white paper, fold it through the middle; now fold again, bringing the
ends of the first crease together; fold once more, making the last
crease to fall upon the same line as the other two, and your paper will
be in shape like the letter V, Fig. 1. Be sure that _b_, in Fig. 1,
forms a perfect point. Now lay the pattern on your folded paper, letting
_a_, Fig. 2, fall upon _b_, Fig. 1, and taking care that the edges of
the pattern fall evenly upon the folds of the paper. Cut the paper out,
following the lines of the design. After the black portions have all
been cut away, open your folded form, and you will have a very pretty
stencil, which can be used in decorating your playthings, or for the
various other purposes stencils are so extensively employed. One little
friend of mine used to paste all his finest specimens on square pieces
of black cloth, and after he had a good-sized collection, he had the
pieces sewed together in the form of a book. On the cover he pasted the
word “Stencil” and his initials, all cut from white paper; and it was a
never-failing source of pleasure to him to show this little work,
declaring proudly as he did so, “I did it all myself with my own little
pair of scissors.” These stencils could be cut from variously colored
papers and then pasted upon ordinary note; the whole being caught
together with a piece of ribbon. A book would be the result, which, if
not prettier, would be less cumbersome than my little friend’s, and
would probably give full as much satisfaction, besides being much easier
to make. If you will carefully examine the inside decorations of many of
our fine public buildings, you will see that much of the work is put on
with stencils; and by looking still more carefully, you can learn just
how these stencils are made; and from them gain ideas for your own
designs, which will aid you very materially in any decoration you may
try. It is not expected that a boy has judgment or skill sufficient to
decorate an important room, but if you would like to try the experiment,
you may be able to persuade your parents to allow you to try your hand
at something of the kind in an unused garret room. But even in this, do
not begin at hap-hazard. Study all the designs you can find, and note
the effect of the colors on each other and upon the color of the wall
itself. Choose some simple, open pattern at first, and do not use more
than two colors in putting it on the wall. The fresco paint, or
kalsomine, comes in a powder, with full directions for using printed on
each package. It is put on with a short, thick brush; and is patted on
through the stencil. For stenciling, the paint or kalsomine must be
mixed much thicker than for an ordinary wash, and it is best to have
your stencil pattern, after it is perfected to your taste, cut from a
piece of tin, if a tinman is near at hand. After the walls have received
their share of decoration, it would be well to paint the door to match,
using some appropriate oblong stencil for the panels, and applying it
with oil paint. In such things it is very easy to overload the work, and
by putting on too much spoil the effect; so care and judgment must be
exercised to know at just what point to stop, as well as to avoid
daubiness and an uneven character to your work.
―――――◀▶―――――
LIGHT PRODUCED BY FRICTION UNDER WATER.
If you should rub two squares of cut-loaf sugar together in a dark room,
light would result from the friction; but the effect is produced in a
much greater degree by two pieces of silex or quartz; and if two pieces
of a fine quality of quartz be forcibly rubbed together, you may
distinguish the time of night by a watch; but what is more surprising,
the same effect is produced equally strong on rubbing the pieces
together under water.
In olden times, before matches were invented, fire for all purposes was
produced by means of friction; a piece of flint and one of steel being
the substances used, and a tin box of charred linen rags, called tinder,
received the sparks which fell from the steel.
Many years ago, when your great-grandmothers were children, in many New
England communities a cow’s horn, sawed across the top, and fitted with
a wooden stopper, was used to hold the tinder, but later, the more
stylish and luxurious tinder-box took its place. This box, made of tin,
and somewhat larger and deeper than a good-sized blacking-box of to-day
was fitted with an inside cover, a simple disk of tin with a ring of
wire in the top for a handle, and was filled with a quantity of cotton
or linen rags, which were set on fire with a brand from the hearth. When
this burning cloth had reached a black color, but before it was reduced
to ashes, the inside cover was let down upon it, and the flames were
extinguished. After this, another outside cover was put on the box to
prevent dampness penetrating, and thus rendering the tinder worthless.
To insure further protection against the intruding damp, the box, with
its companions of flint and steel, were generally kept in the chimney
closet beside the fire-place.
In those primitive days of our country, it was a very common thing for a
farmer’s wife to run into a neighbor’s and borrow some one of these
necessary articles, and it was usually the tinder, which she had
neglected to prepare when fire was plenty, that was the thing needed.
