on the art works of the Ivalde sons (p. 340, &c.), there is nothing
said about the consequences of the judgment; and the mythologists
seem therefore to have assumed that no results followed, although it
was prepared by the "father of misfortunes," the far-calculating and
evil-scheming Loke. The judgment would in that case be an isolated event,
without any influence on the future, and without any connection with the
other mythic events. On the other hand, no possible explanation was found
of Volund's words (Volundarkvida, 28), which he utters after he has taken
his terrible vengeance on Nidad and is prepared to fly away in eagle
guise from his prison: _Nu hefi ec hefnt harma minna allra nema einna
ivithgjarnra_--"Now I have avenged all the wrongs done to me, excepting
one, which demands a more terrible vengeance." The wrong here referred
to by him is not done to him by Nidad, and did not happen to him while
he lived as an exile in the wilderness of the Wolfdales, but belongs to
an earlier time, when he and his brothers and their kinsmen dwelt in the
realm rich in gold, where, according to Volundarkvida (14), they lived
a happy life. This wrong was not avenged when he and his brothers left
their home abounding in gold, in order that far from his enemies he might
perfect his plan of revenge by making the sword of victory. Volund's
words refer to the judgment passed on the art work of the Ivalde sons,
and thus the mythic events unite themselves into a continuous chain.
This judgment was in its consequences too important not to be referred
to in Völuspa, which makes all the danger-boding events of the mythology
pass one by one before our eyes in the order in which they happened, in
order to show how this world from an innocent and happy beginning sank
deeper and deeper into the misery which attains its maturity in Ragnarok.
That is the plan and purpose of the poem. As I shall show fully and in
detail in another part of this work, its purpose is not to speak of
Valfather's "art work," but of the treacherous deeds of Loke, "the father
of evil" (_Vafodrs vel_--Cod. Hauk.); not to speak of "the traditions
of the past," but of "the past events full of danger" (_forn spjöll
fira_). The happy time during which the Asas _tefldu i túni_ and _teitir
váru_ passes away for ever, and is followed by an epoch in which three
dangerous thurs-maidens came from Jotunheim. These thurs-maidens are not
the norns, as has usually been assumed. Of the relation of the norns
to the gods I have given a full account already. The three thurs-maids
are the one who in her unity is triple and is thrice born of different
parents. Her name is Heid-Gulveig-Angerboda, and, in connection with
Loke, she constitutes the evil principle of Teutonic mythology, like
Angra Mainyu, and Jahi in the Iranian mythology (Bundehesh, 3). The
misfortune-boding event which happens after the first hypostasis of "the
three times born" came from Jotunheim is mentioned in connection with
its consequences in Völuspa (str. 8.) The Asas had not hitherto suffered
from want of works of gold, but now came a time when such as might be of
use or pleasure to the gods were no longer to be had. Of the gold-metal
itself the gods have never been in want. Their halls glitter with this
metal, and it grows in the bright wood _Glasir_, outside of Valhal
(Younger Edda, i. 340). The poem, as the very words show, means golden
works of art, things made of gold, such as _Gungnir_, _Draupnir_, Sif's
hair, Brisingamen, and _Slidrugtanni_, things the possession of which
increased the power of the gods and the wealth of Midgard. Such ceased
to flow into the hands of the gods. The epoch in which Sindre's and the
Ivalde son's gifts increased Asgard's collection of world-protecting
weapons and fertility-producing ornaments was at an end, when Loke,
through Heid's arrival, found his other ego and when the evil principle,
hitherto barren, could as man and woman give birth to evil deeds. The
consequence of the first deceitful act was, as we see, that hands skilful
in art--hands which hitherto had made and given such treasures--refused
to serve the gods any longer. The arrangement whereby Loke gained this
end Völuspa does not mention, but it can be no other than the judgment
brought about by him, which insulted the sons of Ivalde, and, at the
same time, cheated the victorious Sindre out of the prize agreed on,
Loke's head. Both the groups of artists must have left the divine court
angry at the gods. When we remember that the primeval artists are the
creative forces of vegetation personified, then we can also understand
the significance of the conflict between them and the gods, whom they
hitherto had served. The first part of Völuspa is interpolated partly
with strophes from an old song of creation of great mythological
importance, partly with its lists of names for the use of young poets.
