THIS latest king of Babylon is, however, an interesting personage. To
him we are indebted for many records which but for him the archæologists
of this present time would not have recovered. He was a zealous restorer
of ancient temples and shrines, which in his day had fallen into decay
through all Mesopotamia. This seems to have been a duty enjoined by the
gods upon all kings of Chaldea. But, whatever his motive, whether as a
fulfillment of religious duty or of antiquarian inclinations, Nabonidus
is said to have undertaken these restorations to an extent no king
before him seems to have attempted.
Of famous temples rebuilded by him are those of the Moon God of Ur, and
Haran; also of the Sun God at Larsa and of Sippara.
The custom of placing the records of the founder of an edifice in
chambers or cavities in the foundations of the structure is of immense
antiquity. These records were inscribed generally on clay cylinders and
usually ended with injunctions to any future king who might, in
rebuilding, come upon the secret hiding place of the cylinders that
these records should be replaced in their original depository with
religious rites. Failing to do this, the wrath of the gods is invoked
upon his sacreligious head.
It was in this way that Nabonidus came upon some very ancient and
important documents. As in all cases he followed his discoveries with
the record of the event upon inscribed cylinders deposited by him in the
foundations of the new structure, the value of these to later explorers
can scarcely be estimated.
It was during his excavations in the foundations of the Sun temple at
Larsa that he came upon a cylinder inscribed and deposited by Hammurabi,
or Khammuragas, at the rebuilding of a more ancient temple on the same
site.
Hammurabi states upon his cylinder that this more ancient temple was
founded by Urea, or Ur Gur, seven hundred years before his time.
On annalistic tablets of Babylonian kings in the British Museum,
Khammuragas is mentioned and the date accorded to him B. C. 2315, or the
end of his reign B. C. 2259, which gives the date of Urea, The Builder,
as about 2959 B. C.
The most important of the discoveries of Nabonidus, was, however, the
finding of the foundation cylinder of Naram-Sin, the son and successor
of the great Sargon of Accad.
This occurred at the time of his restoration of the Sun temple at
Sippara, near the ancient city of Agane.
Of this, Nabonidus says:
“I brought the Sun God from his temple, and placed him in another
house.”
“I sought for its old foundation stone, and eighteen cubits deep—”
“I dug into the ground and the foundation stone of Naram-Sin, Son of
Sargon, which for thirty-two hundred years no king who had gone
before me had seen.”
“The Sun God—the great Lord of E Bara. Let me see; even me.”
Before the discovery of the cylinder of Nabonidus the date of Sargon of
Accad was uncertain. He had often been regarded as identical with the
later Sargon, the Assyrian king who carried the Ten Tribes of Israel
into captivity about 722 B. C. The numerous records remaining of the
earlier Sargon had made the identity of these two monarchs confusing and
impossible, which was cleared away by the discovery of the records of
Nabonidus.
This king had data for his statements which subsequent discoveries have
confirmed, thus giving to Naram-Sin the date of thirty-two hundred and
fifty years before Nabonidus, which was 550 B. C., and allowing for the
long reign of Sargon I, we have the immense antiquity of B. C. 3800 for
the time of the great Sargon of Accad.
The site where this important discovery was made is one of the two
Sipparas, situated on opposite sides of the royal canal, not far from
the Euphrates, and running parallel with the river.
These two cities were anciently known by their rival sanctuaries, the
one dedicated to the worship of the Sun, and the other to the worship of
the Moon, and were known as the Sippara of the Sun and the Sippara of
Annuit.
The Sippara of Annuit is the supposed site of the ancient Agade of
Sargon. It was, however, at Sippara of the Sun that Naram-Sin, the son
of Sargon, founded the temple which was discovered by Nabonidus and
rediscovered by Mr. Rassam a few years ago.
While making excavations in a mound near the supposed site of Sippara,
Mr. Rassam made his way into some rooms of a vast structure which he
found to be a temple. Passing on from room to room, he at last entered a
smaller chamber which was paved with asphalt. As this kind of pavement
was unusual in Babylonian and Assyrian structures he concluded this must
be the secret depository of records. Having broken into the pavement, he
came finally upon a sealed casket or chest of earthenware, about three
feet below the surface, in which was found a stone tablet, beautifully
inscribed, and also other documents.
This stone tablet was the archive of the famous Sun temple as was proved
by the inscription on it, and also by the documents found with it, which
gave the names of the founder and the restorers of the temple.
The tablet had upon it a representation of the Sun God, seated upon a
throne receiving the homage of his worshippers, while above him the sun
disc is suspended as from heaven by two strong cords held up by two
ministering spirits.
The inscription declares this to be the image of Shamash, the great Lord
who dwells in the House of the Sun which is within the city of Sippara.
This established at once the site as that of ancient Sippara, which to
this time had been doubtful, and may lead to further discoveries of
still greater antiquity on the site of the Sippara of Annuit, the
supposed site of the ancient Agane.
