time of the ancient wonders of Egypt, and who have written during
the period when the Egyptians still possessed some of their customs,
could alone transmit to us the ingenious secret of embalming; but
their recitals prove, that they themselves possessed but an imperfect
knowledge of it.”
All the ancient authors agree, in saying that the Egyptians made
use of various aromatics to embalm the dead; that they employed for
the rich, myrrh, (the resin of a species of _Mimosa_,) aloes, (the
extracto-resinous juice of the _Aloe perfoliata_,) canella, (bark of
the _Laurus cinamomum_,) and the cassia lignea, (bark of the _Laurus
cassia_;) and for the poor, the cedria, (the fluid resin of the _Pinus
cedrus_,) bitumen, (_Bitumen judaicum_, derived from the Dead sea,) and
natrum, (a mixture of the carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of soda.)
“Although the recitals of Herodotus, and of Diodorus Sicculus, on
embalming, are not very complete, and that some details appear inexact
and improbable, as several of the French investigators have observed,
however, on placing in convenient order what Herodotus relates on
this subject, we shall soon perceive that he has described in a few
lines almost the whole theory of embalming. The Egyptian embalmers
knew how to distinguish from the other viscera, the liver, the spleen,
and the kidneys, which they did not disturb; they had discovered
the means of withdrawing the brain from the interior of the cranium
without destroying the bones of the latter; they knew the action of
the alkalies upon animal matter, since the time was strictly limited
that the body could remain in contact with these substances; they
were not ignorant of the property of balsams, and resins to protect
the bodies from the larvæ of insects and mites; they were likewise
aware of the necessity of enveloping the dried and embalmed bodies, in
order to protect them from humidity, which would interfere with their
preservation. These people had established invariable rules and a
certain method for the process of embalming. We remark, in effect, that
the labour of those who were charged with embalming the dead, consisted
in two principal operations, very distinct: the first, to subtract from
the interior of the corpse all that might become a cause of corruption
during the time allotted to dry it; the second, to secure the body from
any cause that might subsequently occasion its destruction.
“The odoriferous resins and bitumen not only preserved from
destruction, but also kept at a distance, the worms and beetles which
devour dead bodies. The embalmers, after having washed the bodies with
that vineous liquor which Herodotus and Diodorus call palm wine, and
having filled them with odoriferous resins or bitumen, they placed
them in stoves, where, by means of a convenient heat, these resinous
substances united intimately with the bodies, and these arrive in very
little time, to that state of perfect desiccation in which we find them
at the present day. This operation, of which no historian has spoken,
was, without doubt, the principal and most important of embalming.
“The most noted grottoes and pyramids have been sacked by the Arabs.
Also, in search of treasure, they have penetrated into the bosom of
mountains, and descended into those vast and deep excavations, where
they arrive only by long canals, with which some are encumbered. Here,
in chambers, or species of pits, worked into the rock, are found
millions of mummies, piled upon each other, which appear to have been
arranged with a certain symmetry, although many are now found displaced
and broken.
“Near these deep pits, which served for a common sepulture for several
families, we meet also with other smaller chambers, and some narrow
cavities in form of niches, which were destined to hold one mummy
only, or at most two. The grottoes of Thebes enclose a great number
of mummies, better preserved than those in the caverns and pits of
Saggârah. It is particularly, near the ruins of Thebes, in the interior
of the mountains which extend from the entrance of the valley of the
Tomb of Kings, to Medynet Abou, that I have seen many entire and well
preserved mummies.
“It would be impossible for me to estimate the prodigious number
of those which I have found scattered and heaped in the sepulchral
chambers, and in the multitude of caverns which exist in the interior
of this mountain. I have developed and examined a great number of them,
as much with the view of inquiring into their state, and examining the
preparation, as with the hope of finding idols, papyrus, and other
curious objects, that the most part of these mummies enclose beneath
their envelopes. I have not remarked, what Maillet asserts, caverns
specially destined to the sepulture of men, of women, and of infants;
but I was surprised to find so few infant mummies in the tombs which
I visited. These embalmed bodies, among which we meet with nearly
an equal number of men and women, and which at first view appear to
resemble each other, and to have been prepared in the same manner,
differ, nevertheless, in the various substances which have been
employed to embalm them, or in the arrangement and in the quality of
the linen employed to envelope them.”
The Count de Caylus, and the celebrated chemist, Rouelle, have supposed
that all the cloths that enveloped the mummies were of cotton; I have
found a great number of them which were enveloped in linen bandages,
of a much finer tissue than those of cotton, which are commonly
found around mummies prepared with less care. The mummies of birds,
particularly those of the Ibis, are also enveloped with linen bandages.
“On examining with attention and in detail some of the mummies found
in the tombs, I have distinguished two principal classes: those in
which they have made, on the left side above the groin, an incision
about two and a half inches long, penetrating into the lower cavity of
the belly; and those which have no incision whatever in any part of
the body. In both classes, we find many mummies with the partition of
the nose torn, and the ethmoidal bone entirely destroyed; but some of
the last class have the spongy bones untouched, and the ethmoidal bone
entire, which might make it appear that, sometimes the embalmers did
not disturb the brain. The opening found in the side of most mummies,
was doubtless made in all cases of select embalming, not only for the
purpose of withdrawing the intestines, which are not found in any of
these desiccated bodies, but also the better to clean the cavity of the
belly, and to fill it with a greater quantity of aromatic and resinous
substances, the volume of which contributed to preserve the body, at
the same time that the strong odour of the resins kept off the insects
and worms. This opening does not appear to me to have been sewn up, as
Herodotus asserts; the borders have only been brought together, and are
retained so by desiccation.
“1. Among the mummies with an incision in the left side, I distinguish
those which have been desiccated by means of tanno-balsamic substances,
and those that have been salted. The mummies that have been dried
by means of astringent and balsamic substances, are filled as with
a mixture of aromatic resins, and the others with asphaltum or pure
bitumen.
“Mummies filled with aromatic resins are of an olive colour; the skin
is dry and flexible, like tanned leather; it is rather contracted upon
itself, and appears to form but one body with the fibres and the bones,
the features of the face are recognizable, and appear to be the same
as in the living state; the belly and chest are filled with a mixture
of friable resins, soluble in part in spirits of wine: these resins
possess no particular odour rendering them recognizable; but, thrown
upon living coals, they shed a thick smoke and a strongly aromatic
odour. These mummies are very dry, and easily unrolled and broken; they
still preserve all their teeth, the hair of the head and eyebrows. Some
of them have been gilded over the whole surface of the body; others are
gilded only on the face, the natural parts, on the hands and on the
feet; these gildings are common to a considerable number of mummies,
which prevents me from partaking in the opinion of some travellers, who
suppose that this kind of decoration was restricted to princes, and
persons of a very distinguished rank.
“These mummies which have been prepared with great care, are
unalterable so long as they are retained in a dry place; but, unbound,
and exposed to the air, they promptly attract moisture, and after a few
days shed a disagreeable odour.
“Mummies filled with pure bitumen, are of a black colour; the skin
is hard and shining, as if it had been covered with a varnish, the
features of the face are not altered; the belly, breast, and head, are
filled with a resinous substance, black, hard, and with but little
odour. This matter, which I have taken from the interior of many
mummies, has presented the same physical characters, and has given, by
chemical analysis, the same results as the Jew’s pitch of commerce.
