi is the Ascomycetes, or sac fungi. It
is very easily determined because all of its members develop their
spores inside of small membranous sacs or asci. These asci are generally
intermixed with slender, empty asci, or sterile cells, called
paraphyses. These asci are variously shaped bodies and are known in
different orders by different names, such as ascoma, apothecium,
perithecium, and receptacle. The Ascomycetes often include among their
numbers fungi ranging in size from microscopic one-celled plants to
quite large and very beautiful specimens. To this group belong the great
number of small fungi producing the various plant diseases.
In a work of this kind especial attention is naturally given to the
order of Discomycetes or cup fungi. This order is very large and is so
called because so many of the plants are cup shaped. These cups vary
greatly in size and form; some are so small that it requires a lens to
examine them; some are saucer-shaped; some are like goblets, and some
resemble beakers of various shapes. The saddle fungi and morels belong
to this order. Here the sac surface is often convoluted, lobed, and
ridged, in order to afford a greater sac-bearing surface.
[Illustration: Figure 4.--Small portion of a section through the
spore-bearing part of a morel in which the spores are produced in little
sacs or asci. (a) An ascus, (b) an ascus discharging its spores, (c) the
spores, (d) sterile cells. Highly magnified.--_Longyear._]
In the mushrooms, puff-balls, etc., we find the spores were borne on the
ends of basidia, usually four spores on each. In this group the spores
are formed in minute club-shaped sacs, known as asci (singular, ascus).
These asci are long, cylindrical sacs, standing side by side,
perpendicular to the fruiting surface. Figure 4 will illustrate their
position together with the sterile cells on the fruiting surface of one
of the morels. They usually have eight spores in each sac or ascus.
The stem of the mushroom is usually in the center of the cap, yet it may
be eccentric or lateral; when it is wanting, the pileus is said to be
sessile. The stem is solid when it is fleshy throughout, or hollow when
it has a central cavity, or stuffed when the interior is filled with
pithy substance. The stems are either fleshy or cartilaginous. When the
former, it is of the same consistency as the pileus. If the latter, its
consistency is always different from the pileus, resembling cartilage.
The stem of the Tricholoma affords a good example of the fleshy stemmed
mushroom, and that of the Marasmius illustrates the cartilaginous.
[Illustration: Figure 5.--Small portion of a stem of a morel showing
cell filaments. Highly magnified.--_Longyear._]
If the cap or stem of a mushroom is examined with a microscope of high
magnifying power it will be found to be made up of a continuation of the
mycelial filaments, interlaced and interwoven, branching, and the
tubular filaments often delicately divided, giving the appearance of
cells. Figure 5 represents a small portion of a Morel stem highly
magnified showing the cell filaments. In soft fungi the mycelial threads
are more loosely woven and have thin walls with fewer partitions.
The _veil_ is a thin sheet of mycelial threads covering the gills,
sometimes remaining on the stem, forming a _ring_ or _annulus_. This
sometimes remains for a time on the margin of the cap when it is said to
be _appendiculate_. Sometimes it resembles a spider's web when it is
called _arachnoid_.
The _volva_ is a universal wrapper, surrounding the entire plant when
young, but which is soon ruptured, leaving a trace in the form of scales
on the cap and a sheath around the base of the stem, or breaking up into
scales or a scaly ring at the base of the stem. All plants having this
universal volva should be avoided, further than for the purpose of
study. Care should be taken that, in their young state, they are not
mistaken for puff-balls. Frequently when found in the egg state they
resemble a small puff-ball. Figure 6 represents a section of an Amanita
in the egg-state and also the Gemmed puff-ball. As soon as a section is
made and carefully examined the structure of the inside will reveal the
plant at once. There is but little danger of confusing the egg stage of
an Amanita with the puff-ball, for they resemble each other only in
their oval shape, and not in the least in their marking on the surface.
[Illustration: Figure 6.--The lefthand figure represents a vertical
section through a young plant of the gemmed puff-ball showing the
cellular structure of the stem-like lower half, called the subgleba. The
righthand figure shows a vertical section of the egg stage of an
Amanita, a very poisonous fungus which grows in woods and which might be
mistaken for a young puff-ball if not cut open. The fungus forms just
below the surface of the soil, finally bursting the volva, sending up a
parasol mushroom. Natural size.--_Longyear._]
=WHAT IS A FUNGUS OR A MUSHROOM?= It is a cellular, flowerless plant,
nourished by the mycelium which permeates the soil or other substances
on which the fungus or mushroom grows. All fungi are either parasites or
saprophytes which have lost their chlorophyll, and are incapable of
supporting an independent existence.
There is a vast number of genera and species, and many have the
parasitic habit which causes them to enter the bodies of other plants
and of animals. For this reason all fungi are of economic importance,
especially the microscopic forms classed under the head of Bacteria.
