which is securely fastened to a water-proof suit, the diving bell
itself being an enclosure for the head. The diver dons his suit, the
neck of which has a collar in the form of a screw. The diving bell is
placed over his head and screwed on. It is connected with a rubber
pipe, through which air is forced by an air pump, the air escaping
through a valve in the belt itself. If properly constructed and
manipulated, one may remain under water for considerable time, although
he is likely to be uncomfortable until he becomes used to it. It was
invented about 1715.
=Drama.=--During 1912, 97 new plays were presented; 36 were musical
comedies; 36 of the plays were serious or sentimental; 13 were
melodramas; 13 were comedies; one was a pantomime; two were tragedies,
and 14 were farces.
=Drugs.=--The safest and best rule to follow is never to take any drug
without the advice of a physician. Drugs have their place, and without
drugs many diseases would be incurable. But drugs taken promiscuously
derange the system and give but temporary relief. Hundreds of thousands
of people have contracted chronic ailments from drug-taking. Headache
powders, cough mixtures, sleeping potions, and practically all of the
advertised remedies should be strenuously avoided, notwithstanding
that some of them are pure and would be efficacious if administered
intelligently. Because one particular drug or medicine benefits a
certain person should not be considered as evidence that it will
aid another. The habit of borrowing prescriptions is dangerous. The
intelligent physician writes a prescription, which will benefit his
patient, and the same prescription would be of no benefit, and might
be of positive injury, to another. Many of the testimonials given
to patent medicines are genuine and are written by honest persons.
The effect of many of the advertised nostrums is to give immediate
or transient relief. They stimulate the system, and may make it feel
better for a short time, but re-action is likely to set in, and the
taker of them is worse off than he was in the first place.
=Dying Sayings=, Real or Traditional.--Addison. "See how a Christian
dies!" or, "See in what a peace a Christian can die!"
Anaxagoras. "Give the boys a holiday."
Byron. "I must sleep now."
Cæsar (Julius). "Et tu, Brute!"
Charlemagne. "Lord, into Thy hands I commend my spirit!"
Charles II (of England). "Don't let poor Nelly starve!"
Chesterfield. "Give Day Rolles a chair."
Cromwell. "My desire is to make what haste I may to be gone."
Franklin. "A dying man can do nothing easy."
Goethe. "More light!"
Hobbes. "Now I am about to take my last voyage--a great leap in the
dark."
James V (of Scotland). "It came with a lass, and will go with a lass."
Jesus Christ. "It is finished!"
Knox. "Now it is come."
Mahomet. "Oh Allah, be it so! Henceforth among the glorious host of
Paradise."
Mirabeau. "Let me die to the sounds of delicious music."
Napoleon I. "Mon Dieu! La nation Française! Fête d'armée."
Napoleon III. "Were you at Sedan?"
Nelson. "I thank God I have done my duty."
Rabelais. "Let down the curtain, the farce is over."
Scott, Sir Walter. "God bless you all!"
Sidney, Algernon. "I know that my Redeemer liveth. I die for the good
old cause."
Socrates. "Crito, we owe a cock to Aesculapius."
Talma. "The worst is, I cannot see."
Tasso. "Lord, into Thy hands I commend my spirit!"
Vespasian. "A king should die standing."
William III of England. "Can this last long?"
Wolfe, General. "What! do they run already? Then I die happy."
--Brewer's "Reader's Handbook."
=Dynamite.=--This is one of the strongest explosives, and is used
for blasting, and even for guns, although it has not, as yet, been
successful for the firing of projectiles. It consists of infusorial and
porcelain earth, mixed with coal dust and siliceous ashes, saturated
with about three times its weight of nitro-glycerine. It is of a
grayish-brown or reddish color, damp, and greasy. It has an explosive
power nearly eight times greater than that of gun powder. It is
dangerous to make, because the nitro-glycerine which it contains will
explode if not handled carefully.
Earth Facts
The distance from the surface of the earth to its center is estimated
to be 20,926,202 feet; or about 3,963, miles; and the distance from the
poles to the center of the earth is 20,854,895 feet, or about 3,951
miles. One degree of latitude at the equator is about 68.7 miles, and
at the poles about 69-1/2 miles.
The circumference at the equator measures 24,902 statute miles.
The total area of the earth is 196,940,400 statute square miles, and
its volume is 259,880 million cubic miles.
The land area of the earth covers 54,807,420 square miles.
The ocean, including the inland seas, covers 142,132,980 square miles,
or about 72 per cent. of the total surface of the earth.