These sort of mummies, which are met with commonly enough in all
caverns, are dry, heavy, without odour, difficult to unfold and to
break. Almost all have the face, the natural parts, the hands, and the
feet gilded; they appear to have been prepared with much care; they are
very little susceptible of alteration, and do not attract the moisture
of the air. The mummies with an incision in the left side, and which
have been salted, are equally filled, the one with resinous substances,
and the other with asphaltum. These two sorts differ but little from
the preceding: the skin has also a blackish colour, but it is hard,
smooth, and stretched like parchment; there is a space existing beneath
it, and it is not glued against the bones; the resins and bitumen which
have been injected into the belly and chest are less friable, and do
not reserve any odour; the features of the face are somewhat altered,
very little hair remains, which falls when touched. These two sorts of
mummies exist in great numbers in all the caverns: when unwrapped and
exposed to the air, they absorb moisture, and become covered with a
light saline efflorescence, which I have ascertained to be sulphate of
soda.
“2. Amongst those mummies without an incision in the left side, nor in
any other part of the body, and from which the intestines have been
withdrawn from the fundament, I also distinguish two sorts; those which
have been salted, and then filled with a bituminous matter less pure
than that which historians and naturalists call _pisasphaltum_; and
those which have been only salted.
“The injections with _cedria_, or the surmaia for dissolving the
intestines, according to Herodotus, could not produce this effect; it
is much more reasonable to suppose that these injections were composed
of natrum rendered caustic, which dissolved the viscera; and that after
having emptied the intestines, the embalmers filled the belly with
cedria, or with some other fluid resin which dried with the body.
“The salted mummies, which are filled with pisasphaltum, no longer
retain any recognizable feature: not only have all the cavities of the
body been filled with this bitumen, but the surface is also covered
with it. This matter has so penetrated the skin, the muscles, and the
bones, that it forms with them but one and the same mass.
“On examining these mummies, we are led to believe that the bituminous
matter has been injected very hot, and that the bodies have been
plunged into a kettle containing bitumen in liquifaction. These
mummies, the most common and numerous of all those we meet with in the
caverns, are black, hard, heavy, of a penetrating and disagreeable
odour; they are very difficult to break; they have no longer either
hair or eyebrows, none have been found gilded. Some of them only have
the palm of the hands, the soles of the feet, the nails of the fingers
and toes tinged with red, with this same colour used by the natives of
Egypt of the present day, to stain the palms of the hand and soles of
the feet, (the henna, or _Lawsonia inermis_.) The bituminous matter
which I have taken from them, is greasy to the touch, less black,
and less friable than asphaltum; it communicates to every thing that
touches it, a strong and penetrating odour; it is only imperfectly
soluble in alcohol; thrown upon living coals it sheds a thick smoke,
and disagreeable odour; distilled, it yields an abundant oil, thick, of
a brown colour, and fetid odour. These are the species of mummies which
the Arabs, and inhabitants of the vicinity of the plain of Saggârah,
formerly sold to Europeans, and which became an article of commerce
for the use of medicine and painting, or as objects of antiquity;
those filled with Jew’s pitch were preferred, since it is to this
matter, which had for a long time remained in the body, they attributed
formerly such marvellous medicinal properties; this substance, which
was named _balm of mummy_, was subsequently in great request among the
oil painters; it is on this account, that at first the mummy filled
with bitumen was the only kind known in France. They are very little
exposed to alteration; exposed to humidity, they become covered with
a slight saline efflorescence with a base of soda. Mummies which have
been only salted and dried, are generally more badly preserved than
those in which are found resins and bitumen.
“Many varieties are met with in these last sort of mummies; but it
appears that this is due to the want of care and negligence of the
embalmers in their preparation. Some, still entire, have the skin dry,
white, smooth, and stretched like parchment; they are light, inodorous,
and easily broken; others have the skin equally white, but a little
supple; having been less dried, they have assumed a fatty state. We
find also in these mummies, masses of that fatty, yellowish matter,
which naturalists call _adipocere_. The features of the face are
entirely destroyed, the eyebrows and hair have fallen; the bones become
detached from their ligaments without any effort, they are as white and
clean as those of a skeleton prepared for the study of osteology; the
cloth which envelopes them, tears, and falls to pieces at the slightest
touch. These sort of mummies, commonly found in particular caves,
contain a considerable quantity of saline substance, which I have
ascertained to consist almost entirely of sulphate of soda. The various
species of mummies of which I have just spoken, are swarthed with an
art which it would be difficult to imitate. Numerous linen bandages,
several metres in length compose their envelope; they are applied one
over the other, to the number of fifteen or twenty thicknesses, and
thus make several revolutions, first around each member, then around
the whole body; they are so compact, and interlaced with so much
address and skill, that they appear to have endeavoured by this means,
to render to these bodies, considerably reduced by desiccation, their
original form and natural thickness.
“All the mummies are enveloped nearly in the same manner; there is no
other difference than the number of the bandages which surround them,
and the quality of the linen, the tissue of which is more or less
fine, according as the embalming was more or less precious. The body
embalmed, is at first covered with a narrow chemise, we find only one
large bandage enveloping the whole body. The head is covered with a
piece of square linen cloth, of a very fine texture, the centre of
which forms a species of mask; five or six are thus found sometimes
applied one upon the other; the last being generally painted or gilded,
and represents the figure of the person embalmed. Each part of the body
is separately enveloped by several bandages impregnated with resin. The
legs brought together, and the arms crossed upon the chest, are fixed
in this position by other bandages which envelope the whole body. These
latter, generally loaded with hieroglyphical figures, and fixed by long
fillets which traverse each other with much art and symmetry, finish
the envelope.
“Immediately after these first bands, are found various idols in gold,
bronze, varnished terra cotta, wood, gilded or painted, rolls of
papyri manuscripts, and many other objects which have no relation to
the religion of these people, but which appear to be only souvenirs of
objects cherished during life. It was in one of these mummies, placed
in the bottom of a cave of the interior of the mountain, (behind the
Memnonium temple of the plain of Thebes,) that I found a voluminous
papyrus, which will be found engraved in the work. (Vide the plates 61,
62, 63, 64 and 65, of the second vol. of the plates of antiquities, and
the description of the Hypogees of the city of Thebes.) This papyrus
was rolled upon itself, and had been placed between the thighs of the
patient, immediately after the first bandages of linen; this male
mummy, the trunk of which was broken, did not appear to me to have been
embalmed in a first rate manner; it had been enveloped in an ordinary
linen cloth, and had been filled with asphaltum: the nails of the toes
had alone been gilded.
“Almost all the mummies which are found in the subterranean caverns,
which can yet be penetrated, are thus enveloped with linen bandages,
with a painted masque on the face. It is rare to find any enclosed
in cases, of which some wrecks only remain at the present day. These
cases, which served doubtless, only for the rich, or for persons of
distinction, were double; those in which the mummies were deposited,
were made of a kind of carton or pasteboard, composed of many pieces
glued together; this case was subsequently enclosed in a second,
constructed of the wood of sycamore or cedar.”
It results, if we are not mistaken, from the analogy of so many
carefully made observations, a consequence to which we might not
have arrived by long continued reasoning: simple embalming might
have been practised among the Egyptians from the earliest period of
their civilization, without a very exact knowledge of the laws of
preservation of animal matter, and before the other arts were far
advanced. A description of the Plain of Mummies by M. de Maillet, will
give to this opinion, already so firmly established, the value of a
demonstrated truth.