If we remove these interpolations, there remains a chain of primeval
mythological mishaps, the first link of which is the event which marks
the end of the first epoch during which the primeval artists, amicably
united with the gods, made splendid weapons, means of locomotion, and
ornaments for the latter. On this conflict followed the blending of the
air with harmful elements--in other words, it was the beginning of the
great winter. Freyja was betrayed into the hands of the giants; the
black art, sown by Heid, was disseminated among mankind; the murder was
committed against the one thrice born contrary to promise and oath; there
is war between the Asas and Vans; the first great war in the world breaks
out, when Asgard is stormed and Midgard is covered with battlefields,
on which brothers slay each other; Balder is killed by the mistletoe;
the host of monsters are born who, in the Ironwood, await Ragnarok; on
account of the sins of men, it became necessary to make places of torture
in the lower world. All these terrible events, which happened in time's
morning, are the cunning work of the father of misfortunes and of his
feminine counterpart. The seeress in Völuspa relates all these events and
deeds to show the necessity of the coming destruction and regeneration of
the world.
Above (see No. 54), it has already been shown that the fragments of
old Aryan mythology, which Avesta, Zend, and Bundehesh have preserved,
speak of a terrible winter, which visited the world. To rescue that
which is noblest and best among plants, animals, and men from the coming
destruction, Jima arranged in the lower world a separate enclosed domain,
within which selected organisms live an uncontaminated life undisturbed
by the events of this world, so that they may people a more beautiful
and a happier earth in the regenerated world. I have shown that the same
myth in all important details reappears in the Teutonic doctrine anent
Mimer's grove and the _ásmegir_ living there. In the Iranian records, we
read that the great winter was the work of the evil spirit, but they do
not tell the details or the epic causes of the destruction by the cold.
Of these causes we get information in Rigveda, the Indian sister of the
Iranian mythology.
Clothed with divine rank, there lives among Rigveda's gods an
extraordinary artist, Tvashtar (Tvashtri), often mentioned and
addressed in Rigveda's hymns. The word means "the master-workman," "the
handi-workman" (Bergaigne, _Relig. Ved._, iii. 45; Darmesteter, Ormazd,
63, 100). He is the one who forms the organisms in the maternal wombs,
the one who prepares and first possesses as his secret the strength-
and inspiration-giving soma-drink (Rigv., ii. 53, &c.); it is he that
supports the races of men (Rigv., iii. 55, 19). Among the wonderful
things made by his hands are mentioned a goblet, which the gods drink
from, and which fills itself with blessings (Rigv., iii. 55, 20; x. 53,
9), and Indra's the Hindooic Thor's, thunderbolt, corresponding to Thor's
Mjolner.
But among mortals brothers have been reared, themselves mortals, and not
of divine rank, but who have educated themselves into artists, whose
skill fills the world with astonishment. They are three in number,
usually called the _Ribhus_, but also _Anus_ and _Ayus_, names which
possibly may have some original connection with the Volund names Anund
and Ajo. Most clever and enterprising in successful artistic efforts is
the youngest of the three (Rigv., iv. 34). They are also soma-brewers,
skalds, and heroes (Rigv., iv. 36, 5, 7), and one of them, like Volund's
brother Orvandel-Egil, is an unsurpassed archer (Rigv., iv. 36, 6).
On account of their handiwork, these mortal artists come in contact
with the gods (Rigv., iv. 35), and as Volund and Orvandel-Egil become
Thor's friends, allies, war-comrades, and servants, so the Ribhus become
Indra's (Rigv., i. 51, 2; vii. 37, 7); "with Indra, the helpful, allied
themselves the helpers; with Indra, the nimble, the Ribhus." They make
weapons, coats-of-mail, and means of locomotion, and make wonderful
treasures for the gods. On earth they produce vegetation in the deserts,
and hew out ways for the fertilising streams (Rigv., v. 42, 12; iv. 33,
7). With Ivalde's sons, they, therefore, share the qualities of being
at the same time creators of vegetation, and smiths at the hearth, and
bestowers of precious treasures to the gods.
