it hailed from the past, that "it was a good and excellent work of a
smith," and that the golden hilt was the work of the "wonder-smith." On
the blade was risted (engraved) "that ancient war" when "the billows
of the raging sea washed over the race of giants," and on a plate made
of the purest gold was written in runes "the name of him for whom this
weapon was first made." The Christian poet found it most convenient
for his purpose not to name this name for his readers or hearers. But
all that is here stated is applicable to the mythological sword of
victory. "The Wonder-smith" in the Old English tale is Volund (Weland).
The coat of mail borne by Beowulf is "Welandes geweorc." "Deor the
Scald's Complaint" sings of Weland, and King Alfred in his translation
of Boethius speaks of "the wise Weland, the goldsmith, who, in ancient
times, was the most celebrated." That the Weland sword was "the work of a
giant" corresponds with the Volund myth (see below); and as we here learn
that the blade was engraved with pictures representing the destructions
of the ancient giant-artists in the waves of the sea (the blood of the
primeval giant Ymer), then this illustrates a passage in Skirnersmal
where it is likewise stated that the sword was risted with images and
"that it fights of itself against the giant race" (Skirnersmal, 8, 23,
25; see No. 60). This expression is purposely ambiguous. One meaning
is emphasised by Frey's words in Skirnersmal, that it fights of itself
"if it is a wise man who owns it" (_ef sá er horscr er hefir_). The
other meaning of the expression appears from the Beowulf poem. The sword
itself fights against the giant race in the sense that the "wonder-smith"
(Weland), by the aid of pictures on the blade of the sword itself,
represented that battle which Odin and his brothers fought against the
primeval giants, when the former drowned the latter in the blood of their
progenitor, the giant Ymer.
Grendel is the son of the troll-woman living in the marsh, just as Hate
is Angerboda's. The author identifies Grendel with Cain banished from the
sight of his Creator, and makes giants, thurses, and "elves" the progeny
of the banished one. Grendel's mother is a "she-wolf of the deep" and a
mermaid (_merewif_). Angerboda is the mother of the wolf progeny in the
Ironwood and "drives the ships into Ægir's jaws." What "Beowulf" tells
about Grendel reminds us in some of the details so strongly of Völuspa's
words concerning Hate that the question may be raised whether the English
author did not have in mind a strophe resembling the one in Völuspa which
treats of him. Völuspa's Hate _fyllisk fjörvi feigra manna_, "satiates
himself with the vital force of men selected for death." Beowulf's
Grendel sucks the blood of his chosen victims until life ebbs out of
them. Völuspa's Hate _rydr ragna sjöt raudum dreyra_, "colours the
princely abode with red blood from the wounds." Grendel steals into the
royal castle and stains it with blood. The expression here reappears
almost literally. Völuspa's _ragna sjöt_ and _dreyri_ correspond
perfectly to "Beowulf's" _driht-sele_ and _dreor_.
In Vilkinasaga we read that Nagelring, the best sword in the world was
concealed in a forest, and was there watched by a woman and a man. The
man had the strength of twelve men, but the woman was still stronger.
King Thidrek and his friend Hildebrand succeeded after a terrible combat
in slaying the monster. The woman had to be slain thrice in order that
she should not come to life again. This feature is also borrowed from the
myth about Angerboda, the thrice slain.
_Historia Pontificum_ (from the middle of the twelfth century) informs
us that Duke Wilhelm of Angoulême (second half of the tenth century)
possessed an extraordinary sword made by Volund. But this was not the
real sword of victory. From Jordane's history it was known in the middle
age that this sword had fallen into Attila's hands, and the question
was naturally asked what afterwards became of it. Sagas answered the
question. The sword remained with the descendants of the Huns, the
Hungarians. The mother of the Hungarian king Solomon gave it to one Otto
of Bavaria. He lent it to the margrave of Lausitz, Dedi the younger.