“Opposite the borough of Manof, looking towards the west, is situated
the Plain of Mummies--approximated to the north by the southern
pyramids, which are a continuation of the cemetery which the
inhabitants of Memphis had on this side--a plain famous, from the
number of mummies which have been taken of late from the subterranean
caverns which exist beneath these sands, and by the still greater
numbers of the embalmed bodies which it encloses. This plain is
circular and level, and may be about four leagues in breadth or
diameter, so that it is certain that it is more than twelve leagues
in circumference. Its base is a very flat rock, which was formerly
covered by the waters of the sea, and which is covered at present with
five or six feet of sand. It is in this rock that those who did not
possess the means of building pyramids to enclose their bodies after
death, secured a repose which we know that the Egyptians held of great
consequence, and found a less difficult art of making asylums, which
they were persuaded would be sheltered from the fury and impiety of
men, and would secure to them the return of their souls to the same
bodies, in case that their tombs should not be violated. With this
view, they chose at first a place in this plain, where it was necessary
to commence by taking away seven or eight feet of moveable sand. After
having emptied a circumscribed space, and perfectly cleaned it, they
commenced penetrating the rock by a hole of a foot and a half or two
feet in diameter; and after having attained the depth of about five or
six feet, they laboured to enlarge the hole and form a chamber in the
rock. It was by this hole that the body descended to be deposited in
these tombs; after which, they so accurately covered the opening with a
stone, as not to admit either light or sand.
“In these chambers, formed in the rock, and to a considerable extent,
they had hollowed out many niches in which were placed the bodies of
the heads of families for whom these sepulchres were destined. These
niches were made vertically. The bodies were thus placed upright in
the cases which enclosed them, and from whence, in latter times, they
have taken such great numbers. These cases are made of sycamore,
which never rots, and consist of only two pieces. The first, in which
the body is enclosed, is very deep, and excavated with great labour;
the second serves as a cover, and fits the coffin perfectly. Some of
these cases have been found with glass eyes, through which, without
uncovering them, may be seen the body of the mummy enclosed. Others
have been met with double, that is to say, one case enclosed within
another, which leads to the belief that the first doubtless, contained
the body of some person of distinction. It is, however, very rare to
find a body enclosed in a costly case, because the Arabs who discover
them, never fail to break to pieces these kind of bodies in search
of golden idols, in which, indeed, they are often successful. They
afterwards replace the body in a common case, where idols of any value
are seldom found. Some time ago, the master of _Saccara_, a village in
the vicinity of the Plain of Mummies, investigated the openings of some
of these subterranean sepulchres, and as he is a firm friend of mine,
he presented me with various curiosities, a great number of mummies,
images in wood, and inscriptions of a hieroglyphical and unknown
character, which had been found there.
“In one of these chambers they found, for example, the case and the
mummy of a woman, before which was a wooden figure of a young boy
on his knees, with one finger on his lips, and in the other hand
holding a chaffing dish, resting on his head, and in which there had
doubtless been perfume. This young man was marked on the stomach with
some hieroglyphic characters; they broke it to pieces to see if it
contained gold. They found in the mummy, which they opened for the same
reason, a little vase a foot long, containing the same balm which they
use for preserving the body from corruption. I took to pieces another
female mummy, of which the Sieur Bagarry made me a present. The opening
was made in the house of the Capuchin fathers of this city; and they
had the imprudence to cut the fillets with scissors; these bands, of
considerable length and breadth, were not only charged from one end to
the other with hieroglyphic figures, but they also discovered beneath
certain unknown characters, traced from right to left and forming a
species of verse. Indeed, they remarked the same termination in several
little consecutive lines. It consisted most probably, of the eulogium
of this person, written in the language which was in use, in his time,
in Egypt. However this may be, these bandages taken to pieces, were
immediately pillaged by some pedlars, who were present with me at the
opening of this mummy; there was only left for me a small portion,
which I have since sent to France: none of the Savans have been able to
decipher them. This mummy held the right hand applied to his stomach,
and under this hand were held instrumental cords perfectly preserved;
whence I concluded that it was the body of a person who played upon
some instrument, or who, at least, had been addicted to music. I am
persuaded that, if each mummy was examined with the same care, some
sign of this nature would be occasionally met with.
“I have made another observation, which appears to me neither less
curious nor less useful; it is, that in these mummies all the faces
differ, some are remarkable for youth, others for beauty. Those who
have seen whole mummies know that they have all a gilded mask, composed
of several folds of silk cloth, which form a kind of very solid carton.
I judged from this diversity, that the masks or cartons, crowded with
hieroglyphic characters, which indicate, without doubt, the age, the
actions, the manners, and the condition of the person, were also a
natural representation of them, either that care had been taken to form
this model during life, or that it had only been taken after death by
applying these cloths to the face, after the same manner that we take
the likeness of a corpse in the present day with plaster or wax. By
this means, they not only preserved the bodies of a family entire, but,
on entering these subterranean places where they were deposited, they
could in an instant see represented all their ancestors for a thousand
years, such nearly, as they were when living; nothing was more likely
vividly to recall the recollection of their virtues, to perpetuate
their memory and love in the hearts of their posterity.
“Not satisfied to preserve, by these means, the recollection of their
princes and of their relatives, the Egyptians still further deposited
their marble images near to their mummy. I have certain proofs of what
I advance, in one of the most curious antiquities which I have acquired
in this country. It is a figure in three pieces, representing a woman.
The head and the feet are of black touchstone; the body is sheathed,
and made of verd antique marble, rayed with white. These three pieces
united, form a figure five feet five inches in height. It is very
perfect, and of exquisite beauty. The priest who sold it to me with
great scruples, and at a high price, swore by the Evangelist, that the
figure was found in a pyramid seven or eight hundred years ago.
“In these chambers of which I speak, are found many niches, some large,
others small, the chambers also often communicate, from a second to a
third, and sometimes even to a fourth; but it is not to be understood,
that all the bodies deposited in these sombre apartments, were all
enclosed in cases and placed in these niches; the most of them were
simply embalmed and swathed, as every one knows; after which they
contented themselves in arranging them thus carelessly near each other;
some of them were even placed in these tombs without being embalmed,
or were so lightly so, that at the present time there remain only the
bones among the linen which enveloped them, and which are half rotten.
It is thus also are seen in some of these chambers heaps of bones mixed
with these sort of linens, which have been left after they carried
off the bodies which were preserved entire, to be exported beyond the
seas. It is probable, that every family of any consideration, had for
themselves one of these sepulchres; that the niches were destined to
receive the heads of families, and that those of domestics and slaves
were simply placed on the ground, after having been embalmed, or even
without that ceremony; it is the same, without doubt, as regards the
chiefs even of a family of less distinguished houses. They have even
discovered, lately, in this plain of mummies, a mode, unknown until
now, of burying the dead. At the extremity of this extensive plain
and towards the mountains which bound it on the west, beds of carbon
have been discovered, upon which bodies lie simply swathed with
linen, and covered by a mat, seven or eight feet beneath the sands.
Nevertheless, it ought to be observed, that these bodies, although they
were not embalmed, or only slightly so, similar to those which they had
neglected to enclose in cases, they were none the less protected from
corruption.”
When I consider with what facility the Egyptians were able to preserve
their dead, I can scarcely comprehend this passage of an author
otherwise so ingenious: “An industry so complicated, could not have
presented itself all at once to the genius of the people. Like all
other nations of the earth, these could only have devoted themselves
to the arts, properly so called, after securing their subsistence by
agriculture. Review all these arts, arrange them in the order in which
it might be supposed that they originated, and endeavour to determine
the precise period of each, you will not be able to find this. History
is mute on this point; and however rash it may be to interpret her
silence, it is, nevertheless, evident, that the art of embalming, very
ancient for us, was very new to the Egyptians, and, perhaps, ulterior
to all others.” I do not deny that this mode of rebutting history with
_a priori_ views and conjectures, is any less positive than the method
of historians, who do it often by acknowledged falsehood; but neither
one of them are assuredly worth much.
The numerous facts which we have brought together in this chapter,
appears to us most calculated to fix all the questions relative to
embalming which long discussions and reasonings have lost sight of.
