compilers claim, are based upon Greek and other measurements. It is
probable that few of these tables are authentic, and many of them are,
undoubtedly, incorrect. The following table is compiled by Jay W.
Seaver, M. D., for 20 years professor at Yale University, and is as
nearly correct as possibility would admit. Dr. Seaver, however, does
not claim absolute correctness. The second and third tables given are
used quite generally in civil service examinations by local, state, and
national governments, and apply largely to those seeking positions on
the police force or the fire department
Height, Males--Weight, Females--Weight,
Feet Fat Normal Fat Normal
5 136 112 122 102
5.1 141 116 128 106
5.2 146 120 134 109
5.3 152 125 140 113
5.4 160 130 145 117
5.5 167 135 151 121
5.6 175 138 154 125
5.7 182 140 157 130
5.8 189 143 160 135
5.9 196 150 169 140
5.1O 203 155 173 145
5.11 210 160 179 150
6 216 165 185 155
6.1 221 170 187 160
6.2 226 175 196 166
6.3 231 180 205 171
Minimum circumference of the Chest tolerable in applicants.
Circumference Circumference
Height of Chest Height of Chest
Feet Inches Inches Feet Inches Inches
5 6 32-1/2 5 11 35-1/2
5 7 33 6 .. 36
5 7-1/2 33-1/2 6 1 36-1/2
5 8 34 6 2 37
5 9 34-1/2 6 3 37-1/4
5 10 35 6 4 38
The stature shall not be below 5 ft. 6 in., nor the weight below that
marked as its minimum accompaniment in the subjoined table.
Height Min. Average Max. Weight
Feet Inches Pounds Pounds Pounds
5 6 136 143 180
5 7 138 146 187
5 8 140 148 195
5 9 145 155 202
5 10 150 160 210
5 11 155 165 217
6 .. 160 170 225
6 1 165 175 233
6 2 170 180 240
6 3 175 185 248
=Steam Engine.=--The principle of the steam engine is very simple.
Stripped of all technicality, it may be described as follows: Take a
can with a height somewhat longer than its width, and close up both
ends. Make a hole in the center of one of the ends large enough for the
insertion of a rod about the diameter of a small poker. Fasten one end
of this rod to the center of a disc which will fit closely into the
can. Insert this disc in the can with the poker passing through the
hole. The whole apparatus will be similar to that of a churn. Bore two
holes in the sides of the can, at top and bottom. Allow steam to pass
into the can through the first hole, which will force the disc to the
other end of the can, and draw the poker with it. Then, introduce steam
through the other hole. This will drive the disc to the other end of
the can, and at the same time the steam entering the first hole will
pass out. This gives a motion to the poker rod, which continues so long
as steam is forced in and out. The rod, is, of course, connected with a
crank which works on a shaft, and from this shaft power is transmitted.
The steam is let into the cylinder automatically. A fly wheel is
maintained where there is not more than one cylinder, and even where
there is more than one, so as to create momentum, which carries the
crank beyond its dead center. The modern steam engine makes from 100 to
even 1,000 revolutions a minute. Its power is measured by its capacity
to equal that of one or several horses, and is known as horse-power.
Steam engines are made with a capacity of only a small fraction of
horse-power, and up to several thousand. But usually, where great power
is required, more than one cylinder is used, all of them working upon
the same shaft The so-called turbine steam engine is similar to the
ordinary turbine water wheel, except that steam, instead of water, is
forced against it. See "Turbines."
=Strikes.=--The strike is an agreement upon the part of workmen to
refuse to work until their demands are accepted. The first strike
in the United States took place in New York City, in 1803, and was
confined to sailors. In 1888, there were 697 strikes, involving over
210,000 employees. In 1886, the number of strikes increased 52 per
cent., and in 1888 the increase was 22 per cent. In the early days
nearly half of the strikes were in Pennsylvania. The great coal
strike of 1902 was probably the most disastrous and largest strike on
record. It involved about 150,000 men, with a loss of wages of nearly
$40,000,000.
=Sub Rosa.=--The term "under the rose" implies secrecy. It had its
origin B. C. 477, when Pausanias, commander of the fleet of Spartans
and Athenians, was intriguing with Xerxes for the subjugation of Greece
to Persia and for the hand of the king's daughter in marriage. The
business was transacted in the "Brazen House," the roof of which was a
garden making a bower of roses. Hence the term Sub Rosa.