After the murder of Dedi it came into the hands of Emperor Henry IV., who
gave it to his favourite, Leopold of Merseburg. By a fall from his horse
Leopold was wounded by the point of the sword, and died from the wound.
Even in later times the sword was believed to exist, and there were those
who believed that the Duke of Alba bore it at his side.
105.
THE SVIPDAG EPITHET SKIRNER. THE VOLUND SWORD'S NAME GAMBANTEIN.
After Svipdag's marriage with Freyja the saga of his life may be divided
into two parts--the time before his visit in Asgard as Freyja's happy
husband and Frey's best friend, and the time of his absence from Asgard
and his change and destruction.
To the former of these divisions belongs his journey, celebrated in song,
to the abode of the giant Gymer, whither he proceeds to ask, on Frey's
behalf, for the hand of Gerd, Gymer's and Aurboda's fair daughter. It has
already been pointed out that after his marriage with Gunvara-Freyja,
Erik-Svipdag appears in Saxo as Frotho-Frey's right hand, ready to help
and a trusted man in all things. Among other things the task is also
imposed on him to ask, on behalf of Frotho, for the hand of a young maid
whose father in the mythology doubtless was a giant. He is described as
a deceitful, treacherous being, hostile to the gods, as a person who had
laid a plan with his daughter as a bait to deceive Frotho and win Gunvara
for himself. The plan is frustrated by Svipdag (Ericus), Ull (Rollerus),
and Thor (Bracus), the last of whom here appears in his usual _rôle_
as the conqueror of giants. At the very point when Frotho's intended
father-in-law thinks he has won the game Thor rushes into his halls, and
the schemer is compelled to save himself by flight (_Hist._, 221, &c.).
In the excellent poem Skirnersmal, the Icelandic mythic fragments have
preserved the memory of Frey's courtship to a giant-maid, daughter of
Aurboda's terrible husband, the giant-chief Gymer. Here, as in Saxo, the
Vana-god does not himself go to do the courting, but sends a messenger,
who in the poem is named by the epithet _Skirner_. All that is there
told about this Skirner finds its explanation in Svipdag's saga. The
very epithet Skirnir, "the shining one," is justified by the fact that
Solbjart-Orvandel, the star-hero, is his father. Skirner dwells in
Asgard, but is not one of the ruling gods. The one of the gods with whom
he is most intimately united is Frey. Thus his position in Asgard is the
same as Svipdag's. Skirner's influence with Freyja's brother is so great
that when neither Njord nor Skade can induce the son to reveal the cause
of the sorrow which afflicts him, they hope that Skirner may be able to
do so. Who, if not Svipdag, who tried to rescue Frey from the power of
the giants, and who is his brother-in-law, and in Saxo his all in all,
would be the one to possess such influence over him? Skirner also appeals
to the fact that Frey and he have in days past had adventures together
of such a kind that they ought to have faith in each other, and that
Frey ought not to have any secret which he may not safely confide to so
faithful a friend (str. 5). Skirner is wise and poetic, and has proverbs
on his lips like Svipdag-Erik (cp. str. 13 in Skirnersmal with str. 47
in Fjölsvinnsmal). But the conclusive proof of their identity is the fact
that Skirner, like Svipdag, had made a journey to the lower world, had
been in Mimer's realm at the foot of Ygdrasil, and there had fetched a
sword called Gambantein, which is the same sword as the one Frey lays in
his hand when he is to go on his errand of courtship--the same sword as
Frey afterwards parts with as the price paid to Gymer and Aurboda for the
bride. When Gerd refuses to accept the courtship-presents that Skirner
brings with him, he draws his sword, shows its blade to Gerd, threatens
to send her with its edge to Nifelhel, the region below the Na-gates, the
Hades-dwelling of Hrimner, Hrimgrimner, and of other giants of antiquity,
the abode of the furies of physical sicknesses (see No. 60), and tells
her how this terrible weapon originally came into his possession:
Til holtz ec gecc
oc til hrás vidar
gambantein at geta,
gambantein ec gat.