They prove that bodies, placed in the bosom of the earth, covered only
with a few feet of sand have been preserved for ages; that others
scarcely embalmed, have been discovered untouched: after this, what
becomes of the necessity of advanced arts, and perfection of ingenuity,
when on the other hand, we see nations that have attained a high degree
of civilization, with an immense mass of knowledge of all kinds, but in
other conditions, geological and atmospherical, have not transmitted to
us, although nearer our own epoch, any thing more than a little dust
from the most gorgeous sepulchres?
The brief view which we cast upon the assemblage of facts which have
been submitted to us, leads to totally different conclusions from
those which precede, and which convinces us--1st. Of all the arts,
that of embalming ought the most readily to have presented itself to
the mind of the Guanches, of the Egyptians, and of all those nations
placed under analogous atmospherical and geological conditions: 2d. For
no others does nature offer more positive lessons or more efficient
aid: 3d. The Egyptians have embalmed from the earliest period of
their civilization, before any art was very much advanced; four or
five species of their mummies offer sufficient proof of this: 4th.
The arts of perfecting and weaving tissues; of melting, fashioning,
and colouring glass and metals; the delicate art of engraving on
fine stones; the art of working wood, of painting it, of ornamenting
it, and of giving it the éclat of gold, of varnish, and of enamel;
the art of preparing perfumes, and of causing to enter even the very
flesh, odoriferous powders, essences, and resins; all these arts have
contributed, according to their degree of development, to complicate
and perfect the art of making mummies, so simple at its commencement:
5th. Transported into countries where the exterior conditions are
different, this art has been found inefficacious, and has scarcely
ever attained its end. We shall have proofs of this in the following
chapter.
CHAPTER V.
EMBALMING, FROM THE EGYPTIANS DOWN TO OUR DAY.
Here facts are almost entirely wanting, and the history of the art
we are studying, can only be followed in the recitals of historians,
to control whose veracity we have no longer those monuments which
Egypt offers us in such great numbers. Among the Jews, the Greeks,
the Romans, and all modern nations, we see the honours of embalming
accorded to kings, princes, and men of distinction; but no tomb that
has been opened, has rendered a single mummy so perfect, as those which
we admire among the Egyptians; and if some rare and distant examples
inform us of a durable preservation, the marvellous and extraordinary
details accompanying it causes us to doubt the fact itself.
Thus, on the assertion of Gabriel Clauder, they saw in the time of
St. Augustin, the bodies of Alexander, and of Ptolemy; their tomb has
been visited for many ages, and they were enabled to distinguish the
skin preserved with the members. But, continued they, all bodies do
not resemble that of Alexander the Great, which was during his life,
according to the report of Plutarch, and of Quintus Curtius, of a
composition so rare and wonderful, that his skin, mouth, and all his
person, rendered a very agreeable odour, and perfumed his clothes.
It is said that his corpse, by the negligence of his friends and of
his captains, remained several days without being embalmed, and that,
nevertheless, when they went to visit it, it was found sound, without
blemish, having even the complexion as fresh and florid as if he had
been living, although he died of a continued fever: his appearance was
so natural that the Egyptians and Chaldeans, who were charged to embalm
him after their own manner, were at first afraid to approach him,
thinking he might not be dead.
Such marvellous accounts are not sufficiently in harmony with the
rigorous course which we have thus far followed, to induce us seriously
to discuss them; we confine ourselves to the statement of each down to
our own day, where well established facts will offer ample matter for
reflection.
The Jewish people, who, like others, testified their respect for the
dead, never admit the care of embalming the body as a common usage.
Thus, Abraham purchased the field where Sarah was buried; Joseph had
the body of his father magnificently embalmed; Moses only carried away
the bones of Joseph; David praised the people of Gilead, for having
buried with pomp Saul and his sons, &c. In most of these examples, no
mention is made of embalming; nevertheless, the body of Jesus Christ
was embalmed.
The following is nearly the method: each sex took care of its dead;
they, first of all, close the mouth and eyes of the expired person,
afterwards they shaved, washed, and rubbed it with perfumes; they tied
it with bands, and buried it in several cloths of very fine linen
or woollen, and finally, they put it into the sepulchre. Cornelius
Jansenius thinks that the myrrh and aloes which they employed, had
the virtue powerfully to resist putrefaction. It is useless to say
that this opinion is without foundation; that the great quantities of
aromatics which they consumed, was rather for pomp, than for the long
preservation of the subject. They took no pains to dry the body; they
did not disembarrass it of the intestines, and, in spite of all these
odoriferous drugs, as Penicher justly remarks, decomposition must soon
have revealed itself, as was testified by the body of Lazarus when
resuscitated.
Neither did the Persians, probably, propose by embalming, any thing
beyond a very limited preservation; the passage which we cited in
the first chapter is in proof of this. Besides, this custom with
them does not possess a general character. Cyrus, King of Persia,
said to his children: “when I have ceased to live, place my body
neither in silver, nor in gold, nor in any other coffin, but return
it immediately to the earth, for how can it be more happily and more
desirably disposed, than to be returned to that which produces and
which nourishes most excellent things?” It will be perceived, that
Cyrus, in forbidding that any care should be taken with his body,
does not allude to embalming, which, of all other means, would have
been the most efficient in preventing its elements from returning
to the common mother. The Greeks and the Romans, among whom we have
particularized some examples of embalming, practised it in a coarse
and imperfect manner. The examination of their method would be here
without interest.
In order to recover some traces of this art, we must refer to De Bils,
Ruysch, Swammerdam, Clauderus, &c. They only boast of their astonishing
success, without giving us the means of studying their methods. What
we do know of them suffices only to make us doubt, as we have seen,
the perfection of their processes. De Bils, of whom we have not yet
spoken, had a cabinet which excited the admiration of visiters; he
never revealed his secret, and he even shed an odour of aromatics
through his anatomical rooms, in order to deceive observers. Clauderus,
who suspected the deception, applied his moistened finger to one of the
bodies, and carrying it to his lips recognised the taste of salts. He
started from this fact to attempt numerous researches, and succeeded
in forming different compounds, of which the preservative powers
are, without doubt, exaggerated; we shall give the analysis of them
hereafter.
De Rasière, ècuyer, sieur Dèsenclosses, published in 1727, a
description of a cabinet, in which he preserved a hundred specimens;
the following extract from his pamphlet presents several descriptions
of subjects skilfully prepared; it is preceded by an engraving,
representing the cabinet, of which he gives the description.
_Extract from the description of the cabinet of anatomy, of M. De
Rasière, ècuyer, sieur Dèsenclosses, 1727._
This cabinet is eighty feet long, by sixteen wide, the glass windows
are double, and exposed to the south, with a good ceiling and boarded,
which renders it very proper for the preservation of the curious pieces
which it encloses, and which are more than one hundred in number,
differently worked, and arranged so that entire men are placed in the
inferior departments, and the infants in the superior; all the fleshy
pieces are enclosed in glass cases, and the skeletons in niches covered
by a curtain.
The whole so disposed, that the skeletons and muscular pieces are
arranged alternatively. We see, also, entire carcases of men, so
arranged, that the head, which is placed on the large bones, is crowned
by the vertebræ, and the ribs are suspended above. This order, added
to the quantity of paintings and gildings which embellish the cases
and cornices, produces a very fine effect. The side which looks to the
south, includes a great number of bottles of all sizes, and contains
objects taken from the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms.
The middle of the cabinet is occupied by numerous interesting objects.