Occasionally, when two or three houses were near together and the
inmates on friendly terms with each other, one set would answer the
demands of the neighborhood, and would be used by all with equal
freeness. Later on, each family made their own matches, by simply
dipping bits of wood into melted sulphur, and allowing it to dry on the
end. These matches were kept in another tin box, and when the spark had
ignited the tinder, the sulphur end was touched to the smoldering fire,
and would immediately burst into flame.
Before these matches were invented, however, when the housewife wished
to make her fire (stoves were of course unknown), she would seat herself
near the fire-place, and, grasping the uncovered horn or box between her
knees, would hold her steel in her left hand just above it, and with the
flint or quartz in her right, would strike upon the former, till two or
three sparks fell upon the charred surface; the bit of glowing tinder
would then be carefully taken from the box, wrapped around with a bit of
rag, and blown upon with her breath until the cloth burst into flames. A
candle was quickly lighted from this, to keep the flame till the fire
was well under way.
Every boy has probably felt the inconvenience of being without matches,
when a fire on the beach in summer, or near the skating-pond in winter,
would have been such a luxury. The next time the emergency occurs,
strike a piece of quartz or hard white stone upon the large blade of
your jackknife, over any bit of dry cotton or thin paper you may have at
hand, as a tinder-box would probably not form part even of the very
miscellaneous collection of the average school-boy’s pockets.
―――――◀▶―――――
EXPERIMENT WITH FLOWER-SEEDS.
Split a small twig of the elder-bush lengthwise, and having scooped out
the pith, fill each of the compartments with seeds of flowers of
different colors, but which blossom about the same time. Surround them
with mold, and then tying together the two bits of wood, plant the whole
in a pot filled with earth, properly prepared. The stems of the
different flowers will thus be so incorporated as to exhibit to the eye
only one stem, throwing out branches covered with flowers of different
colors, analagous to the seed which produced them. If the plants are
somewhat alike in the texture of their stems, and germinate at about the
same period, there will be less danger of the strong choking the weak.
―――――◀▶―――――
HOW TO SKELETONIZE LEAVES.
Among the many desirable subjects for photographic printing, none are
more satisfactory or so delicate as a graceful arrangement of
skeletonized leaves. It may be very simple, and composed of only three
or four leaflets; or it may be so elaborate as to embrace specimens from
trees and weeds, wild flowers and garden shrubs; while the beautiful
seed-pods and grasses, readily found in our fields or along our
brooklets, answer for the blossoms in this dainty, fairy-like bouquet.
The methods employed in freeing leaves from their pulpy element, or
cellular tissue, as it is more properly called, are very unlike, as
practiced by different individuals; but the following, given the author
by a lady friend who has a large and extremely beautiful collection of
remarkably fine specimens, is very simple, and can be practiced with
success by a boy or girl of ten.
Take a wash-bowl, and fill it half full of soft water, into which a
heaping teaspoonful of baking soda should be thrown; place this in a
sunny window, or one with a southern exposure if possible, and put in
your leaves; care must be taken that they are all under water, and not
too crowded, although three or four dozen can safely be done at a time.
Any leaf which has a firm, well-defined frame-work will make a good
specimen. The leaves of the horse-chestnut, maple, silver-leaf catalpa,
and magnolia; those of the currant, pear, English ivy, and plum, all
make fine skeletons, and many delicate seed-covers, like those of the
strawberry-tomato, are very easily treated. Do not confine yourself to
this list, however, but try any which resemble these in texture, as a
great variety is particularly desirable, if you would have a good
collection.
After you have put your leaves to soak in the soda-water, leave them in
the sun for three weeks, as that is the shortest time in which any will
do. Then look them carefully over, and should any be found nearly free
from their tissues, take them out, and wash them off in a bowl of clean
water; then with a soft brush liberate any tiny particle that may still
adhere to the frame-work, as any blemish of this kind is considered a
defect in the specimen.
During this process, be careful to retain the fine threadlike bit of
fiber that entirely encircles the leaf and forms an outside frame-work
or edge. If it is found impossible to entirely clean the skeleton by aid
of the brush, it should be put in a bowl or saucer of clean water and
left in the sun for two or three days longer. When they are thoroughly
cleaned, place them between the leaves of an old book, and lay them
aside until the time for bleaching.
If you live in or near the latitude of New York, the best time to
collect and treat your leaves is in June, while they are still fresh and
tender, and before the insects have destroyed their shape; but should
your home be further south, April or May would be a better time.