"I went to Holt
And to the juicy tree
Gambantein to get,
Gambantein I got."
The word _teinn_, a branch, a twig, has the meaning of sword in all
the compounds where it occurs: _benteinn_, _bifteinn_, _eggteinar_,
_hævateinn_ (_homateinn_), _hjörteinn_, _hræteinn_, _sárteinn_,
_valteinn_. _Mistelteinn_ has also become the name of a sword (Younger
Edda, i. 564; Fornald., i, 416, 515; ii. 371; cp. No. 101), and the
same weapon as is here called _gambanteinn_ is called _hævateinn_,
_homateinn_ (see further No. 116) in Fjölsvinnsmal.
In the mythology there is only one single place which is called Holt.
It is _Mimis holt_, _Hoddmimis holt_, the subterranean grove, where the
children who are to be the parents of the future race of man have their
secure abode until the regeneration of the world (see Nos. 52, 53),
living on the morning-dew which falls from the world-tree, _hrár vidr_,
"the tree rich in sap" (see No. 89). Mimer-Nidhad also comes from Holt
when he imprisons Volund (Volund., 14). It has already been proved above
that, on his journey in the lower world, Svipdag also came to _Mimis
holt_, and saw the citadel within which the _ásmegir_ have their asylum.
Saxo has known either the above-cited strophe or another resembling
it, and when his Erik-Svipdag speaks of his journey in ambiguous words
(_obscura umbage_), Saxo makes him say: _Ad trunca sylvarum robora
penetravi ... ibi cuspis a robore regis excussa est_ (_Hist._, 206). With
the expression _ad robora sylvarum penetravi_ we must compare _til holtz
ec gecc_. The words _robur regis_ refer to the tree of the lower world
king, Mimer _Mimameidr_, the world-tree. Erik-Svipdag's purpose with
his journey to this tree is to secure a weapon. Saxo calls this weapon
_cuspis_. Fjölsvinnsmal calls it, with a paraphrase, _broddr_. _Cuspis_
is a translation of _broddr_.
Thus there can be no doubt concerning the identity of Skirner with
Svipdag.
106.
SVIPDAG'S LATER FORTUNES. HIS TRANSFORMATION AND DEATH.
FREYJA GOES IN SEARCH OF HIM. FREYJA'S EPITHET MARDÖLL. THE
SEA-KIDNEY, BRISINGAMEN. SVIPDAG'S EPITHET HERMÓDR.
When the war between the Asas and the Vans had broken out, Svipdag, as we
have learned, espouses the cause of the Vans (see Nos. 33, 38), to whom
he naturally belongs as the husband of the Vana-dis Freyja and Frey's
most intimate friend. The happy issue of the war for the Vans gives
Svipdag free hands in regard to Halfdan's hated son Hadding, the son of
the woman for whose sake Svipdag's mother Groa was rejected. Meanwhile
Svipdag offers Hadding reconciliation, peace, and a throne among the
Teutons (see No. 38). When Hadding refuses to accept gifts of mercy from
the slayer of his father, Svipdag persecutes him with irreconcilable
hate. This hatred finally produces a turning-point in Svipdag's fortunes
and darkens the career of the brilliant hero. After the Asas and Vans had
become reconciled again, one of their first thoughts must have been to
put an end to the feud between the Teutonic tribes, since a continuation
of the latter was not in harmony with the peace restored among the gods
(see No. 41), nevertheless the war was continued in Midgard (see No.
41), and the cause is Svipdag. He has become a rebel against both Asas
and Vans, and herein we must look for the reason why, as we read in the
Younger Edda, he disappeared from Asgard (Younger Edda, 114). But he
disappears not only from the world of the gods, but finally also from the
terrestrial seat of war, and that god or those gods who were to blame for
this conceal his unhappy and humiliating fate from Freyja. It is at this
time that the faithful and devoted Vana-dis goes forth to seek her lover
in all worlds _med ukunnum thjódum_.