But some evil tongue persuaded the gods that the Ribhus had said
something derogatory of the goblet made by Tvashtar. This made Tvashtar
angry, and he demanded their death. The gods then sent the fire-god Agni
to the Ribhus. The Ribhus asked: "Why has the most excellent, the most
youthful one come to us? On what errand does he come?" Agni told them
that it was reported that they had found fault with Tvashtar's goblet;
they declared that they had not said anything derogatory, but only
talked about the material of which it was made. Agni meanwhile stated
the resolution of the gods, to the effect that they were to make from
Tvashtar's goblet four others of the same kind. If they were unable to do
this, then the gods would doubtless satisfy Tvashtar's request and take
their lives; but if they were able to make the goblets, then they should
share with the gods the right to receive offerings. Moreover, they were
to give the following proof of mastership. They were to smithy a living
horse, a living chariot, a living cow, and they were to create a means
of rejuvenation and demonstrate its efficacy on two aged and enfeebled
beings. The Ribhus informed the gods that they would do what was demanded
of them. So they made the wonderful chariot or the chariot-ship, which
they gave to the Asvinians--the beautiful twin-gods--on which they
ride through the air and on the sea (cp. Skidbladner, Frey's ship, and
Hringhorne, Balder's, and probably also Hoder's means of locomotion
through the air and on the sea). Of one horse they made two, and
presented them to Indra. Out of an empty cow's hide they smithied a
cow (cp. Sindre's work of art when he made the boar Slidringtanne out
of an empty pig's skin). They made the remedy of rejuvenation, and
tested it successfully on their aged parents. Finally, they do the
great master-work of producing four goblets of equal excellence from
Tvashtar's. Thereupon they appear before the gods who, "with insight,"
test their works. Tvashtar himself could not help being astounded when he
saw the goblets. But the result of the test by the gods, and the judgment
passed on the art-works of the Ribhus, were fraught with danger for
the future. Both Tvashtar and the Ribhus became dissatisfied. Tvashtar
abandoned the gods and betook himself to the mountains with the dises of
vegetation, in whose company he is often mentioned. The Ribhus refused to
accept from the gods the proffered share in morning and noon sacrifices,
and went away cursing their adversaries. They proceeded on long journeys,
and the gods knew not where to find them (Rigv., i. 161, 1-13; iv. 33,
1-11, &c.).
The result of this trouble between the primeval artists themselves, and
between them and the gods, becomes clear from the significance which
Tvashtar, he who nourishes the world, and the Ribhus, they who deck the
deserts with vegetation, and irrigate the valleys, have as symbols of
nature. The beneficent powers of nature, who hitherto had operated in the
service of the gods, abandon their work, and over the world are spread
that winter of which the Iranian mythology speaks, that darkness, and
that reign of giant-monsters which, according to Rigveda, once prevailed,
and during which time Indra, at the head of the gods, fought valiantly to
restore order and to bring back the sun.
Here we find remarkable points of contact, or rather contact surfaces,
between the Asiatic-Aryan groups of myths and the Teutonic. The question
is not as to similarity in special details. That kind of similarities
may be pointed out in nearly all mythic groups in the world, and, as a
rule, altogether too bold hypotheses are built on the feeble foundations
they offer. The question here is in regard to identity in great,
central, connected collections of myths. Such are: The myths concerning
an original harmony between a divine clan on the one hand, and artists
subordinate to, and in the service of, the divine clan on the other hand.
Artists who produce fertility, ornaments, and weapons for the gods, know
how to brew the strength- and inspiration-giving mead, and are closely
connected with dises of vegetation, who, as we shall show, appear as
swan-maids, not only in the Teutonic mythology but also in the Hindooic;
the myths telling how this harmony was frustrated by a judgment in a
competition, the contending parties being on the one hand he who in the
Hindooic mythology made Indra's thunderbolt, and in the Teutonic Thor's
thundering Mjolner; and on the other hand three brothers, of whom one
is an excellent archer; the myths concerning the consequences of the
judgment, the destruction of nature by frost-powers and giant-monsters;
the myths (in the Iranian and Teutonic records of antiquity) concerning
the subterranean paradise, in which a selection of the best beings
of creation are protected against annihilation, and continue to live
uncorrupted through centuries; the myths (in the Iranian and Teutonic
records of antiquity) of the destiny of these beings, connected with the
myths likewise common to the Iranian and Teutonic mythologies concerning
the destruction and regeneration of the world. Common to the Hindooic
and Teutonic mythology is also the idea that a cunning, spying, being,
in Rigveda Dadhyak (Dadhyank), in the Icelandic sources Loke, has lost
his head to an artist who smithied the bolt for Indra and the hammer for
Thor, but saves his wager through cunning.