The Arctic Ocean, including Hudson Bay, contains 5,785,000 square
miles; the Atlantic Ocean, 34,301,400 square miles; the Indian Ocean,
28,615,000 square miles; the Pacific Ocean, 67,699,630 square miles;
and the Antarctic Ocean, 5,731,350 square miles.
The mean height of the land has been estimated at 2,440 feet, and the
mean depth of the sea 11,470 feet. The highest mountain (Mt. Everest)
is 29,000 feet high, and the greatest depth of the ocean is supposed to
be 31,614 feet.
The North American continent has an area of 6,446,000 square miles,
with exceeding 115,000,000 inhabitants, or a little less than 18 to the
square mile.
The South American continent has an area of 6,837,000 square miles,
with over 45,000,000 inhabitants, or about 6-1/2 per square mile.
Europe has an area of about 3,555,000 square miles, with a population
of somewhat less than 400,000,000, or about 107 per square mile.
Africa has an area of 11,514,000 square miles, and a population of
about 127,000,000, or 11 to the square mile.
Asia has an area of 14,710,000 square miles, with a population
estimated at about 850,000,000, or a little less than 58 to the square
mile.
Australia, New Zealand, and contingent islands, have an area of
3,288,000 square miles, with a population of exceeding 5,200,000, or
about 27 to the square mile.
It is estimated that the surface of the earth is divided into somewhat
more than 28,000,000 square miles of fertile soil, about 14,000,000
square miles of steppe, a little more than 4,000,000 square miles of
desert, with the polar regions occupying nearly 5,000,000 square miles
of land, most of which is covered with ice.
At the time of Emperor Augustus, there were said to be between
54,000,000 and 55,000,000 people upon the earth, but as the earth
undoubtedly supported millions of inhabitants unknown to civilization,
these figures are of little consequence.
The greatest measured depth of the Atlantic Ocean is a little over
27,000 feet; a depth of 30,000 feet has been found in the Pacific
Ocean; 18,582 feet in the Indian Ocean; and 25,200 feet in the Southern
Ocean. Soundings in the Arctic Ocean have failed to find a depth
exceeding 9,000 feet.
=Earthquakes.=--The earthquake is caused, undoubtedly, by the cooling
of the earth. The interior of the earth is a molten mass of fire and is
slowly cooling. As it cools, it contracts, and if the contraction is
near the surface of the earth, the surface is rocked and crevices may
open, doing considerable damage, although most earthquakes cause but
slight shocks and injure no one. Earthquakes appear principally in or
near the tropics, but are occasionally felt all over the temperature
zones. Earthquakes appear to have belts, and there is little to be
feared from them outside of these territories.
Earthquake Areas of the Earth
Major de Montessus de Balore has compiled a catalogue of 130,000
shocks, and this indicates with scientific accuracy how the symptoms
of seismic activity are manifested. The period of observation includes
generally the last fifty years; but there is no reason to suppose that
a longer time would materially affect the proportionate numbers.
AREA Earthquakes
Scandinavia 646
British Isles 1,139
France 2,793
Spain and Portugal 2,656
Switzerland 3,895
Italy 27,672
Holland and North Germany 2,326
Sicily 4,331
Greece 10,306
Russia 258
Asia Minor 4,451
India 813
Japan 27,562
Africa 179
Atlantic islands 1,704
United States, Pacific coast 4,467
Atlantic coast 937
Mexico 5,586
Central America 2,739
West Indies 2,561
South America 8,081
Java 2,155
Australia and Tasmania 83
New Zealand 1,925
The most shaken countries of the world are Italy, Japan, Greece,
South America (the Pacific coast), Java, Sicily, and Asia Minor. The
lands most free from these convulsions are Africa, Australia, Russia,
Siberia, Scandinavia, and Canada. As a rule, where earthquakes are most
frequent they are most severe. But to this general statement there
are exceptions--Indian shocks, though less numerous, being often very
disastrous. Loss of life in many cases depends, however, on density
of population rather than on the intensity of the earth movement.
Numerically, also, France has registered more seismic tremors than
Spain and Portugal, but France in historic times has experienced no
earthquake disaster approaching the havoc wrought by the one calamity
at Lisbon.
=Electrical and Other Beautifiers.=--So far as is known to the writer,
none of these contrivances or concoctions possess any merit, other
than what may be obtained by ordinary massage or rubbing. Electricity,
as a medicinal agent, is rapidly going out of use, as it has been
proved that it has very little effect, except in special cases. The
reader is advised against the purchase of any electrical appliance for
beautifying or other purposes without the advice of a physician.