=Sugar Industry.=--The United States consumes each year nearly
3,500,000 tons of sugar, or about 80 pounds per capita.
=Sunday Schools.=--The Sunday Schools of the United States have a
membership of about 15,500,000, including teachers. The Sunday School
membership of England and Wales is over 7,000,000. Connected with the
Sunday Schools of the world are about 2,650,000 teachers and 26,500,000
scholars.
=Talking Machines.=--The talking machine, known by several names,
including the phonograph, was originally invented by Edison.
Unscientifically speaking, it consists of a disc similar to that used
in the telephone, with a needle or point attached to the center of the
underside of it. This needle or point fits into circular or cylindrical
grooves, which are covered with tin foil or other malleable substance.
The vibrations of the voice or of music, which reach the disc, cause
this needle or point to rise or fall, producing impressions upon the
tin foil or other substance. After the record has been made, duplicates
are produced in a substance largely made of rubber, which is placed on
a rotary disc or cylinder that is turned automatically, the needle or
point attached to the disc working into the grooves and rising with or
following the impressions, which cause the plate or disc to vibrate.
The process is wholly mechanical, and electricity is not used.
=Tariff.=--This word, meaning a schedule of duties on merchandise,
imported or exported, is said to come from Tarifa, a town in Southern
Spain, on the Mediterranean Sea, where duties were once levied by the
Moors on all ships passing in or out of the Straits of Gibraltar.
=Telegraph.=--The conception of the telegraph came to Professor Morse,
in 1832, while he was making a voyage from Europe to America, and he at
once began his experiments, which resulted in what may be considered
one of the two greatest inventions or discoveries. After waiting about
eight years, Congress reluctantly appropriated a sum sufficient to
build a telegraph line between Washington and Baltimore. The original
conception of telegraphy belongs wholly to Professor Morse, but since
its invention other scientists have invented improvements, including an
apparatus which allows the sending of two messages each way, or four
messages in all, over the same wire at the same time. The telegraphic
code or alphabet, originally invented by Morse, remains practically
intact. It consists of dots and dashes, and may be learned in a few
hours, although expertness requires a year or more of practice.
Unscientifically speaking, the telegraphic apparatus is extremely
simple: it consists primarily of a piece of soft iron around which
is wound several strands of insulated wire. During the time that
electricity is passing through this wire, the soft iron becomes a
magnet, but returns to its nonmagnetic character when electricity
is not passing around it. A battery is used for the generating of
electricity. The operator turns electricity into the wire by pressing a
key. When the key is down, the electricity passes around the piece of
soft iron and makes of it a magnet, which will draw iron or steel to
it, the same as does any ordinary permanent magnet. Just above the end
of the soft iron is placed a piece of metal, and as the key is pressed
letting in the electricity, the iron (then a magnet) draws this metal
to it, producing a slight sound or click. This piece of iron is held
by a spring, and springs back into place when electricity is let out
of the insulated wire surrounding the soft iron. If a message is to
be sent a long distance, a relay is used so as to turn into the wire
additional currents of electricity, because electricity loses some of
its strength if carried over a very long wire, and a relay adds new or
fresh currents from separate batteries. In this way, a message can be
sent continuously for several thousand miles, which would be impossible
without the use of relays. The process of sending several messages at
the same time over the same wire is somewhat complicated. The result
is obtained by using currents of electricity of different intensity,
the currents not interfering with each other. The ocean cables are
described under another heading.