After your collection is complete, and all are dry, they will be much
improved by bleaching. This process is also very simple, consisting, as
it does, of merely dipping them in a weak solution of chloride of lime,
and letting them remain there until the proper color is attained; then
by slipping a piece of unglazed paper—ribbon paper is best for this
purpose—beneath the surface of the water, and bringing it up with the
leaf lying flat upon it, the skeleton can easily be taken from the
water.
If the form is not inclined to spread out on the paper as it should,
take a long slender darning-needle, and with the point carefully arrange
it to your satisfaction. Another drying is now necessary, but the
bleached leaves should be left on the ribbon paper, which may be put
between the leaves of a book as before.
These can be kept for years, and should you be successful and obtain a
number of perfect specimens, they will form a very valuable addition to
your materials for Christmas gifts, and, prettily arranged, a very
acceptable present to any dear friend.
―――――◀▶―――――
CAMERA OBSCURA.
Camera Obscura, a Latin name, meaning literally a dark chamber, belongs
to an instrument invented by Baptista Porta in the sixteenth century.
[Illustration]
The principle involved in the simplest and most refined forms is the
same, and may be illustrated by the following experiment: Let a small
hole be cut in an opaque window-shade, and the room darkened. If, now,
the beam of light entering the room by this hole be intercepted by a
sheet of white paper, held at a small distance from the hole, an
inverted image of objects without will be seen upon the paper. By
placing a small convex lens over the hole this image is rendered much
more distinct. It will also be found, that at a certain distance from
the hole the image attains the sharpest or clearest outline, and that if
the paper be removed from this point to any position either nearer to
the hole or further from it, the image becomes indistinct and confused.
At the point of greatest clearness the image is said to be _focused_.
Such being the principle of the camera, it is evident that in practice
the instrument may assume many forms, provided always that it consists
of a darkened box or chamber, having a hole at one end for the insertion
of a lens or combination of lenses, and at the other a screen, generally
made of ground glass, on which to receive the image. One of the first
home-made cameras I remember seeing was constructed by a boy friend many
years ago. In it he used a lens from an old ship’s spy-glass, which
still remained incased in its brass tube. Fig. 1 gives a view of this
form of camera. As every boy is not as fortunate as my friend in having
a brass mounting for his lens, it would be well to inclose it in a small
tube of papier-maché or pasteboard, so that it may be moved in or out of
the opening at will. The box itself was made of cigar-box wood, with the
cover sawed in two parts. After the hole had been cut at one end and the
lens inserted, a piece of looking-glass was placed obliquely across the
lower corner of the other end of the box, the longer piece of the cover
nailed on the front part of the top, and a piece of ground glass
carefully fitted, with the ground side downward, over the remaining open
space; the smaller part of the cover was then fastened on one side with
small pieces of tape. When not in use, this little cover fell down over
the glass, but when any object was to be viewed the little lid was
lifted into the position in the cut, and served as a shield to the
ground glass beneath. A piece of black cloth thrown over this cover, and
allowed to fall over the triangular side-openings, so as to still
further prevent outside light from reaching the ground glass, is a great
improvement.
[Illustration]
In the diagram, the dotted lines show the course of the light from the
object in view, through the lens (where the rays cross each other) to
the looking-glass, and thence to the ground glass above.
[Illustration]
A SIMPLER FORM OF THE CAMERA OBSCURA.
[Illustration: Fig. 2]
A simpler form of the camera obscura is seen in Fig. 2. Here the case is
a small soap or spice box, the lens a convex spectacle-glass, and the
board marked _b_ a partition, serving as a screen upon which the image
is thrown. In this form the lens may be fixed in the end of the box if
desired, which is much easier than adjusting it in a sliding tube. The
focal distance of an ordinary spectacle-glass averages about twelve or
fourteen inches, and the box should be, of course, somewhat longer than
the focal length of the glass used. A glass from “near-sighted”
spectacles will not do, as it is concave instead of convex.
The box is now pointed out of the window, at some well-marked object,
such as a sun-lighted building, and the partition-board moved backward
and forward, till the point is found at which the image on it is best
defined. Then the board may be fastened (as _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, Fig. 2)
and the top put on, of which the end should be cut off about four inches
from the screen, as shown in the figure.
A piece of black cloth thrown over the head, and completely covering the
ends of the opening, renders the image more distinct.
THE SKETCHING CAMERA.