Saxo gives us two accounts of Svipdag's death--the one clearly converted
into history, the other corresponding faithfully with the mythology. The
former reports that Hadding conquered and slew Svipdag in a naval battle
(_Hist._, 42). The latter gives us the following account (_Hist._, 48):
While Hadding lived in exile in a northern wilderness, after his great
defeat in conflict with the Swedes, it happened, on a sunny, warm day,
that he went to the sea to bathe. While he was washing himself in the
cold water he saw an animal of a most peculiar kind (_bellua inauditi
generis_), and came into combat with it. Hadding slew it with quick blows
and dragged it on shore. But while he rejoiced over this deed a woman put
herself in his way and sang a song, in which she let him know that the
deed he had now perpetrated should bring fearful consequences until he
succeeded in reconciling the divine wrath which this murder had called
down upon his head. All the forces of nature, wind and wave, heaven and
earth, were to be his enemies unless he could propitiate the angry gods,
for the being whose life he had taken was a celestial being concealed in
the guise of an animal, one of the super-terrestrial:
Quippe unum e superis alieno corpore tectum
Sacrilegæ necuere manus: sic numinis almi
Interfector ades.
It appears, however, from the continuation of the narrative, that Hadding
was unwilling to repent what he had done, although he was told that the
one he had slain was a supernatural being, and that he long refused to
propitiate those gods whose sorrow and wrath he had awakened by the
murder. Not until the predictions of the woman were confirmed by terrible
visitations does Hadding make up his mind to reconcile the powers in
question. And this he does by instituting the sacrificial feast, which is
called Frey's offering, and thenceforth was celebrated in honour of Frey
(_Fro deo rem divinam furvis hostiis fecit_).
Hadding's refusal to repent what he had done, and the defiance he
showed the divine powers, whom he had insulted by the murder he had
committed, can only be explained by the fact that these powers were the
Vana-gods who long gave succour to his enemies (see No. 39), and that the
supernatural being itself, which, concealed in the guise of an animal,
was slain by him, was some one whose defeat gave him pleasure, and whose
death he considered himself bound and entitled to cause. This explanation
is fully corroborated by the fact that when he learns that Odin and the
Asas, whose favourite he was, no longer hold their protecting hands
over him, and that the propitiation advised by the prophetess becomes
a necessity to him, he institutes the great annual offering to Frey,
Svipdag's brother-in-law. That this god especially must be propitiated
can, again, have no other reason than the fact that Frey was a nearer
kinsman than any of the Asa-gods to the supernatural being, from whose
slayer he (Frey) demanded a ransom. And as Saxo has already informed us
that Svipdag perished in a naval engagement with Hadding, all points to
the conclusion that in the celestial person who was concealed in the
guise of an animal and was slain in the water we must discover Svipdag
Freyja's husband.
Saxo does not tell us what animal guise it was. It must certainly have
been a purely fabulous kind, since Saxo designates it as _bellua inauditi
generis_. An Anglo-Saxon record, which is to be cited below, designates
it as _uyrm_ and _draca_. That Svipdag, sentenced to wear this guise,
kept himself in the water near the shore of a sea, follows from the fact
that Hadding meets and kills him in the sea where he goes to bathe.