=Telephone.=--The telephone is supposed to have been invented by
Professor A. G. Bell, in 1875, but scientists recognize the probable
invention of it, largely in theory, by the eminent scientists Dolbear,
Gray, Edison, and possibly others. It is exceedingly difficult to
describe, other than scientifically, the working of the telephone; and
it cannot be done perfectly until electricity is fully understood. We
know the result, but are not able to locate all of the causes. The
original telephone consisted of a bar of magnetized steel of about the
circumference of an ordinary poker, a few inches in length, around
which was wound insulated wire. At one end of the magnet, and close
to it, was placed a metallic disc about twice the circumference of a
silver dollar and of the thickness of thin tin. Originally the same
instrument was used both for sending and for receiving. Any sound,
including the human voice, brought in direct contact with the disc,
caused it to vibrate, and for some unknown reason these vibrations were
transmitted through the magnet, and by the wires carried to another
similar instrument. The sounds and voice were carried a short distance
without the use of a battery, and the early telephones had ground
circuits; that is, there was only one wire between the stations, the
other wire being grounded by being attached to gas or other pipes,
the electricity making half the circuit through the earth. Later on
a battery was used, which increased the sending distances, but the
ground wire remained for some time. The present telephone consists
of the original telephone as a receiver, but with a transmitter into
which the sender speaks his words. The mechanism of the transmitter
is complicated and cannot be described except scientifically. Its
use allows one to talk long distances, even to the extent of 2,000
miles. Non-technically speaking, then, the telephone consists of a
magnet, insulated wire, and a disc, the vibration upon the disc being
transmitted over the wire from the sending to the receiving station,
electricity being used for conveying the vibrations or sound.
Eight billion, four hundred thousand and twenty-seven million
conversations were held in this country last year over the wires of
the American Telephone and Telegraph Co., according to its annual
report. The daily average was 26,310,000. The company now has telephone
stations in 70,000 cities, towns, and hamlets, which is 5,000 more than
the number of postoffices in the country, and 10,000 more than the
number of railroad stations. Altogether there were 7,456,074 telephone
stations of the company at the end of 1912.
=Ten Great Religions.=--James Freeman Clarke, in his book "Ten Great
Religions," gives the following as the ten most important faiths of
ancient and modern times:
(1) Confucianism.
(2) Brahmanism.
(3) Buddhism.
(4) Zoroastrianism.
(5) Religion of Egypt.
(6) Religion of Greece and Rome.
(7) Teutonic and Scandinavian Religion.
(8) Judaism.
(9) Christianity.
(10) Islâm.
=Théâtre Français.=--The most famous theatre in Paris, and, perhaps,
in the world. It is situated in the Place du Palais Royal, and is the
home of the Comédie Française. In 1900 it was destroyed by fire, but
immediately rebuilt. The original building was erected in 1782, but was
later much altered.
=Thunder.=--The sound of thunder is produced by the sudden rush of the
air into the vacuum caused by the rapid passage of lightning through
the air.
=Ticket-of-Leave.=--The English Government in 1854 issued a permit
which allowed a convict his liberty before the expiration of his term.
It was necessary for him to report to the police at stated times,
and, if he committed any crime, his ticket-of-leave was recalled. The
ticket-of-leave is similar to probation granted in the United States.
=Time Difference.=--When it is 12 o'clock noon in New York City, it
is 5:13 in Antwerp; about 5:49 in Berlin; about 5:13 in Brussels;
about 1:02 in Buenos Ayres; about 10:49 in Calcutta; about 6:53 in
Constantinople; about 4:30 in Dublin; about 4:34 in Liverpool; about
4:56 in London; about 5:05 in Paris; about 5:46 in Rome; about 6:57
in St. Petersburg. When it is 12 o'clock noon in New York City, it is
33-1/2 minutes earlier in Havana; about 11 hours and 28 minutes earlier
in Hong Kong; about 9 hours and 24 minutes earlier in Melbourne; about
9 hours and 45-1/2 minutes earlier in Yokohama.
=Tobacco Industry.=--The United States grows about 905,000,000 pounds
of tobacco a year, and over a million acres are used for growing
tobacco. The value of the tobacco grown each year is about $85,000,000.
=To Estimate the Weight of Hay.=--Find the length, breadth, and depth
of the hay, in feet, and multiply these three dimensions together; if
the hay is on the wagon or newly stored, divide the product by 540; but
if it is well settled in the mow or stack, divide by 512. If the hay
is baled, 270 cubic feet will weigh a ton. The number of cubic feet in
a circular stack is found by multiplying the average circumference in
yards by itself and this product by four times the height of the stack
in yards; then point off the two right-hand figures and multiply the
result by 27.
=To Find Length of Day or Night.=--At any time of the year add 12
hours to the time of the sun's setting, and from the sum subtract the
time of rising for the length of the day. Subtract the time of setting
from 12 hours, and to the remainder add the time of rising next morning
for the length of the night. These rules are equally true for apparent
time.