[Illustration: Fig. 3]
[Illustration: Fig. 4]
[Illustration: Fig. 5]
This form of camera may be also used for sketching from nature, by
raising it on end, and providing it with an inclined mirror, as shown in
Fig. 4. The opening _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, should in this case be
sufficiently large to admit easy play of the hand in sketching, and also
allow an unobstructed view of the image. The mirror may be prepared
without much difficulty. Get the glazier to cut for you a piece of
looking-glass three or four inches square, and cover the back with a
piece of thick paper or card, to prevent scratching; then take a wire of
sufficient length, and double it as in _A_; now bend this double wire in
the form of _B_, letting the ends come at _a_ and _b_, and placing your
mirror, face downward, upon the frame as in _C_; hold it in place by two
bands of strong paper, passed around the glass and wires, and pasted
strongly on the back, at the top and bottom of the mirror. When in use
this frame is placed over the lens, and reflects the image down upon the
drawing-paper placed on the screen below. The four round-headed screws
in the top are intended for attaching an opaque curtain to the box,
which, however, is only needed when the artist is working in the open
air. Then the dark curtain is buttoned in place, and falls over the head
and shoulders, completely shielding the image from any invading rays of
light which might otherwise confuse the draughtsman.
As a matter of fact, in using the sketching camera, it is necessary to
turn one’s back to the objects sketched, if it is desired to draw them
in an upright position. I have represented the artist facing the house,
as it would look strangely in the illustration to see him seated with
his back to the view; but he is compelled, in consequence, to draw his
house, sister, and everything else which is included in the image thrown
upon his paper upside down, as a penalty for appearances.
THE DARKENED ROOM.
To those boys living in the country, and having a wide, extended
landscape stretched out before their windows, the “darkened room” is a
very interesting feature. It simply requires a room which can be made
perfectly dark. At the window (if there are more than one) commanding
the broadest prospect have a perfectly tight, opaque screen fitted, with
a small hole cut in the lower part for the insertion of the lens. Over
this fasten a small mirror to receive the image, at such an angle as
will throw the reflection down upon a stand placed two or three feet
from the window, and thus make it possible for the spectator to view the
scene in its normal condition. Should you be desirous of having the
whole sweep of the horizon at your command in the darkened room, a
simply constructed frame-work is necessary for the accommodation of the
movable mirror, and also for the lens; this would further necessitate
the cutting of a larger hole in the curtain. Fig. 5 represents this
arrangement; _a_ being the movable lens, which can be readily taken from
its socket if desired; _b_, the hole in the bottom of the bracket, which
should correspond to a larger hole in the shelf _d_, upon which the
bracket rests, and can be easily turned in any direction desired. This
hole should be large enough to allow the passage of all the diverging
rays, and _c_, a small mirror, fitted like the one for the sketching
camera just described, to receive the image and reflect it down through
_b_ upon the stand, or a sheet placed upon the floor for the screen. The
height of the shelf _d_ from the floor is determined by the focal length
of the lens, and must be decided by experiment before the hole is cut in
the shade. It is fastened in place by strings attached to small
screw-eyes at its corners, and tied upon tacks driven into the
window-frame. The arrangement shown in Fig. 5 can be moved on the shelf,
so as to face the lens toward any portion of the view commanded by the
window.
―――――◀▶―――――
PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING.
If all boys are not so fortunate as to possess a camera, there is no
reason why they should be debarred from all the pleasures of
photography; and as there is much entertainment to be derived from this
simple amusement, it is advisable for every boy throughout the land who
is old enough to give it a fair trial. The first thing needed is a frame
for holding the print while it is being exposed. This can be made by an
ingenious boy, but as it is a rather troublesome job, it is better to
buy a small transparent slate for five or ten cents, and discarding the
copies, use the frame and glass for your work. The sensitized paper
should next be prepared. This can be bought at any place where
photographers’ supplies are to be found; many boys, however, are too far
away from our great cities to have access to such stores, and even those
who have will find more delight in making it for themselves. There is a
great satisfaction in the feeling of perfect independence, and the more
we can do for ourselves without aid or hinderance from the world at
large, the nearer we come to the ideal state. So, presuming that every
boy has this independent spirit well ingrained in his nature, I will
give two formulas for this kind of paper, and leave it to the reader to
decide for himself which he will use. The first produces a negative
impression; that is, one in which all the parts that are dark in the
copy come out light in the print, and _vice versâ_; and the second makes
a positive print, or one in which all the shadings remain the same as in
the original.
FIRST PROCESS.
Paper by this process is very easily prepared as follows: Make two
solutions:
1st.—Water, 1 ounce.