Freyja, who sought her lost lover everywhere, also went in search for
him to the realms of _Ægir_ and _Rán_. There are reasons for assuming
that she found him again, and, in spite of his transformation and the
repulsive exterior he thereby got, she remained with him and sought
to soothe his misery with her faithful love. One of Freyja's surnames
shows that she at one time dwelt in the bosom of the sea. The name is
_Mardöll_. Another proof of this is the fragment preserved to our time
of the myth concerning the conflict between Heimdal and Loke in regard
to Brisingamen. This neck- and breast-ornament, celebrated in song both
among the Teutonic tribes of England and those of Scandinavia, one of
the most splendid works of the ancient artists, belonged to Freyja
(Thrymskvida, Younger Edda). She wore it when she was seeking Svipdag
and found him beneath the waves of the sea; and the splendour which her
Brisingamen diffused from the deep over the surface of the sea is the
epic interpretation of the name _Mardöll_ from _marr_, "sea," and _döll_,
feminine of _dallr_ (old English _deall_), "glittering" (compare the
names Heimdallr and Delling). _Mardöll_ thus means "the one diffusing
a glimmering in the sea." The fact that Brisingamen, together with its
possessor, actually was for a time in Æger's realm is proved by its
epithet _fagrt hafnýra_, "the fair kidney of the sea," which occurs in
a strophe of Ulf Uggeson (Younger Edda, 268). There was also a skerry,
_Vágasker, Singasteinn_, on which Brisingamen lay and glittered, when
Loke, clad in the guise of a seal tried to steal it. But before he
accomplished his purpose, there crept upon the skerry another seal, in
whose looks--persons in disguise were not able to change their eyes--the
evil and cunning descendant of Farbaute must quickly have recognised his
old opponent Heimdal. A conflict arose in regard to the possession of the
ornament, and the brave son of the nine mothers became the victor and
preserved the treasure for Asgard.
To the Svipdag synonyms _Ódr_ (Hotharus), _Óttar_ (Otharus), _Eirekr_
(Ericus), and _Skirnir_, we must finally add one more, which is, perhaps,
of Anglo-Saxon origin: _Hermodr_, _Heremod_.
From the Norse mythic records we learn the following in regard to Hermod:
(_a_) He dwelt in Asgard, but did not belong to the number of ruling
gods. He is called Odin's _sveinn_ (Younger Edda, 174), and he was
the Asa-father's favourite, and received from him helmet and cuirass
(Hyndluljod, 2).
(_b_) He is called _enn hvati_ (Younger Edda, 174), the rapid. When Frigg
asks if anyone desires to earn her favour and gratitude by riding to
the realm of death and offering Hel a ransom for Balder, Hermod offers
to take upon himself this task. He gets Odin's horse Sleipner to ride,
proceeds on his way to Hel, comes safely to that citadel in the lower
world, where Balder and Nanna abide the regeneration of the earth, spurs
Sleipner over the castle wall, and returns to Asgard with Hel's answer,
and with the ring Draupner, and with presents from Nanna to Frigg and
Fulla (Younger Edda, 180).
From this it appears that Hermod has a position in Asgard resembling
Skirner's: that he, like Skirner, is employed by the gods as a messenger
when important or venturesome errands are to be undertaken; and that
he, like Skirner, then gets that steed to ride, which is able to leap
over vaferflames and castle-walls. We should also bear in mind that
Skirner-Svipdag had made celebrated journeys in the same world to which
Hermod is now sent to find Balder. As we know, Svipdag had before his
arrival in Asgard travelled all over the lower world, and had there
fetched the sword of victory. After his adoption in Asgard, he is sent by
the gods to the lower world to get the chain Gleipner.
(_c_) In historical times Hermod dwells in Valhal, and is one of the
chief einherjes there. When Hakon the Good was on the way to the hall of
the Asa-father, the latter sent Brage and Hermod to meet him:
Hermódr ok Bragi
kvad Hroptatýr
gangit i gegn grami
thvi at konungr ferr
sá er kappi thykkir,
til hallar hinnig (Hakonarmal).
This is all there is in the Norse sources about Hermod.
Further information concerning him is found in the Beowulf poem, which in
two passages (str. 1747, &c., and 3419, &c.) compares him with its own
unselfish and blameless hero, Beowulf, in order to make it clear that the
latter was in moral respects superior to the famous hero of antiquity.
Beowulf was related by marriage to the royal dynasty then reigning in his
land, and was reared in the king's halls as an older brother of his sons.