=To Measure Corn in the Crib.=--Find the length, breadth, and depth
of the corn, in feet, and multiply these three dimensions together;
this product multiplied by .63 will give the number of heaped bushels
in the ear. Sometimes one and one-half bushels of ears make a bushel
of shelled corn, and sometimes it requires two bushels, the amount
required depending upon the size of the cob, shape of the ear, etc.
=Tom Thumb.=--Tom Thumb was probably the most famous dwarf in the
world, not because of the absence of others of the same height, or
less, but because he was exploited by the late P. T. Barnum. Tom Thumb,
whose real name was Charles S. Stratton, was born in 1838, and died in
1883. In 1842 he was two feet in height and weighed sixteen pounds.
In 1863 his height increased to thirty-one inches, and later to forty
inches.
=To Produce Different Colors.=--The color printed in _italics_ may be
made by mixing the other two colors. _Purple_, red with light blue.
_Brown_, red with black. _Rose_, lake with white. _Drab_, umber with
white. _Chestnut_, white with brown. _Chocolate_, yellow with brown.
_Flesh Color_, carmine with straw. _Pearl_, blue with lead color.
_Pink_, carmine with white. _Silver Gray_, lamp black with indigo.
_Lead Color_, lamp black with white. _Bright Green_, Paris green with
white. _Buff_, yellow ochre with white. _French White_, white tinted
with purple. _Dark Green_, black with chrome green. _Brilliant Green_,
emerald green with white. _Pea Green_, chrome green with white.
_Orange_, vermillion with chrome yellow. _Straw Color_, chrome yellow
with white lead. _Cream Color_, white tinted with red and yellow.
_Ashes of Roses_, white with tints of black and purple. _French Gray_,
white tinted with black and purple. _Olive_, chrome yellow, blue, and
black with red.
=Trade Unions.=--The trade union, although supposed to be of modern
origin, was established as early as 1548. Mythical history which,
of course, cannot be authenticated, indicates the possibility of an
organization of working men at the time of the building of Solomon's
temple. During the last several years, trade unionism has grown to
enormous proportions, and practically every vocation has its union or
organization. The right to organize is self-evident, so long as it does
not restrain trade or interfere with personal rights. The employee
and employer certainly have legal and moral rights to do as they
please, provided they do not interfere with legal or moral law, and
do not use coercion. Moral influence, however, cannot be criticised.
The maintenance of a well-organized labor union is to the advantage
of both capital and labor, and should be encouraged. Naturally, the
binding together of laborers or workmen, and that of capital, causes
some abuses, for humanity, as it runs, is not always fair; but one
should not criticise either side without criticising the other. Both
have their advantages and disadvantages, both are fair and unfair. As
civilization progresses, the mistakes and abuses will be corrected, and
organized labor and capital will work in harmony.
=Trusts.=--A trust is an association of capitalists, organized for
the purpose of controlling any one trade or trades. It is illegal and
may be punished by imprisonment or fine. It is exceedingly difficult,
however, to discover whether or not an organization is in actual
restraint of trade, and to prosecute a combination. Undoubtedly trusts
exist in America, and all over the world for that matter, and are
illegal. Great effort is being made to disband them, but so far has
very little real effect, for most of the trusts which are disorganized
by law continue in some other form.
=Turbines.=--The turbine has largely taken the place of the water
wheel, because it is more compact, produces greater energy, and is more
powerful. It is, untechnically speaking, a box containing a series of
fanlike blades set at an angle, so that water or steam brought against
them will make them turn.
=Type.=--Movable metallic type was invented by Gutenberg, of Germany,
about 1450. Before this time, all books and papers were either
hand-written or printed from engraved wooden blocks. To-day there are
over 50,000 faces and sizes of type. Type is divided into three great
classes: (1) Roman or body type, which is used for the reading matter
in newspapers, magazines, and books; (2) display type, which appears in
headings, and is used for circulars and the like; and (3) ornamental
type, which has a fancy face. The different sizes of type formerly
bore arbitrary names, like Nonpareil, Pica, etc., but now all type is
under the point system, Nonpareil being known as 6 Point and Pica as
12 Point. The reading matter in all large daily newspapers is set in
6 Point, but most books are printed from either 10, 11, or 12 Point.
Twelve Point type has twice the depth of 6 Point type. Type to be set
is placed in two cases, one known as upper case and the other as lower
case, the former holding capitals and small capitals; the latter small
letters and figures, both cases containing boxes for spaces and other
characters. The compositor holds in his left hand what is known as a
composing stick, or stick. It is made of metal, with a bottom and three
sides, the left side being movable and adjustable. The compositor
places one piece of type at a time in the stick, setting the type from
left to right and upside down. He places metal spaces between each
word. When a line is completed, he sets another, with or without a
piece of thin metal between the lines, known as a lead. When the stick
is full, he dumps his type into a galley, which is a receptacle made of
wood or metal, from one to three feet long, framed at the bottom and at
the sides, but open at the other end. The type is then locked up in a
steel frame or chase, and is ready to be stereotyped, electrotyped, or
to be printed from.