An important observation should here be pointed out. A comparison
between different passages in Rigveda shows, that of all the remarkable
works of art which were exhibited to the gods for their examination,
there was originally not one of metal. Tvashtar's goblet was not made
of gold, but of fire and water and a third element. Indra's thunderbolt
was made of the bones of the head of Dadhyak's horse, and it is in a
later tradition that it becomes bronze. Common to the Aryan-Asiatic and
the Teutonic mythology is the ability of the primeval artists to make
animals from empty skins of beasts, and of making from _one_ work of art
several similar ones (the goblet of the Ribhus, Sindre's Draupner). In
the Teutonic mythology, Thor's hammer was not originally of metal, but of
stone, and the other works produced by Sindre and Ivalde's sons may in
the course of centuries have undergone similar changes. It should also be
noted that not a trace is to be found in the Asiatic groups of myths of
a single one to be compared with that concerning Svipdag and the sword
of victory. In the Teutonic heroic saga, Geirvandel, the spear-hero,
is the father of Orvandel, the archer, and of him is born Svipdag, the
sword-hero (cp. No. 123). The myth concerning the sword of victory seems
to be purely Teutonic, and to have sprung into existence during one of
the bronze or iron ages, while the myths concerning the judgment passed
on the primeval artists, and concerning the fimbul-winter following,
must hail from a time when metals were not yet used by the Aryans. In
the other event it would be most incredible to suppose that the judgment
should concern works of art, of which not a single one originally
suggested a product of metal.
112.
THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE JUDGMENT PASSED ON THE IVALDE SONS
(_continued_). NJORD'S EFFORTS TO BRING ABOUT A RECONCILIATION.
It has already been stated that Fridlevus-Njord rescues a princely youth
from the power of the giants. According to Saxo, the event was an episode
in the feud between Fridlevus-Njord and Anundus (Volund), and Avo, the
archer (Orvandel-Egil). This corroborates the theory that the rescued
youth was Frey, Volund's and Egil's foster-son. The first one of the gods
to be seized by fears on account of the judgment passed on Ivalde's sons,
ought, naturally, to be Njord, whose son Frey was at that time in the
care and power of Volund and Egil (see No. 109). We also learn from Saxo
that Fridlevus took measures to propitiate the two brothers. He first
sends messengers, who on his behalf woo the daughter of Anund-Volund,
but the messengers do not return. Anund had slain them. Thereupon
Fridlevus goes himself, accompanied by others, and among the latter was a
"mediator." The name of the mediator was Bjorno, and he was one of those
champions who constituted the defence of that citadel, which Fridlevus
afterwards captured, and which we have recognised as Asgard (see No.
36). Thus Bjorno is one of the Asas, and there are reasons, which I
shall discuss later, for assuming him to be Balder's brother _Hödr_. The
context shows that Fridlevus' journey to Ivalde's sons and meeting with
them takes place while there was yet hope of reconciliation, and before
the latter arrived in the inaccessible Wolfdales, which are situated
below the Na-gates in the subterranean Jotunheim. On the way thither they
must have been overtaken by Fridlevus, and doubtless the event occurred
there which Saxo relates, and of which an account in historical form is
preserved in the Longobardian migration saga.
The meeting did not lead to reconciliation, but to war. Avo, the
archer (Orvandel-Egil; see Nos. 108, 109) appeared on the one side and
challenged Fridlevus-Njord to a duel. Bjorno became angry that a person
of so humble descent as this Avo dared to challenge the noble-born
Fridlevus, and in his wrath he drew his bow to fell "the plebeian" with
an arrow. Thus Bjorno also was an archer. But Avo anticipated him, and an
arrow from him severed Bjorno's bow-string from the bow. While Bjorno was
tying the string again, there came from Avo a second arrow, which passed
between his fingers without hurting him, and then there came a third
arrow, which shot away Bjorno's arrow just as he was placing it on the
string. Then the Ivalde sons continued their departure. Bjorno let loose
a _molossus_ he had with him to pursue them, probably the same giant-dog
or giant wolf-dog which Saxo describes in a preceding chapter (_Hist._,
260) as being in Bjorno's possession, and which before had guarded the
giant Offote's herds. But this _molossus_ was not able to prevent those
fleeing from reaching their destination in safety. In all probability
Frey had already been delivered by his wards to the giants when this
happened. This must have occurred on the way between the abode abounding
in gold, where Ivalde's sons had formerly lived in happiness, and the
Wolfdales, and so within Jotunheim, where the gods were surrounded by
foes.