In the records remaining of Sargon, from various localities, it is
stated that he built here a palace, which, after some important military
campaigns he greatly enlarged; that he built also a magnificent temple
to Annuit, and that afterwards a statue of him (Sargon) was here
erected, inscribed with memorials of his birth and career.
The tablets in the British Museum containing these records are probably
copies of these older inscriptions, the originals not having as yet been
discovered. They record Sargon’s invasions of Elam with victorious
armies, another successful campaign in Syria, the subjugation of all
Babylonia and the peopling of his new city, Agane, with the conquered
nations.
His longest and greatest campaign was a later invasion of Syria at which
he was absent from his kingdom for three years. At this time he
penetrated to the “Sea of the setting Sun”—the Mediterranean—conquering
all the countries through which he passed.
In the rocky cliffs of the Asian shore he left inscriptions recording
his triumphs, and memorial statues of him were erected in various
places. It is possible that he crossed to Cyprus where relics of him,
and of his son, Naram-Sin, have been found.
He seems to have had ambitions of universal empire, and it is stated
that after his return from this expedition, “he appointed that all
places should form a single kingdom.” Of this he says:
“Forty-five years the kingdom I have ruled, and the black Accadian
race I have governed.”
“In multitude of bronze chariots I rode over rugged lands.”
“Three times to the coast of the Persian sea I advanced.”
“The countries of the Sea of the setting Sun I crossed.”
“In the third year at the setting Sun my hand conquered.”
“Under one command I caused them to be only fixed.”
Naram-Sin—the beloved of Sin, the Moon God—continued the military
advances of his father. The records remaining state that he invaded
Egypt and held in possession for a time Maganna, the land of Magan, the
region of the turquoise and copper mines and of the famous diorite.
A vase discovered at Babylon and since lost in the Tigris, has on it the
inscription:
“To Naram-Sin, King of the Four Races, Conqueror of Apirak and Magan.”
A second alabaster vase was found by M. de Sarazec in the ruins of
Tel-Loh, having inscribed on it the words:
“Naram-Sin, King of the Four Regions,” or king of the north, south, east
and west.
This vase was imbedded in the masonry, evidently later restorations of
the earlier buildings of Gudea.
A cylinder found by General Cesnola, at Cyprus has on it an inscription
declaring its owner as a worshipper of Naram-Sin, who it seems had been
deified by his subjects.
In the first volume of Babylonian inscriptions found at Nippur, Prof.
Hilfrecht records six inscriptions of Sargon, two brick stamps of baked
clay, fragments of many vases and three door sockets, most of these
temple offerings to Bel—Mul-lil, of Nippur. The door sockets contain the
longest inscriptions of Sargon thus far known.
There are many inscriptions of Naram-Sin in the Nippur remains, and yet
more now in course of translation. These refer again to the restoration
by these kings of the temple of Bel and their dominion over the whole of
South Babylonia.
As these explorations are yet in progress, it is too early to indicate
the farther evidences of these early rulers of Babylonia remaining at
Nippur.
The various localities in which these relics have been found indicate
the extensive sway of these monarchs. They suggest also the period when
certain gods of Chaldea were adopted by the various nations and people
conquered by Sargon or Naram-Sin.
Sinai, the mountain of Sin, the Moon God, may be a reminiscence of the
invasion of Arabia by Naram-Sin directed by this divinity.
Mount Nebo, the mountain upon which Moses died, received its name from
the Chaldean Nebo, the god of science and literature, the god of wisdom
and prophesy.
Istar, the evening star, the Chaldean Venus, the goddess of love and
fertility, became the Atthar of southern Arabia, is identical with the
goddess Hathor, of Egyptian mythology, and was worshipped by the
Canaanites as Ashtaroth, and finally by the Greeks as Astarte.
Against this background of history and tradition, of civilization so
remote, a notable figure appears about fifteen hundred and forty years
later than the great Sharrukin, or 2260 B. C., in whom the most sacred
traditions of later civilizations were to have their rise.
This was Abraham, or Abu-ramu, “the exalted father” with whom the
history of the people of Israel begins. A Semite, and a native of Ur,
his historical position is an important landmark in the story of
letters.
Of special significance in this connection is this early contact of
Abraham and his family with the land and people of Chaldea;—the
lingering survivals of Accadian speech and traditions in Hebrew language
and literature.
Again, when Abraham left Chaldea to found a great nation in another
land, writing and literature could not have been unknown to him.
The constant use of cuneiform signs in architectural structures, in
business forms and in every department of social and industrial life and
the ever present schools for scribes in all the great cities of
Mesopotamia made this impossible. The art of writing was no new thing to
this young Semite prince. It was an art even then hoary with age.
With all to whom Abraham is a historic personality, the story of his
life and times as recorded in the biblical narrative, is illuminated as
never before in the testimony of these cuneiform documents from old
Chaldea.