=Electricity.=--This peculiar and all-powerful energy has never been
analyzed, and no one knows exactly what it is. It is produced by
friction, either mechanically or by chemicals. It is transmitted
through wires or other metallic conductors. Electricity is usually
produced mechanically by what is known as the dynamo, but can be made
chemically by the use of galvanic batteries. The former, however, is
much more economical. Electricity and magnetism are closely allied, and
yet they are commercially different.
=Embezzlement.=--From 1896 to 1911 the total embezzlement in the United
States amounted to nearly $164,000,000, the majority of embezzlers
stealing the money for gambling in stocks, and not on account of
increased personal expenses or desire to live beyond their means.
Errors of History
The following list of "Curious Errors of History" is taken from
Conklin's "Vest Pocket Argument Settler":
William Tell was a myth.
Coriolanus never allowed his mother to intercede for Rome.
Blondel, the harper, did not discover the prison in which Richard I was
confined.
Nero was not a monster; he did not kill his mother nor fiddle over
burning Rome.
Alfred never allowed the cakes to burn, nor ventured into the Danish
camp disguised as a minstrel.
Fair Rosamond was not poisoned by Queen Eleanor, but died in the odor
of sanctity in the convent of Godstow.
The Duke of Wellington, at Waterloo, never uttered the famous words,
"Up, Guards, and at them!"
Charles Kingsley gave up his chair of modern history at Oxford because
he said he considered history "largely a lie."
Chemists have proved that vinegar will not dissolve pearls nor cleave
rocks, in spite of the fabled exploits of Cleopatra and Hannibal.
Charles IX did not fire upon the Huguenots with an arquebus from the
window of the Louvre during the massacre of St. Bartholomew.
The siege of Troy is largely a myth, even according to Homer's own
account. Helen must have been 60 years old when Paris fell in love with
her.
The crew of _Le Vengeur_, instead of going down with the cry of "Vive
la République!" shrieked for help.
The number of Xerxes's army has been grossly exaggerated, and it was
not stopped at Thermopylæ by 300 Spartans, but 7,000, or even, as some
authorities compute, 12,000.
The Abbé Edgeworth frankly acknowledged to Lord Holland that he had
never made the famous invocation to Louis XVI on the scaffold: "Son of
St. Louis, ascend to heaven."
Philip VI, flying from the field of Crécy, and challenged late at
night before the gates of the castle of Blois, did not cry out, "It is
the fortune of France." What he really said was: "Open, open; it is the
unfortunate king of France."
Voltaire, on being asked where he had heard the story that when the
French became masters of Constantinople in 1204 they danced with the
women in the sanctuary of the Church of Santa Sophia, replied calmly:
"Nowhere; it is a frolic of my imagination."
There is no evidence that Romulus ever lived, that Tarquín outraged
Lucretia, that Brutus shammed idiocy and condemned his sons to death,
that Mucius Scaevola thrust his hand into the fire, that Cloelia swam
the Tiber, that Horatius defended a bridge against an army.
=Esperanto.=--Some years ago several educators attempted to develop an
international language, to be used by the speaking and writing world
at large. This auxiliary language is made from the roots of other
languages, including the Latin. Its pronunciation is wholly phonetic.
Theoretically, at least, it has tremendous advantages, for should it
be generally adopted by the civilized nations, who would, undoubtedly,
retain their native language, there would be a common basis for
international communication, and people could get together socially and
otherwise without being linguists. The growth of Esperanto is slow,
although encouraged by many educators. It is problematical whether
or not it will make sufficient strides to be generally accepted. It
has its faults, and it is quite probable that, if an international
language, or auxiliary language, is to be obtained, some other form
of common speech will take its place; or, Esperanto may be changed,
modified, or enlarged, so as to be more acceptable. Civilization,
however, demands a universal language, one which will eventually
take the place of all modern languages, the present languages to be
relegated to the dead class; but natural conditions, association,
and patriotism, or the semblance of them, will, undoubtedly, make
it extremely difficult to introduce any other form of speech, or of
writing, which would interfere with native tongues.
Failures
During 1912, 3,781 manufacturers failed, with liabilities of nearly
$88,500,000. During the same year 10,918 business men or partnership
concerns went into bankruptcy, with liabilities exceeding $90,000,000.
Eighty-four banking houses failed, with liabilities of over
$23,500,000; and 600 brokers and transporters failed, with liabilities
of nearly $24,000,000.