Some recent writers are inclined to separate the Bacteria and
slime-molds from the fungus group, and call them fungus animals.
However this may be, they are true plants and have many of the
characteristics of the fungi. They may differ from the fungi in their
vegetative functions, yet they have so many things in common that I am
inclined to place them under this group.
Many, such as the yeast fungus, the various fermentative fungi, and the
Bacteria concerned in the process of decomposition, are indeed very
useful. The enrichment and preparation of soils for the uses of higher
plants, effected by Bacteria, are very important services.
Parasites derive their nourishment from living plants and animals. They
are so constituted that when their nourishing threads come within range
of the living plant they answer a certain impulse by sending out special
threads, enveloping the host and absorbing nutrition. Saprophitic plants
do not experience this reaction from the living plants. They are
compelled to get their nourishment from decaying products of plants or
animals, consequently they live in rich ground or leaf mold, on decayed
wood, or on dung. Parasites are usually small, being limited by their
host. Saprophytes are not thus limited for food supply and it is
possible to build up large plants such as the common mushroom group,
puff-balls, etc.
The spores are the seeds or reproductive bodies of the mushroom. They
are very fine, and invisible to the naked eye except when collected
together in great masses. Underneath mushrooms, frequently, the grass or
wood will be white or plainly discolored from the spores. The hymenium
is the surface or part of the plant which bears the spores. The
hymenophore is the part which supports the hymenium.
In the common mushroom, and in fact many others, the spores develop on a
certain club-like cell, called basidium (plural, basidia), on each of
which four spores usually develop. In morels these cells are elongated
into cylindrical membranous sacs called asci, in each of which eight
spores are usually developed. The spores will be found of various
colors, shapes, and sizes, a fact which will be of great assistance to
the student in locating strange species and genera. In germination the
spores send out slender threads which Botanists call mycelium, but which
common readers know as spawn.
The method and place of spore development furnish a basis for the
classification of fungi. The best way to acquire a thorough knowledge of
both our edible and poisonous mushrooms is to study them in the light of
the primary characters employed in their classification and their
natural relation to each other.
There is a wide difference of opinion as to the classification of
mushrooms. Perhaps the most simple and satisfactory is that of Underwood
and Cook. They arrange them under six groups:
1. Basidiomycetes--those in which the spores or reproductive bodies
are naked or external as shown in illustration 2 on page 15.
2. Ascomycetes--those in which the spores are inclosed in sacs or
asci. These sacs are very clearly represented in illustration
Figure 4 on page 18. This will include the Morels, Pezizae,
Pyrenomycetes, Tuberaceae, Sphairiacei, etc.
3. Physcomycetes--including the Mucorini, Saprolegniaceae, and
Peronosporeae. Potato rot and downy mildew on grape vines belong
to this family.
4. Myxomycetes--Slime moulds.
5. Saccharomycetes--Yeast fungi.
6. Schizomycetes--are minute, unicellular Protophytes which reproduce
mainly by transverse fission.
CLASS, FUNGI--SUB-CLASS, BASIDIOMYCETES.
This class will include all gill-bearing fungi, Polyporus, Boletus,
Hydnum, etc.
Fungi of this class are divided into four natural groups:
1. Hymenomycetes.
2. Gasteromycetes.
3. Uredinae.
4. Ustilagineae.
GROUP 1--HYMENOMYCETES.
Under this group will be placed all fungi composed of membranes, fleshy,
woody, or gelatinous, whether growing on the ground or on wood. The
hymenium, or spore-bearing surface, is external at an early stage in the
life of the plant. The spores are borne on basidia as explained in
Figure 2, page 6. When the spores ripen they fall to the ground or are
carried by the wind to a host that presents all the conditions necessary
for germination; there they produce the mycelia or white thread-like
vines that one may have noticed in plowing sod, in old chip piles, or
decayed wood. If one will examine these threads there will be found
small knots which will in time develop into the full grown mushroom.
Hymenomycetes are divided into six families:
1. Agaricaceae. Hymenium with gills.
2. Polyporaceae. Hymenium with pores.
3. Hydnaceae. Hymenium with spines.
4. Thelephoraceae. Hymenium horizontal and mostly on the under surface.
5. Clavariaceae. Hymenium on a smooth club-shaped surface.
6. Tremellaceae. Hymenium even and superior. Gelatinous fungi.
FAMILY 1--AGARICACEAE.
[Illustration: Figure 7.--Spore-print of Agaricus arvensis.]