The biblical narrative does not touch upon the causes which led Abraham
away from the land of his nativity. Jewish and Arabian traditions,
however, state (and there may be a grain of truth in these traditions),
that this was the result of the revolt of Abraham against the idols of
Ur, and his refusal to acknowledge them as divine; that this brought
upon him and his father’s family a storm of persecution from the priests
and people which ended in their banishment from Ur, and their departure
for a distant country.
The references in the scripture narrative to Terah, the father of
Abraham, as an idolator, and the Arabian tradition as a sculptor or
maker of idols, is significant in these connections.
The destination of this family was Haran, at that time a Turanian city
in northern Mesopotamia, an important frontier station on the high road
to Syria and Palestine, and the various roads to the fords of the Tigris
and Euphrates.
The word Haran is from the Accadian, Kharran, “a road,” and was thus
named for its position. It is said to lie in a region of exceeding
fertility and beauty. Its fine, free air and commanding views make it
the delight of the Bedaween tribes who find here luxuriant pasturage for
innumerable flocks and herds.
Previous to the time of Abraham, there seems to have been at Haran, and
in the region round about, a considerable colony of Semitic people, as
indicated by Assyrian inscriptions. Since Abraham’s date, “Nahor’s City”
and the “Well of Rebekah,” located near Haran, bear these ancient names
to the present day.
The deity of Haran was then the Moon God, the same deity as worshipped
at Ur, always a favorite divinity with all Semitic people, and which
might have been an influence that drew Terah there. During the remaining
years of Terah’s life, Abraham remained in this locality, prospering
greatly; but with his father’s death his long conceived purpose of
establishing himself in Canaan was finally achieved.
After Abraham’s arrival in Canaan with his numerous household, his
princely retinue and his great possessions, we find him again in contact
with certain Babylonian princes who have invaded Canaan and have
obtained sovereignty in various localities.
The fourteenth chapter of Genesis gives account of the battle of Abraham
with these kings of Babylonia for the rescue of Lot, his nephew, in
which he put the invaders to flight, establishing peace and security in
the land.
The names of these kings as given in the scripture narrative are
Chedorlaomer, king of Elam; Amraphel, king of Shinar; Arioch, king of
Ellasar, or Larsa, and Tidal, king of nations.
These kings are now identified by Babylonian records, Chedorlaomer, king
of Elam, as Kudur-Lagomar, an Elamite king of that date; Arioch, king of
Ellasar, with Eri-Aku, then king of Larsa. Amraphel, king of Shinar, is
identified as Hammurabi, or Khammuragas, and Tidal, king of nations, as
Thorgal, king of Gutium, a region to the north of Elam.
The evident correspondence of these kings with Abraham’s contemporaries,
furnish continued evidence of the political contacts of Babylonia and
Canaan from the earliest times, and in many ways confirm the historical
verities of the early scripture records.
Another document, reflecting new light from the cuneiform inscriptions,
is the last exhortation of Joshua to Israel assembled at Shechem. In the
review he then gives of the history of his people, he says:
“Your fathers dwelt on the other side of the flood—the Euphrates—in
the old time; even Terah, the father of Abraham, and the father of
Nahor, and they served other gods.
“And I took your father Abraham from the other side of the flood and
led him throughout all the land of Canaan. And I brought you into
the land of the Amorites ✴ ✴ and I gave them into your hand; ✴ ✴
now, therefore, fear the Lord ✴ ✴ and serve him in sincerity and
truth and put away the gods which your fathers served on the other
side of the flood and in Egypt, and serve ye the Lord.”
The whole discourse bears internal evidence of a written report, fresh
from the voice of the speaker. We now know that the functions of the
scribe were as constantly employed as the modern reporter through all
Babylonia and Assyria as well as Egypt at these early dates.
Moses, who was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, evidently had
no lack of scribes among the Israelites. The Tel-el-Amarna tablets give
evidence of the general practice of the art of writing through all
Canaan before the days of Moses and Joshua.
We have thus little need to refer to the period of the Babylonian
captivity for the appearance of Accadian and Aramean words in early
Hebrew history, or for the correspondences of Chaldean legends with
scripture records.
The origin of the documents which in Ezra’s time were collected and
re-written in new form, were historical remnants surviving from the
earlier periods to which they are assigned in history and tradition.
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[Illustration: HIEROGLYPHS AND TRANSLATION.]
The order both of the columns and the hieroglyphs is from left to
right. Verbally translated it reads:
1. _nuk neb aamt_
I am a lord excellent
2. _uah mert heka_
very beloved ruler
3. _mer tamaf arna kar_
loving his country passed I for
4. _rēnpau em heka em_
years as the ruler of
5. _Sah baku neb en_
Sah the work all of
6. _sutna kheper em tuta_.
the palace was done by my hand.
------------------------------------------------------------------------