We first perceive a large glass case, which includes all the internal
parts of man, and fetuses of all ages, and a microscope to view the
circulation of the blood. Then appears a horse’s skeleton, mounted
by a skeleton cavalier, holding a sword in his hand; an air pump; an
anatomical table, upon which is a corpse, and an anatomist in wax,
standing before it, dissecting.
Among the pieces of the cabinet mentioned by M. De Rasière, the most
remarkable are: _In the first glass case_, the preparation of Gotard’s
skeleton, in which are distinctly displayed the four hundred and
fifty-six muscles. _Second case_: partial preparation of the eyes and
the tongue, of the head, of the body, of the arms and legs. _Third
case_: preparation of the muscles, arteries, veins, and nerves of
the right side, and the skeleton of the left side. The _fifth case_
is a complete preparation, in which the skin and fat has only been
removed, and all the parts beneath separated. We here observe, first,
the ascending aorta, which carries the blood to all the superior
parts; second, the carotid arteries, which supply the head; third, the
temporal arteries; fourth, the radial arteries (pulse;) fifth, the
crural arteries, and an infinity of others even to the most delicate
branches. The veins are filled with a black fluid. Sixth, preparation
of the veins of the arm. Seventh, jugular veins; eighth, veins of the
foot; ninth, vena cava ascendens. _Eighth case_: a subject resembling
accurately a mummy or embalmed body, such as are brought from Egypt.
All the flesh is covered by the skin, through which may be seen the
veins and arteries filled with congealed and coloured wax. The hair
of the head, the beard, and all the hair of the body, as well as the
nails, are still attached to it. _The eleventh glass case_ encloses the
body of Nicholas Lefort, aged eighty-three years, a native of Douai,
in Flanders: this subject is peculiarly tasteful, every thing being
naturally arranged; the external muscles are divested of their fat, and
all the arteries, veins, and nerves, which ramify upon the muscles,
skin, &c., have been preserved, which renders this preparation as
curious as it was difficult of execution. _Twelfth case_: preparation
of the nerves.
But the author is silent regarding the manner of making these
preparations. Let us endeavour to find in the writings of the time, a
description of processes capable of producing such results.
Penicher, in his chapter fifth, (of embalming according to the
moderns,) gives us the composition and properties of balm. “It is
composed,” says he, “of different mixtures, both fluid and solid,
calculated to arrest putrefaction, either by the aromatic virtues
of sulphur and volatile salts, medicaments which enter into its
composition, or by a strong bitter principle which consists in very
penetrating particles, the property of which is to consume and
attenuate the crude matters, which disposes and hastens the body to
corruption; or by remedies, inheriting a quantity of particles which
dissipate and absorb all putrescent moisture, or by their viscosity
agglutinating the parts which ferment and rarify too readily; or,
finally, by their astringency, which, fixing these same parts, prevents
the resolution of all.”
It is easy to perceive, by the explanations which precede, that the
embalmers themselves possess no very clear ideas of the success which
they obtained. The nomenclature which we give below, will justify the
doubt we have expressed.
The powders, which constitute the base of the balm, are made of
all parts of the plants which fulfil the indications so confusedly
announced. Such were the roots of _angelica_, _imperatoria_, _galanga_,
_acorus_, _carolina_, _caryophillata_, _gentian_, _enula campana_,
_valerian_, _Florentine iris_, _flambe_, _calamus aromaticus_,
_ginger_, _pyrethrum_, _cyperus_, _dictamus_, _rosewood_, _sassafras_,
_guiacum_, _juniper_, _box wood_, _citron bark_, _oranges_, _canella_,
_cassia lignea_, _tan_, _nutmeg_, _mace_, _cloves_, _cubebs_,
_spicknard_, _colocynth_, _bay-berries_, _juniper-berries_, _and
myrtle-berries_, _gall-nuts_, _cypress_, _anis-seed_, _cumin-seed_,
_fennel-seed_, _coriander-seed_, _cardamon-seed_, _long_, _white_,
_and black pepper_, _rue-leaves_, _thyme_, _absynth_, _savin_,
_horehound_, _mugwort_, _laurel_, _mint_, _myrtle_, _calomint_,
_balm_, _balmgentle_, _marjorum_, _rosemary_, _sage_, _summer savory_,
_wild-thyme_, _pennyroyal_, _mountain-mint_, _hyssop_, _nepeta_,
_basilic_, _scordium_, _flowers of saffron_, _roses_, _pale and
red_, _stæchas_, _centaury_, _melilot_, _chamomile_, _germander_,
_chamæpitys_, _hypericum_, _caraway-seed_, _dill-seed_, _lavender_.
Many gums and resins entered into the composition of balm, such as
_resin_, _Burgundy pitch_, _ship-pitch_, _gum elemi_, _assafœtida_,
_aloes_, _myrrh_, _galbanum_, _acacia_, _tucamahaca_, _benzoin_,
_styrax calamite_, _fluid styrax_, _turpentine_, _camphor_, _cedria_,
_all the_ species of balm; _wood of aloes_, _tartar_, _potash_, _from
the lees of wine_, _civet_, _castor_, _musk_, _ambergris_, _labdanum_,
_Jew’s pitch_, _asphaltum_, _pisasphaltum_, _slacked-lime_, _plaster_,
_sulphur_, _common salt_, _rock-salt_, _saltpetre_, _alum_, _amber_,
_&c_.
The article of compound drugs, is not less extensive, such as the
tincture of _musk_, _ambergris_, _civet_, _benzoin_, _styrax_, _aloes_,
_myrrh_. The distilled oils and essences of the plants which we have
named,--spirits of wine, distilled myrrh, aloes, and amber,--is
excellent for the preservation of the fetus.
The salt of Clauderus has also enjoyed a great reputation; the
following is its composition: Dissolve one pound of common salt with
a pound of oil of vitriol in a crucible, apply a cover closely luted,
and distil it gradually in a sand bath; you may pour off a spirit very
excellent for a lotion; in the bottom of the crucible will remain a
caput mortuum, which should be dissolved according to art, and after
evaporation, you will have the salt so much esteemed by the author.
We may add here the brine, which is described in the collections of
Charles de Maetz, (chap. 100, et 194; and chap. 23 of the book entitled
_Chemia Rationalis_, and also in the work of Blanchard,) they advise
that after a corpse has been emptied and cleaned of its excretions,
it be placed in a leaden coffin, and there macerated in a sufficient
quantity of pure oil of turpentine, and after some days of maceration,
to wash it with spirits of wine to remove the odour, then sprinkle it
with a strong tincture of myrrh and aloes, which they call _balsamum
mortuorum_, and that it be finally dried in the sun.
I shall not now enter into the endless discussions upon the different
species of salts, which some boast of for embalming, whilst others
consider them injurious to the preservation of bodies. I abstain also,
from speaking of lime, to which, however, wonders have been attributed:
thus it was lime which preserved the body of _Afra_: and in the year
1523, under the pontificat of Adrian VI., the body of Saint Thomas,
the Apostle, was likewise found towards the Gulf of Coromandel,
endued, and covered with a cement made of lime and urine; the bones
were very white, and along side of him the spear of his lance, a part
of the cane which had served him during his journey, and an earthen
vase which had been sprinkled with his blood. Notwithstanding these
remarkable examples, if they are true, the authors who relate them give
no importance to the processes to which we owe them, they even complain
of the sordid views of those, who, in order to augment the mass of
matters, do not hesitate to mix thereto plaster, ashes, &c. We give
the description of some of these mixtures composed of the substances
which we have enumerated.
1.--_Balsamic Wine._
℞. Good red wine, 8 pints.
Cloves, roses, citron bark, colocynth, _a.a._* 2 ℥.
Styrax, benzoin, _a.a._ 1 ℥.
* _a.a._ of each.