The story of this adventure on the journey of the emigrating Ivalde sons
reappears in a form easily recognised in Paulus Diaconus, where he tells
of the emigration of the Longobardians under Ibor (Orvandel-Egil; see
No. 108) and Ajo (Volund). In Saxo Avo-Egil, who belongs to the race of
elves, becomes a low-born champion, while the Vana-god Njord becomes King
Fridlevus. In Paulus the saga is not content with making the great archer
of the emigrants a plebeian, but he is made a thrall who challenges a
chosen free-born warrior among the foes of the Longobardians. In the
mythology and in Saxo the duel was fought with bows and arrows, and the
plebeian was found to be far superior to his opponent. Paulus does not
name the kind of weapons used, but when it had ended with the victory of
"the thrall," an oath was taken on an _arrow_ that the thralls were to be
freed from their chains by the Longobardians. Consequently the arrow must
have been the thrall's weapon of victory. In the mythology, the journey
of the Ivalde sons to the Wolfdales was down to the lower world Jotunheim
and northward through Nifelhel, inhabited by thurses and monsters.
Both in Saxo and Paulus this sort of beings take part in the adventures
described. In Saxo, Fridlevus' war-comrade Bjorno sends a monster in the
guise of a dog against the sons of Ivalde. In Paulus, according to the
belief of their enemies, the emigrants had as their allies "men with
dog-heads."
Bjorno is an Asa-god; and he is described as an archer who had confidence
in his weapon, though he proved to be inferior to Avo in the use of it.
Among the gods of Asgard only two archers are mentioned--_Hödr_ and
_Ullr_. At the time when this event occurred Ull had not yet been adopted
in Asgard. As has been shown above (see No. 102), he is the son of
Orvandel-Egil and Sif. His abode is still with his parents when Svipdag,
his half-brother, receives instructions from Sif to seek Frey and Freyja
in Jotunheim (see No. 102), and he faithfully accompanies Svipdag through
his adventures on this journey. Thus Ull is out of the question--the more
so as he would in that case be opposing his own father. Hoder (_Hödr_)
is mentioned as an archer both in the Beowulf poem, where he, under the
name Hædcyn, shoots Balder-Herebeald accidentally with his "horn-bow,"
and in Saxo (_arcus peritia pollebat_--_Hist._, 111), and in Christian
tales based on myths, where he appears by the name _Hedinn_. That Bjorno,
mentioned by Saxo as a beautiful youth, is Hoder is confirmed by another
circumstance. He is said to be _sequestris ordinis vir_ (_Hist._, 270),
an expression so difficult to interpret that scholars have proposed to
change it into _sequioris_ or _equestris ordinis vir_. The word shows
that Bjorno in Saxo's mythological authorities belonged to a group of
persons whose functions were such that they together might be designated
as a _sequestris ordo_. _Sequester_ means a mediator in general, and
in the law language of Rome it meant an impartial arbitrator to whom
a dispute might be referred. The Norse word which Saxo, accordingly,
translated with _sequestris ordo_, "the mediators," "the arbitrators,"
can have been none other than the plural _ljónar_, a mythological word,
and also an old legal term, of which it is said in the Younger Edda:
_Ljónar heita their menn, er ganga um sættir manna_, "_ljónar_ are called
those men whose business it is to settle disputes." That this word
_ljónar_ originally designated a certain group of Asa-gods whose special
duty it was to act as arbitrators is manifest from the phrase _ljóna
kindir_, "the children of the peacemakers," an expression inherited from
heathendom and applied to mankind far down in Christian times; it is an
expression to be compared with the phrase _megir Heimdallar_, "Heimdal's
sons," which also was used to designate mankind. In Christian times the
phrase "children of men" was translated with the heathen expression
_ljóna kindir_; and when the recollection of the original meaning of
_ljónar_ was obliterated, the word, on account of this usage, came to
mean men in general (_viri_, _homines_), a signification which it never
had in the days of heathendom.