In the Agaricaceae or common mushrooms, and in all other of similar
structure, the spore-producing membranes are found on the under surface
of the cap. They consist of thin lamellae, or gills, attached by the
upper edge to the cap and extending from the stem to the margin of the
cap. Very frequently that space may be entirely utilized by shorter
lamellae, or gills, intervening between the longer, especially toward the
margin of the cap. In a few species where the stem seems to be wanting,
or where it is attached to the side of the cap, the lamellae, or gills,
radiate from the point of attachment or from the lateral stem to other
parts of the circumference of the cap. Berkeley gives the following
characteristics: Hymenium, inferior, spread over easily divisible gills
or plates, radiating from a center or stem, which may be either simple
or branched.
This family includes the following genera:
1. Agaricus--Gills, not melting, edge acute; including all the
sub-genera which have been elevated to the rank of genera.
2. Coprinus--Gills deliquescent, spores black.
3. Cortinarius--Gills persistent, veil spider-web-like, terrestrial.
4. Paxillus--Gills separating from the hymenophorum and decurrent.
5. Gomphidius--Gills branched and decurrent, pileus top-shaped.
6. Bolbitius--Gills becoming moist, spores colored.
7. Lactarius--Gills milky, terrestrial.
8. Russula--Gills equal, rigid, and brittle, terrestrial.
9. Marasmius--Gills thick, tough, hymenium dry.
10. Hygrophorus--Stem confluent with the hymenophorum; gills sharp
edged.
11. Cantharellus--Gills thick, branched, rounded edge.
12. Lentinus--Pileus hairy, hard, tough; gills, tough, unequal,
toothed; on logs and stumps.
13. Lenzites--Whole plant corky; gills simple or branched.
14. Trogia--Gills venose, fold-like, channelled.
15. Panus--Gills corky, with acute edge.
16. Nyctalis--Veil universal; gills broad, often parasitic.
17. Schizophyllum--Gills corky, split longitudinally.
18. Xerotus--Gills tough, fold-like.
Therefore the gill-bearing fungi are known under the family name,
Agaricaceae, or more generally known as Agarics.
[Illustration: Figure 8.--Spore-print of Hypholoma sublatertium.]
This family is divided into five series, according to the color of their
spores. The spores when seen in masses possess certain colors, white,
rosy, rusty, purple-brown and black. Therefore the first and most
important part to be determined in locating a mushroom is to ascertain
the color of the spores. To do this, take a fresh, perfect, and fully
developed specimen, remove the stem from the cap. Place the cap with the
gills downward on the surface of dark velvety paper, if you suspect the
spores to be white. Invert a finger bowl or a bell glass over the cap to
keep the air from blowing the spores away. If the spores should be
colored, white paper should be used. If the specimen is left too long
the spore deposit will continue upward between the gills and it may
reach an eighth of an inch in height, in which case if great care is
taken in removing the cap there will be a perfect likeness of the gills
and also the color of the spores.
[Illustration: Figure 9.--Spore-print of a Flammula.]
There are two ways of making these spore prints quite permanent. First
take a piece of thin rice paper, muscilage it and allow it to dry, then
proceed as above. In this way the print will stand handling quite a
little. Another way, and that used to prepare the spore-prints in these
photographs, is to obtain the spore-print upon Japanese paper as in the
preceding method, then by an atomizer spray the print gently and
carefully with a fixative such as is used in fixing charcoal drawings.
Success in making spore-prints requires both time and care, but the
satisfaction they give is ample recompense for the trouble. It is more
difficult to obtain good prints from the white-spored mushrooms than
from those bearing colored spores, because it is hard to obtain a black
paper having a dull velvety surface, and the spores will not adhere well
to a smooth-finished, glossy paper. For the prints illustrated I am
indebted to Mrs. Blackford.
[Illustration: Figure 10.--Spore-print of a Boletus.]
If the plant is dry it is well to moisten the fingerbowl or bell-glass
on the inside before placing it over the mushroom. The spores of Boleti,
and, indeed, all fungi can be caught and fixed in the same way.
From the study of these spore-prints we shall find five different colors
of spores. This family is, therefore, divided into five series,
determined by the color of the spores, which are always constant in
color, size and shape.
The five series will be treated in the following order:
1. The white-spored Agarics.
2. The rosy-spored Agarics.
3. The rusty-spored Agarics.
4. The purple-brown-spored Agarics.
5. The black-spored Agarics.
=ANALYTICAL KEY.=
This key is largely based upon Cooke's analytical key. Its use will help
to locate the plant in hand in the genus to which it belongs.
The first thing the student should do is to determine the color of the
spore if it is not evident. This is best done according to the plan
described on page 15.
The plant should be fresh and mature. Careful attention should be given
to different stages of development. The habit of the plant should be
considered; then, as soon as the color of the spores is determined, it
will be an easy matter to locate the genus by means of the key.
GROUP I--HYMENOMYCETES.
Mycelium floccose, giving rise to a distinct hymenium, fungus fleshy,
membranaceous, woody or gelatinous. Spores naked.