Reduce these drugs to a coarse powder, macerate for a few hours in
wine, and boil slightly.
_Usages_.--Lotion for the interior parts of the body; and to disinfect
the chamber during the operation.
2.--_Compound Brandy._
℞. Absynth leaves, great centaury, rhue, sage,
marjory, mugwort, thyme, _a.a._ 4 handsfull.
Colocynth, 2 ℥.
Styrax, calamite, benzoin, _a.a._ 3 ℥.
Pepper, ginger, _a.a._ 2 ʒ.
Macerate in a sea-bath for twenty-four hours, in fifteen pints of best
brandy, with as much distilled vinegar.
3.--_Vinegar for washing the head, the breast, the belly, and for
injections._
℞. White and black pepper, ginger, _a.a._ 1/2 ℔.
Colocynth, 3 ℥.
Absynth, centaury, hypericum, _a.a._ 4 ℥.
Reduce to a coarse powder, and macerate in forty pints of rose-vinegar;
then strain for use.
4.--_Another._
℞. Absynth, five or six handsfull.
Colocynth apples, 30.
Alum, common salt, _a.a._ 1 ℔.
Concentrated vinegar, 14 _pts._
Let it boil a little, and add two pints of brandy; better than the
preceding.
The embalmer ought to have several large sponges; about four pounds
of tow to dry the blood and absorb the powders; cotton for the mouth,
nose, and ears; coarse brush for rubbing the exterior of the body with
the liniment. The artist should have, besides, two ells of cere-cloth,
which he can prepare for himself after one of the following formulæ:
1.--_Cere-cloth._
℞. New wax, 12 ℔.
Fluid styrax, oil of turpentine, _a.a._ 1 ℔.
Melt and mix them over a slow fire, then draw the linen through it
frequently so as to impregnate both sides.
2.--_Another._
℞. Yellow wax, 25 ℔.
Turpentine, colophane,[J] resin, _a.a._ 3 ℔.
Ship-pitch, 2-1/2 ℔.
Verdegris, 1 ℔.
Incense, fluid styrax, _a.a._ 2 ℔.
Oil of spike, 1-1/2 ℔.
Melt, and mix the whole with two pounds of mutton suet, and plunge the
linen in it as before.
[J] Colophane, a species of resin, used by violinists to rub their
cat-gut strings.--_Tr._
3.--_Another._
℞. New wax, 4 ℔.
Resin of pine, turpentine, _a.a._ 8 ℔.
Gum Arabic, 8 ℥.
Melt, and soak as before.
4.--_Another._
℞. Turpentine, 3 ℔.
Wax, 15 ℔.
Mix it with a sufficient quantity of oil to make a cerate.
1.--_Mixture for soaking the linens, the chemise, the coiffure, and
the bandages._
℞. New wax, 20 ℔.
Venice turpentine, gum elemi, _a.a._ 2 ℔.
Powdered florence iris, 4 ℔.
Styrax, calamite, benzoin, _a.a._ 6 ℥.
Myrrh, aloes, _a.a._ 3 ℥.
Balsam of Peru, oil of absynth, _q. s._
Melt the wax and the gum, add the balsam, and then the powdered
aromatics for use.
2.--_Another._
℞. New wax, 12 ℔.
Common resin, 2 ℔.
Venice turpentine, 1 ℔.
Gum elemi, 4 ℥.
3.--_Another._
℞. White wax, 6 ℔.
Oil of nutmegs, distilled oil of lavender,
citron bark, oranges, _a.a._ 2 ℥.
The following are some formulæ of liniment, or fluid balsam, proper to
rub the corpse both internally and externally.
1.--_Liniment._
Dissolve two ounces of true balsam into two pints of spirit of wine.
2.--_Another Liniment._
℞. Turpentine, oil of spike, _a.a._ 2 ℔.
Gum elemi, fluid styrax, _a.a._ 4 ℥.
Oil of laurel, 3 ℔.
3.--_Another._
℞. Fluid styrax, 6 ℥.
Balsam of Peru, 2 ℥.
Oil of mace, 1/2 ℥.
Rosewood, 1 ℥.
4.--_Another Liniment._
℞. Oil of rosemary, rosewood, _a.a._ 3 ℥.
Cloves, 1-1/2 ℥.
Absynth, origan, _a.a._ 1 ℥.
5.--_Another._
℞. Venice turpentine, 3 ℔.
Gum elemi, 4 ℥.
Oil of hypericum, 1/2 ℔.
Balsam of Peru, (f. S. A.) 2 ℥.
6.--_Another._
℞. Venice turpentine, 6 ℥.
Gum elemi, 3 ℥.
Fluid styrax, 2 ℥.
Calamite, benzoin, _a.a._ 1 ℥.
Oil of spike, Muscat roses, nutmeg,
distilled cloves, _a.a._ 1/2 ℥.
Musk, 1/2 ʒ.
Civet, 1 ʒ.
The embalmer ought to furnish himself with silk ribands, of a black,
violet, or white colour, according to the subject which he has to
embalm, in order to tie the sheet by the two extremities, as well as
a quarter of taffeta of one of the said colours to envelope the box
containing the heart; further, five fathoms of cord to tie the corpse
enveloped in cere-cloth. A coffin of lead in a coffin of wood. A barrel
for the intestines. Bandages soaked in the liniment to bandage the body.
The following powder, as well as those which come after, are models
which will serve according to the prudence of the embalmer for the
cavities, for the parts sacrificed, and to form a crust around the
body, or to be mixed with the adhesive plaster.
1.--_Balsamic Powder._
℞. Angelica root, calamus, Florentine iris,
flag, imperatoria, carolina, cypress,
ginger, enula-campana, aristolochia,
gentiana, valeriana, rosewood, spicknard,
colocynth, _a.a._ 1/2 ℔.
Anis-seed, fennel, cumin, coriander, pepper
(white, black, and long,), cardomine,
cypress, gall-nuts, citron-bark, oranges,
juniper-wood, laurel, chamomile flowers,
melilot, centaury, lavender, roses, _a.a._ 1 ℔.
Rhue leaves, absynth, mint, calamint, savin,
thyme, marjory, balm, balmgentle, rosemary,
sage, horehound, pennyroyal, origan, hyssop,
laurel, myrtle, _a.a._ 2 ℔.
Tan passed through a seive, 4 ℔.
Canella, styrax, nutmeg, aloes, myrrh,
benzoin, cloves, dittany, _a.a._ 4 ℥.
Reduce to a powder those which ought to be powdered, and then strain
them through a seive; but for the canella, and others of that class,
they must be beaten and employed separately.
Baltazar Timaeus added salt and incense to his powder.
2.--_Another Powder._
℞. Select myrrh, 4 ℔.
Bastard saffron, styrax, calamite,
cloves, _a.a._ 2 ℔.
Cabalin aloes, 5 ℔.
Dried rosemary leaves, 2 ℔.
Incense, 1 ℔.
Laurel leaves, red roses, _a.a._ 1/2 ℔.
3.--_Another._
℞. Common absynth, southern wood, lavender,
rosemary, laurel, _a.a._ 6 handsful.
Sage, marjory, basalic, origan, thyme,
great savory, hyssop, chamomile, _a.a._ 3 handsful.
Flor. iris-root, 4 ℔.
Santal citron, aloes-wood, 1/2 ℔.
Canella, cloves, juniperberry,
sassafras, _a.a._ 1 ℔.
Flower of roses, aloes, myrrh, incense,
styrax, benzoin, _a.a._ 2 ℔.
Rosewood, 3 ℔.
Salt, 4 ℔.
Make a powder, and reserve the oil of spike for the unction.