=United States Flag.=--On June 14, 1777, the United States Congress
declared "that the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen
stripes, alternate red and white; that the Union be thirteen stars,
white in a blue field, representing the new constellation." In 1794
Congress decreed that after May 1st, 1795, "The flag of the United
States be fifteen stripes, alternate red and white, and that the Union
be fifteen stars, white in a blue field." At that time the stars and
stripes were of equal number, and it was the intention to add both a
star and stripe with the addition of each new State. Subsequently,
it was found that the addition of a stripe for each new State would
produce a flag altogether too large. Accordingly, Congress, on April
4th, 1818, reduced the number of stripes to thirteen and made the
number of stars twenty, that being the number of States at that time.
It was further enacted that a new star should be added as each new
State was admitted into the Union. By act of Congress, the flag has
become a sacred emblem, and cannot be used for other than decorative or
patriotic purposes, and cannot serve as a part of an advertisement or
other announcement.
United States History in Brief
1492, August 3, Columbus sailed from Palos, Spain.
1492, October 12, Columbus discovered America.
1607, May 13, the English made first permanent settlement at Jamestown,
Virginia.
1609, September 11, Henry Hudson, commanding the "Half Moon," sailed
into New York Harbor.
1620, November 11, the "Mayflower," containing the Pilgrims, arrived at
Provincetown, Massachusetts.
1620, December 22, the "Mayflower" landed at Plymouth Rock, Plymouth,
Massachusetts.
1690, September 25, the first American newspaper was published at
Boston, Massachusetts.
1732, February 22, George Washington, first President of the Republic,
was born.
1743, April 13, Thomas Jefferson was born.
1765, March 22, Passage of the Stamp Act.
1767, March 15, Andrew Jackson born.
1770, March 5, massacre and riot in the streets of Boston,
Massachusetts.
1773, December 16, the famous Boston Tea party was organized.
1775, April 18, the ride of Paul Revere, warning inhabitants of the
coming battles of Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts.
1775, April 19, the battle of Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts.
1775, May 20, the first Declaration of Independence was signed at
Mecklenburg, North Carolina.
1775, June 17, Battle of Bunker Hill, at Charlestown, Massachusetts.
1776, March 17, the British evacuated Boston.
1776, June 17, George Washington was appointed Commander-in-Chief of
the American forces.
1776, July 4, The Declaration of Independence was formally signed at
Philadelphia.
1776, August 27, Battle of Long Island.
1776, December 26, Battle of Trenton.
1781, October 19, Cornwallis surrendered his army, at Yorktown,
Virginia.
1783, January 20, the United States and Great Britain agreed upon
secession of hostilities.
1783, November 25, New York was evacuated by the British.
1789, April 30, George Washington was inaugurated first President of
the United States.
1790, June 28, Washington, District of Columbia, was made the Capital
of the United States.
1791, August 30, Issue of the first United States patent.
1792, April 2, United States Mint established at Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania.
1793, September 18, Laying of the corner stone of the capitol, at
Washington, District of Columbia.
1784, May 8, Congress established the Post-Office Department.
1796, September 17, President Washington issued his Farewell Address.
1799, December 14, death of President Washington.
1807, January 19, birth of General Robert E. Lee.
1807, August 11, first trial trip of a steamboat, by Robert Fulton, its
inventor, on the Hudson River.
1809, February 12, birth of Abraham Lincoln.
1813, September 10, Perry's victory on Lake Erie.
1815, January 8, Battle of New Orleans.
1816, December 13, establishment, at Boston, Massachusetts, of the
first Savings Bank in the United States.
1819, May 22, the first steam vessel to cross the Atlantic Ocean
sailed from Atlanta, Georgia.