According to the commercial agencies the causes of failures during the
last two years may be tabulated as follows:
Failures due to 1912 1911
Incompetence 4,176 3,419
Inexperience 641 522
Lack of capital 4,110 3,970
Unwise credits 281 252
Extravagance 91 108
Neglect 275 277
Speculation 112 94
Fraud 1,423 1,341
Failures of others 177 171
Competition 264 360
Specific conditions 2,262 2,132
The year 1912 stands distinguished from some others years, in that
the excess in failures over the other years is credited to the
increased amount of harm wrought by incompetence and inexperience, two
essentially =personal= faults.
For the first time since the records were compiled in the year 1890,
the percentage ascribed to incompetence stands first in injuriousness
with 30.2 per cent of all failures, as against 29.7 per cent attributed
to lack of capital, hitherto the most hurtful source of trouble, but
which fell from 31.4 in 1911 and 33.9 in 1910.
Incompetency, on the other hand, moved up from 27 per cent in 1911 and
26.6 per cent in 1910 to the figure of 30.2 given above. Inexperience
(without other incompetence) rose to 4.6 per cent in 1912 from 4.1 per
cent in 1911, and these two causes together accounted for the increased
failures; while fraud, the third most important personal cause, fell to
10.3 per cent from 10.6 per cent in 1911.
=Famous Diamonds.=--The following is a list of the most famous diamonds
of the world: (1) The Braganza, (2) the Dudley, (3) the Florentine, (4)
the Great Mogul, (5) the Hope, (6) the Koh-i-nur, (7) the Nassac, (8)
the Orloff, (9) the Pigott, (10) the Pitt or Regent, (11) the Sancy,
(12) the Shah, (13) the Star of the South.
Farm Production
The figures are given in round numbers: Animals, over 206,000,000,
valued at over $5,000,000,000; Apples, over 147,000,000 bushels, valued
at over $83,000,000; Apricots, over 4,000,000 bushels, valued at over
$2,800,000; Beans (Dry), over 11,200,000 bushels, valued at about
$22,000,000; Bees, over 3,445,000 swarms, valued at over $10,300,000;
Broom Corn, over 78,900,000 pounds, valued at over $5,130,000; Butter,
over 531,000,000 pounds, valued at over $113,000,000; Cereals, over
4,280,000,000 bushels, valued at over $2,694,000,000; Cheese, over
317,000,000 pounds, valued at over $28,600,000; Chicory, about
21,500,000 pounds, valued at over $73,000; Cotton, over 8,000,000,000
pounds, valued at over $730,000,000; Cotton Seed, over 6,900,000
tons, valued at over $127,400,000; Flaxseed, over 19,300,000
bushels, valued at over $35,000,000; Flowers, plants, valued at over
$18,700,000; Forest Products, valued at over $109,800,000; Fruits,
(small), valued at over $29,900,000; Fruits, (subtropical), valued at
over $24,700,000; Grapes, over 2,500,000,000 pounds, valued at over
$22,000,000; Hay, about 55,000,000 tons, valued at over $784,900,000;
Hemp, over 11,750,000 pounds, valued at over $540,000; Honey, over
62,800,000 pounds, valued at over $6,600,000; Hops, over 40,700,000
pounds, valued at over $7,800,000; Milk, over 7,265,000,000 gallons;
Molasses, over 6,300,000 gallons, valued at over $788,000; Nursery
products, valued at over $10,100,000; Nuts, valued at over $4,400,000;
Onions, over 11,700,000 bushels, valued at over $6,600,000; Orchard
products, over 216,000,000 bushels, valued at over $140,800,000;
Peaches, over 35,400,000 bushels, valued at over $28,700,000;
Peanuts, over 19,400,000 bushels, valued at over $18,200,000; Pears,
over 8,800,000 bushels, valued at over $7,900,000; Peas, dry, over
7,500,000 bushels, valued at over $11,100,000; Plums, and Prunes,
over 15,400,000 bushels, valued at about $10,300,000; Potatoes
(Irish), about 292,800,000 bushels, valued at over $233,700,000;
Potatoes (Sweet), over 59,200,000 bushels, valued at over $35,300,000;
Rice, over 22,900,000 bushels, valued at over $18,200,000; Seeds,
Clover, over 1,000,000 bushels, valued at over $6,900,000; Seeds,
Grass, over 3,500,000 bushels, valued at over $2,800,000; Sugar,
Beet, about 12,300,000,000 pounds, valued at over $23,800,000;
Sugar, Cane, over 1,100,000 tons, valued at over $28,800,000; Sugar,
Maple, over 11,900,000 pounds, valued at over $1,000,000; Syrup,
Cane, over 12,200,000 gallons, valued at about $4,300,000; Syrup,
Maple, over 2,000,000 gallons, valued at over $1,500,000; Syrup,
Sorghum, over 16,900,000 gallons, valued at over $5,200,000; Tobacco,
over 900,100,000 pounds, valued at over $85,200,000; Vegetables
(miscellaneous), valued at over $113,600,000; Wool, over 318,500,000
pounds, valued at over $66,500,000.