4.--_Another Powder._
Two measures of best spirits of wine to anoint and bathe all the
cavities; after which, rub all the parts with turpentine, then stuff
them with the following powder:
℞. Rosemary, laurel, hyssop, absynth, mint, rhue,
sage, wild thyme, pennyroyal, origan,
scordium, flowers of rosemary, roses,
lavender, chamomile, stoechas,
spicknard, _a.a._ 2 handsful.
Carraway and fennel seed, _a.a._ 1/2 ℔.
Gentian root, angelica, cloves,
valerian, _a.a._ 1 ℔.
Reduce to powder and add:
Aloes, mastic, incense, _a.a._ 2 ℔.
Myrrh, 1/2 ℔.
Benzoin, styrax, labdanum, canella, cloves,
nutmeg, mace, saffron, _a.a._ 1 ℥.
Mummy, 2-1/2 ℥.
Reduce to powder in a mortar.
5.--_Another Powder._
℞. Absynth, lavender, marjory, rosemary, thyme,
balmgentle, cypress, mint, sage, balm, dill,
origan, pennyroyal, red roses, _a.a._ 8 ℥.
Calamus, cyperus, gentian, Flor. iris,
rosewood, _a.a._ 5 ℥.
Benzoin, styrax, aloes, myrrh, _a.a._ 6 ℥.
Nutmeg, cloves, _a.a._ 4 ℥.
Reduce to a fine powder.
_Powder and Mixture._
Take a sufficient quantity of salt, and as much alum, to be mixed with
myrrh, aloes, absynth, canella, cumin, cloves, mountain mint, pepper,
and other aromatics; reduce to powder, sprinkling it with a little
vinegar; then fill the body with it, rubbing with melted wax; then
place the corpse in a leaden coffin. (_Formula of P. Bellon._)
Penicher, who has furnished these different formulæ, will trace in the
following pages the means of applying them.
There are many methods of embalming. The first, which is derived from
the sacred scriptures, did not prevent the body from soon undergoing
a change, since they neglected to remove the viscera, which cause
corruption.
The second is that in which they confined their operations to emptying
and cleaning the cavities which contain the intestines, the brain, and
other noble parts, filling them afterwards with powdered aromatics,
with tow and cotton.
The most common, and the most perfect which was practised, is the
third; which consists in making incisions in all parts of the body, as
we shall treat of further in the sequel.
We may add here a fourth mode, which regards only thin and fleshless
bodies; it requires that the fat and flesh be removed, so that the skin
and bones only remain. This method was not unknown to the Egyptians;
and I have several times practised it, but the operation is laborious,
and requires a skilful surgeon.
And finally, there is a last method of embalming the body, which is
performed by making small openings in several parts of the body, under
the armpits, the groins, and the anus, according to the ancient usage
of the Egyptians. In order to commence this important operation, it is
necessary, in the first place, that the surgeon who has the honour
to be employed to embalm a king or some sovereign prince, under the
orders of his first physician, in the presence of the crown officers,
makes with a bistoury several gashes in the soles of the feet, in order
to prove, by this operation, that the subject whose body he is about
to open is really dead; which is a much more certain method than the
unctions formerly used in similar cases, to recall the animal spirits,
which they suspected of being only stupified. He will afterwards make
a long incision, from the superior part of the sternum, to facilitate
the examination of the contents of the chest, and to investigate the
cause of disease and death, in order that a faithful written report may
be made in concert with the physicians and surgeons of the king. All
the parts contained in this cavity must be removed; he will afterwards
descend to the lower belly and examine all their contents, which he
will remove for that purpose, taking away every thing disposed to
corruption. The parts which ought to be removed, are, among others, the
throat, comprehending the trachea and œsophagus, the tongue, the eyes,
the lungs, the heart, which will be divested of its pericardium, to be
embalmed separately, as in ordinary cases; the stomach, the liver, the
spleen, the kidneys, the intestines, the brain, the membranes, the fat,
the blood, the serum, the sponges, and other matters which have served
during the operation; put all these things in a barrel, to be carried
to the place of destination. I know that some authors recommend the
extirpation of the sexual organs of both sexes; but, besides that this
would be to disfigure the body of a man, these parts may be preserved
as well as others, and we owe respect to the instruments which have
given us being. The surgeon having emptied these cavities, ought to
work at the head, of which he will saw the cranium in the same manner
as for anatomical demonstrations; and after he shall have examined and
taken out the brain, the apothecary must carefully wash the cavity with
aromatic wine and alcohol, and then fill it with the powder he will
have prepared, and with cotton and tow soaked in some fluid balsam, in
such a manner that there will be several layers of these stoupes and
powder applied one above the other; after which replace the bones of
the cranium and sew up the skin. He will then rub the head all over
with one of the liquid balms, and bathe the face frequently with the
same; envelope the head in a deep cap, which must be waxed; and after
having insinuated into the nose, the mouth, the orbits of the eyes, and
into the ears, cotton, soaked in liquid balm, the oils of nutmeg and
cloves, he will labour at the abdomen, which must be washed in the same
aromatic wine and alcohol, and rubbed with some of the aforesaid balms,
and, finally, stuffed abundantly with powder and tow, until all these
matters, distributed one above the other, will form the natural size
and appearance of the abdomen, which must be sown up. The surgeon will
take care that sections be made in the veins and arteries, in order to
divest them of blood and humidity, which will be observed regarding
the arms, thighs, legs, feet, heels, and other parts, as the back,
shoulders, and buttocks, turning the corpse for this purpose, face
towards the table; in these thick and fleshy places, the incisions
must be long, deep, and numerous, penetrating even to the bone; and
when the large vessels have been opened and purged of their blood, the
pharmacien will fill all these spaces with the powder, and then sew
them up with a needle and thread, after having sprinkled and bathed
them in aromatic wine and alcohol; for it is necessary to take care
and foment incessantly these parts; absorb from them, if possible,
all humidity, and dry them with a sponge, previous to rubbing them
with liquid balm, or one of the liniments, and fill them with the
stoupes and said powders. Finally, the whole must be sowed up very
neatly, so that the body may not be disfigured; for the same reason
the face ought not to be incised, and we ought to endeavour so to
preserve the features that they may be easily recognised, as I have
recently witnessed on the opening of the coffin of a bishop, who was
embalmed more than fifty years ago, and whose countenance was not in
the least disfigured. For this reason, the artist will make use of
fine powders, of aloes, myrrh, and others; as regards the body, he
will rub and anoint it with the liniment which he will have prepared,
adding thereto the powder, which he will make into a paste. And it is
necessary to remark, that in proportion as he finishes the embalming
of each part, the surgeon ought to bandage it with bandages of linen
soaked in the liniment, so that they will resemble a species of corset,
and in form of the letter x; let them make several convolutions one
upon the other, to keep the parts of the body compact, and prevent the
aromatics escaping from the cavities filled with them; these bandages
should commence with the neck and finish with the feet and hands; they
must be long and broad for the body, thighs, legs, and arms, but narrow
and short for the fingers. This done, put on the chemise, washed as
already recommended; ornament the subject with the exterior marks of
dignity which were possessed during life time, and wrap it in a linen
cloth soaked in liniment, which will serve as an adhesive plaster,
which must be tied by the two extremities with a riband; above which,
envelope it with the cere-cloth, which should be very closely bound
with a cord. Finally, deposit the body in the coffin, the intervals
of which must be filled with what remains of the powder, if there be
any, or with parcels of dried aromatic herbs; close it and solder it
with the utmost exactitude. Place on the outside a plate of copper, or
some other durable metal, upon which has been engraved some appropriate
inscription, to serve as a memento to posterity. The coffin must be
placed in another of wood, which may be covered, if desirable, with a
mortuary cloth.