Prussiate of potash, 60 grains.
2d.—Water, 1 ounce.
Ammonia citrate of iron, 70 grains.
When these are dissolved, mix them together, and pour them through a
piece of filter-paper into a tumbler, and then into a clean glass
bottle. If filter-paper cannot be had, nice clean cotton wool answers
the purpose nearly as well. This solution should be kept and also used
in a dark room. To sensitize the paper, pour out a little of the liquid
into a saucer; then having cut note-paper into rectangular pieces, a
trifle smaller than the glass in your frame, take one of these pieces at
a time, and place it evenly upon the surface of the liquid; let it lie
in this position until it is flat and not inclined to curl. Now take it
out by one corner, and thrusting a pin through this point, drive it
lightly into the edge of a shelf in your dark room, and leave it to dry.
It is now ready for use; should any be left after printing, roll it up
and place it in a tin box which has a cover, to keep it from the light
and dampness. To print on this paper, place your glass in the frame, and
next to it any engraving you may fancy, provided it is printed on thin
paper and has no type on its back. If a copy is desired precisely like
the original, place the engraving face downward on the glass, but if a
reverse is wished, that is, one in which all the objects in the original
are turned about, and its left side is to correspond to the right in
your print, then place it with its face toward you in the frame. When
this is adjusted to your satisfaction, take the frame to your dark
closet, and put in your sensitized paper, being careful to cover it
closely with the back of the frame well fastened in place before
bringing it to the light. Place the frame, glass side upward, on a
window-ledge, or in any place where it will be exposed to the free rays
of the sun, and let it remain until it is printed to the desired depth.
It will be noticed that at first the light changes the portions exposed
to a bluish color; the operation, however, is not finished at this
stage, but must be continued long enough to turn these portions a deep
metallic gray. Care must be exercised in examining the print, that the
paper is not moved from its position relative to the copy to be printed;
with the above frame this will be a very delicate matter, and it is
doubtful if it can be successfully done. A better way would be to make
one or two prints, without caring for accuracy of form, but simply with
a view of obtaining a good color, and time the operation; this would
form a sort of basis from which to work. If some subsequent engraving
was upon thicker paper, it would take a somewhat longer time to print
it, and if on thinner paper, the time required would be proportionately
shorter. It would be a great source of convenience if the back could be
cut in two equal parts, and a piece of canton flannel be pasted over
both, joining them as they were at first. This with the soft side
outward will keep the paper from slipping, and act as a hinge to either
half. Now instead of one fastening, two will be required, one on either
half of the cover; if then you wish to examine your print, you have only
to open one end of your frame, and carefully lift up the edge of the
paper, while the other end, remaining firmly closed, holds the whole
thing in place.
After your print has reached the proper degree of color, take it out and
immerse it in clean water, when it will become a rich blue, except those
parts which are to remain white. Change the water once or twice, or
until every part comes out distinctly; then take it from the bath and
dry between sheets of blotting-paper.
The second way to prepare paper consists in washing good letter-paper
with the following solution:
Bichromate of potash, 10 grains.
Sulphurate of copper, 20 grains.
Water, 1 ounce.
Papers prepared with this are of a pale yellow color; they may be kept
any length of time in a tin box, and are always ready for use. For
copying engravings, the wings of dragon-flies, or of cicadas, the
beautiful skeletonized leaves or delicate ferns, arranged in tiny
bouquets on the inner surface of the ground glass, this paper is
excellent.
After it has been exposed to the influence of the sunshine, take the
frame to your dark closet, and after removing the print, wash it over
with a solution of nitrate of silver of moderate strength. As soon as
this is done, a very vivid positive picture makes its appearance, and
all the “fixing” it requires is well washing in pure water.
The dark closet spoken of above is necessary in all kinds of
photography, as light let in upon the sensitized paper would darken the
whole surface. To make a “dark room,” stop the upper part of the window
with any opaque substance, and pin a large sheet of dark orange paper
over the lower sash. The yellow paper used in making envelopes is
excellent for this, but if it cannot be found, four sheets of
tissue-paper, two red and two yellow, placed over each other, answer the
purpose very well.
A friend of the writer utilizes an old disused chicken-house for his
dark room, and it answers its purpose capitally, while it was at the
window of this little room I first saw the tissue-paper successfully
used.
The prints used for copy might be rendered more translucent by rubbing
them over with a little linseed oil mixed with turpentine. This, of
course, should be thoroughly dried before it is used in connection with
the sensitized paper.