=First Trans-Atlantic Steamship.=--The "Savannah," a vessel of only
350 tons, and measuring 100 feet, was the first steamship to cross the
Atlantic Ocean. She was launched in New York in 1818. She was propelled
with paddles and ship-rigged. She crossed the Atlantic in 26 days, her
engine being used only 16 days. The rest of the time she was under sail.
=Flour Industry.=--There are nearly 12,000 flour mills in the United
States, requiring a capital of about $350,000,000. These mills use
nearly $770,000,000 worth of material a year, and pay salaries and
wages of about $35,000,000. The annual market value of the flour milled
annually is nearly $900,000,000.
=Food Nutriment.=--On a basis of 1,000 parts, the nutriment value of
foods may be listed as follows:
Cucumber 25 Cherries 250
Melons 30 Veal 250
Turnips 42 Beef 260
Milk 72 Potatoes 260
Cabbage 73 Apricots 260
Carrots 98 Grapes 270
White of egg 140 Chicken 270
Pears 160 Plums 290
Apples 170 Mutton 290
Haddock 180 Oats 742
Gooseberries 190 Rye 792
Peaches 200 Rice 880
Codfish 210 Barley 920
Pork 240 Wheat 950
Forests.--About one-quarter of the United States is covered with
forests, with a total acreage of about 550,000,000, about one-fifth of
which are owned by the Government. At the present rate of cutting, and
the forest fires, the forests are decreasing at a very alarming rate,
and a lumber famine is to be expected within the next century, if the
lands are not properly reforested.
Foretelling the Weather
Several years ago the United States Government established a Weather
Bureau and placed it in charge of scientific men and observers who
were expert in this direction. Weather Bureau stations are maintained
throughout the United States, and each station communicates daily with
the head office at Washington. By following the law of averages, by the
use of the barometer and other instruments, by scientific research and
experiment, and because of the receipt of hourly or daily reports,
the Weather Bureau experts are able to foretell the weather with a
considerable degree of accuracy. Practically all of the great storms,
tornadoes, and hurricanes are announced in advance. While this science
is still in its infancy, it has made rapid strides, and each year shows
much improvement in the result. There are a few simple rules, which may
be used for foretelling the weather, if one possesses a barometer.
The rapid rise of the barometer indicates unsettled weather. The
gradual rise foretells settled weather.
When the air is dry and cold, a rising barometer indicates wind from
the north; and if it has been raining, better weather may occur.
When the air is moist and at a low temperature, a rising barometer may
foretell wind and rain from the north.
When there is a northerly wind, and the barometer falls rapidly, there
is likely to be a storm with snow in winter, and heavy rain or hail in
summer.
When the air is dry and the temperature seasonable, a steady barometer
indicates a continuance of fine weather.
A rapidly falling barometer may foretell stormy weather.
When the wind is westerly, a rapid fall may precede a storm coming from
the north.
When the wind is southerly, a rise in the barometer may precede fine
weather.
When there is much moisture in the air and considerable heat, a falling
barometer may indicate that a wind and rain storm is coming from the
south.
When the air is dry and cold in winter a falling barometer may indicate
snow. When the weather is calm and warm, a falling barometer may be
taken to mean rain or squally weather.
=Freemasonry.=--Its origin is unknown, but it is very ancient. It has
been traced to the Knights Templars, to the Crusaders, and others. It
is said that the workmen upon Solomon's Temple were Masons and that
Masonry was the original trade union or protective association for
workmen, each workman by signs being able to prove that he had reached
a certain stage of proficiency; but this has not been substantiated.
Some authorities state that Masonry was introduced into England in 674
A. D. The first record of the establishment of a Grand Lodge was at
York in 926. Freemasonry was introduced into France in 1725, and into
America in 1730. Freemasons are found throughout the entire world,
there being more than a million of them in the United States and
Canada. Other fraternal or mystic orders, known as Odd Fellows, Knights
of Pythias, Red Men, etc., are in purpose similar to Masons, and most
of them were founded upon Masonry, Masonry ante-dating all of them.