The comparisons make these circumstances, common to Beowulf and Hermod,
the starting-point, and show that while Beowulf became the most faithful
guardian of his young foster-brothers, and in all things maintained their
rights, Hermod conducted himself in a wholly different manner. Of Hermod
the poem tells us:
(_a_) He was reared at the court of a Danish king (str. 1818, &c., 3421,
&c.).
(_b_) He set out on long journeys, and became the most celebrated
traveller that man ever heard of (_se wæs wreccena wide mærost ofer
wer-theóde_--str. 1800-1802).
(_c_) He performed great exploits (str. 1804).
(_d_) He was endowed with powers beyond all other men (str. 3438-39).
(_e_) God gave him a higher position of power than that accorded to
mortals (str. 3436, &c.).
(_f_) But although he was reared at the court of the Danish king, this
did not turn out to the advantage of the Skjoldungs, but was a damage to
them (str. 3422, &c.), for there grew a bloodthirsty heart in his breast.
(_g_) When the Danish king died (the poem does not say how) he left young
sons.
(_h_) Hermod, betrayed by evil passions that got the better of him, was
the cause of the ruin of the Skjoldungs, and of a terrible plague among
the Danes, whose fallen warriors for his sake covered the battlefields.
His table-companions at the Danish court he consigned to death in a fit
of anger (str. 3426, &c.).
(_i_) The war continues a very long time (str. 1815, &c., str. 3447).
(_k_) At last there came a change, which was unfavourable to Hermod,
whose superiority in martial power decreased (str. 1806).
(_l_) Then he quite unexpectedly disappeared (str. 3432) from the sight
of men.
(_m_) This happened against his will. He had suddenly been banished and
delivered to the world of giants, where "waves of sorrow" long oppressed
him (str. 1809, &c.).
(_n_) He had become changed to a dragon (_wyrm_, _draca_).
(_o_) The dragon dwelt near a rocky island in the sea _under harne stan_
(beneath a grey rock).
(_p_) There he slew a hero of the Volsung race (in the Beowulf poem
Sigemund--str. 1747, &c.).
All these points harmonise completely with Svipdag's saga, as we
have found it in other sources. Svipdag is the stepson of Halfdan the
Skjoldung, and has been reared in his halls, and dwells there until his
mother Groa is turned out and returns to Orvandel. He sets out like
Hermod on long journeys, and is doubtless the most famous traveller
mentioned in the mythology; witness his journey across the Elivagar,
and his visit to Jotunheim while seeking Frey and Freyja; his journey
across the frosty mountains, and his descent to the lower world,
where he traverses Nifelheim, sees the Eylud mill, comes into Mimer's
realm, procures the sword of victory, and sees the glorious castle of
the _ásmegir_; witness his journey over Bifrost to Asgard, and his
warlike expedition to the remote East (see also Younger Edda, i. 108,
where Skirner is sent to _Svartalfaheim_ to fetch the chain Glitner).
He is, like Hermod, endowed with extraordinary strength, partly on
account of his own inherited character, partly on account of the songs
of incantation sung over him by Groa, on account of the nourishment
of wisdom obtained from his stepmother and finally on account of the
possession of the indomitable sword of victory. By being adopted in
Asgard as Freyja's husband, he is, like Hermod, elevated to a position of
power greater than that which mortals may expect. But all this does not
turn out to be a blessing to the Skjoldungs, but is a misfortune to them.
The hatred he had cherished toward the Skjoldung Halfdan is transferred
to the son of the latter, Hadding, and he persecutes him and all those
who are faithful to Hadding, makes war against him, and is unwilling
to end the long war, although the gods demand it. Then he suddenly
disappears, the divine wrath having clothed him with the guise of a
strange animal, and relegated him to the world of water-giants, where
he is slain by Hadding (who in the Norse heroic saga becomes a Volsung,
after Halfdan, under the name Helge Hundingsbane, was made a son of the
Volsung Sigmund).