Hymenium, normally inferior--
Hymenium with gills Agaricaceae.
Hymenium with pores Polyporaceae.
Hymenium with teeth Hydnaceae.
Hymenium even Thelophoraceae.
Hymenium, superior--
Hymenium on smooth surface, club-shaped, Clavariaceae.
Hymenium lobed, convolute, gelatinous, Tremellaceae.
FAMILY 1--AGARICACEAE.
Hymenium inferior, pileus more or less expanded, convex, bell-shaped.
Gills radiating from the point of attachment of the pileus with the
stem, or from a lateral stem to other parts of the cap, simple or
branched.
I. Spores white or slightly tinted.
_A._ Plants fleshy, more or less firm, decaying soon.
_a._ Stem fleshy, pileus easily separating from
the stem.
Volva present and ring on the stem.
Pileus bearing warts or patches free from the
cuticle Amanita.
Volva present, ring wanting Amanitopsis.
Pileus scaly, scales concrete with cuticle,
Volva wanting, ring present Lepiota.
Hymenophore confluent,
Without cartilaginous bark,
_b._ Stem central, ring present (sometimes vague),
Volva wanting, gills attached Armillaria.
Without a ring,
Gills sinuate Tricholoma.
Gills decurrent,
Edges acute Clitocybe.
Edges swollen Cantharellus.
Gills adnate,
Parasitic on other mushrooms Nyctalis.
Not parasitic,
Milky Lactarius.
Not exuding juice when bruised,
Rigid and brittle Russula.
Quite viscid, waxy consistency Hygrophorus.
_c._ Stem lateral or none, rarely central Pleurotus.
_d._ Stem with cartilaginous bark,
Gills adnate Collybia.
Gills sinuate Mycena.
Gills decurrent Omphalia.
Plants tough, fleshy, membranaceous, leathery,
Stem central,
Gills simple Marasmius.
Gills branched Xerotus.
_B._ Plants gelatinous and leathery Heliomyces.
Stem lateral or wanting,
Edge of gills serrate Lentinus.
Edge of gills entire Panus.
Gills fold-like, irregular Trogia.
Edge of gills split longitudinally Schizophyllum.
_C._ Plants corky or woody,
Gills anastomosing. Lenzites.
II. Spores rosy or salmon color.
_A._ Stem central.
Gills free, stem easily separating from pileus.
Without cartilaginous stem,
Volva present and distinct, no ring Volvaria.
Without a volva, with a ring Annularia.
Without a volva and without a ring Pluteus.
_B._ Stem fleshy to fibrous, margin of pileus at
first incurved,
Gills sinuate or adnate Entoloma.
Gills decurrent Clitopilus.
_C._ Stem eccentric or none, pileus lateral Claudopus.
Gills decurrent, pileus umbilicate Eccilia.
Gills not decurrent, pileus torn into scales,
and slightly convex, margin at first involute Leptonia.
Pileus bell-shaped, margin at first straight Nolanea.
III. Spores rusty-brown or yellow-brown.
_A._ Stem not cartilaginous,
_a._ Stem central,
With a ring,
Ring continuous Pholiota.
Veil arachnoid,
Gills adnate, powdery from spores Cortinarius.
Gills decurrent or adnate, mostly epiphytal Flammula.
Gills somewhat sinuate, cuticle of the pileus
silky, or bearing fibrils Inocybe.
Cuticle smooth, viscid Hebeloma.
Gills separating from the hymenophore and
decurrent Paxillus.
_b._ Stem lateral or absent Crepidotus.
_B._ Stem cartilaginous,
Gills decurrent Tubaria.
Gills not decurrent,
Margin of the pileus at first incurved Naucoria.
Margin of pileus always straight,
Hymenophore free Pluteolus.
Hymenophore confluent Galera.
Gills dissolving into a gelatinous condition Bolbitius.
IV. Spores purple-brown.
_A._ Stem not cartilaginous,
Pileus easily separating from the stem,
Volva present, ring wanting Chitonia.
Volva and ring wanting Pilosace.
Volva wanting, ring present Agaricus.
Gills confluent, ring present on stem Stropharia.
Ring wanting, veil remaining attached to margin
of pileus Hypholoma.
_B._ Stem cartilaginous,
Gills decurrent Deconia.
Gills not decurrent, margin of pileus at
first incurved Psilocybe.
Margin of pileus at first straight Psathyra.
V. Black spored mushrooms.
Gills deliquescent Coprinus.
Gills not deliquescent,
Gills decurrent Gomphidius.
Gills not decurrent, pileus striate Psathyrella.
Pileus not striate, ring wanting, veil often present
on margin Panaeolus.
Ring wanting, veil appendiculate Chalymotta.
Ring present Anellaria.