This work being accomplished, we next come to the heart, which, as I
have already stated, is separately embalmed. Supposing, then, that it
has been removed from its place, divested of its pericardium, and both
its ventricles opened, frequently washed with spirits of wine, and
well cleaned of clotted blood, and of all other impurities that may
be attached to it, and having allowed it to soak during the preceding
operations in spirits of wine, or in distilled oil of turpentine,
the apothecary now takes this viscera thus prepared; he fills the
ventricles with powdered aloes, myrrh, benzoin, and styrax; he may
even rub it with oil, or essence of nutmeg, cloves, and canella, as
also with the tinctures of ambergris, musk, and civet; he will then
arrange it in perfumed cotton, so as to make it contain the powders,
which, with the oils, will form a paste, and he will place it in a
little sack of cere-cloth, perfumed with some of the above named
essences, with which also he will rub the box in which it is to be
enclosed, both internally and externally, solder it carefully and
envelope it in taffeta of a certain colour, which must be equally
soaked and rubbed with essences or tinctures, and tied with ribands
of the same colour; the violet colour is the most appropriate for
ecclesiastics.
I remember having embalmed the heart of an Abbé of quality who had
led an exemplary life: the odour which it exhaled was so _sweet and
agreeable, that it perfumed for several months the choir of the convent
des Dames Religieuses, where it was deposited_.
The body and the heart being thus embalmed, it only remains to speak of
the viscera, the lungs, and the brain, &c.
Blancardus teaches us the method of embalming separately all these
parts; but, for myself, I do not attempt it; when they are embalmed,
and it is desired to place them in a barrel in this state, it is still
requisite to have recourse to spirits of wine, of the best quality;
our brandy and aromatic wines are not strong enough. In order the
more easily to clean these viscera, they must be opened lengthwise,
incisions must be made in the lungs, the spleen, the uterus, and the
other contents of the cavities; cleaned of blood, serosity, and other
foreign matter, which would cause them to putrefy in a little time;
then washed with strong spirits of wine, having been previously washed
in other liquors, and then arranged in a barrel, so that the powder
first covers the bottom, placing a portion of the viscera on this first
layer, and afterwards a second bed of powder; and continue thus to
place the viscera and the powders alternatively, and by layers, until
the barrel be nearly full, taking care that the last layer consists of
this prepared powder, which must not be spared on this occasion. This
barrel, which ought to be made of lead, should be placed in a second of
wood, which must be accurately headed and pitched. (One wooden barrel
only, was used for Henry III., King of France.)
Nevertheless, with all the precautions that could be taken to preserve
these parts, in employing quantities of spirits of wine, aromatic
powders, and other proper drugs, I have strong doubts that they would
soon corrupt, and even before they could arrive at the place destined
for their sepulture. Finally, when the body is to be publicly exposed
on the bed where it died, the face should be washed with spirits of
wine, and with true balm, refreshing it frequently; but when it is
necessary to expose it on a bed of parade to remain several days, it is
commonly sufficient to mould it in wax, and to show only its external
figure, during the time that the body is upon the bed embalmed in a
coffin. But, when the body itself of the deceased is exposed, it is
necessary, in the first place, to paint and powder the hair or wig with
a fine powder of pleasant odour; shave the beard, if there be any,
fill the mouth with powder and cotton, to elevate and protrude the
cheeks, to which may be applied a little rouge, as well as to the lips;
if the natural eyes have been removed, replace them with artificial
eyes; force perfumed cotton up the nostrils; the nose may be refreshed
with a linen cloth liberally endued with true balm, during the time
that the subject is withdrawn from public view; thus, the mouth, and
generally all the parts that ought to be seen, will be in their natural
state, to the end that they may be the more readily recognised. For
this reason, there ought not to be made any scarifications, as it is
expressly remarked in the library of Herodotus. “Each part,” says he,
“is so perfectly preserved, that the hair of the eyebrows and eyelids,
and even all the form of the body so well retain their appearance, that
the figure and natural disposition is known with facility.”
But, for all other subjects, those which are to be transported, you
will deviate as little as possible from the following prescriptions.
After having emptied the cranium by means of a large trepan opening
made in the back part of the head; having removed the viscera, the
throat, the membranes; scarified the fleshy parts, and having purged
them of blood and other serosities, the corpse should be placed in one
of the lotions, or in one of the brines described in chapter fifth, the
materials of which are to be chosen according to the place and season
of the year; and, after some days of maceration, the subject being well
drained, insinuate into the cavity of the cranium new melted wax;
after which, replace the piece of cranium removed by the trephine;
sew up the skin, and fill likewise the chest and abdomen with melted
wax, and sew them up; afterwards fill the scarifications with such
powders, aromatics, or herbs, as the country affords; bandage the body
accurately with linen bandages, endued with one of the above mentioned
liniments, or, in the absence of these, with turpentine, or with the
tincture of myrrh and aloes, rubbing them on the body with coarse
brushes; afterwards place the body (as was done with the bodies of
Alexander and Agesilaus,) in a coffin filled with good honey, so that
it may be surrounded on all sides, and penetrated within and without;
and after having placed this well soldered coffin in another of wood,
which must be well pitched, transport it to its place of destination.
There it must be washed with spirits of wine before being exposed to
the public.
A fairer specimen of embalming could not be chosen, than that which
was made of Madame la Dauphine, by M. Riqueur, apothecary to the
king and to this princess, assisted by his oldest son, apothecary to
the king in survivorship. This embalming was executed with all the
disinterestedness, ability, and prudence that could be desired, in
the presence of M. D’Aquin, then first physician to the king; of M.
Fagon, first physician to the late queen, and now first physician to
the king; of M. Petit, first physician to Monseigneur le Dauphine;
and M. Moreau, first physician to the late Madame la Dauphine; of
M. Felix, first surgeon to the king; of M. Clèmint, master surgeon
of Paris, and accoucheur of the said princess. M. Dionis, his first
surgeon, operated, assisted by Baillet, ordinary surgeon, and by
another ordinary surgeon: Madam, the Dutchesse d’Arpajon, lady of
honour; Madame la Marechall de Rochefort, lady of the bed-chamber; and
many other ladies. M. Riqueur had the kindness, knowing that I was
interested in such operations, to communicate his method to me.
_Description of the balm which was made for Madame la Dauphine._
℞. Florence iris root, 3 ℔.
Rush, 1-1/2 ℔.
Bohemian angelica root, ginger, aromatic
calamus, aristolochia, _a.a._ 1 ℔.
Imperatoria, gentian, valerian, _a.a._ 1/2 ℔.
Balmgentle leaves, basilic, _a.a._ 1-1/2 ℔.
Savory, sage, thyme, _a.a._ 1 ℔.
Hyssop, laurel, myrrh, marjory, origan,
rhue, _a.a._ 1/2 ℔.
Southern wood, absynth, mint, calamint, wild
thyme, odoriferous rush, scordium, _a.a._ 4 ℥.
Orange flowers, 1-1/2 ℔.
Lavender, 4 ℥.
Rosemary, 1 ℔.
Coriander seed, 2-1/2 ℔.
Cardamum seed, 1 ℔.
Cumin, carraway, _a.a._ 4 ℥.
Fruit, and seeds of the juniper, 1 ℔.
Cloves, 1-1/2 ℔.
Nutmeg, 1 ℔.
White pepper, 4 ℥.
Dried oranges, 3 ℔.
Cedar wood, 3 ℔.
Santal citron, roses, _a.a._ 2 ℔.
Citron and orange peal, canella, _a.a._ 1/2 ℔.
Styrax, calamite, benzoin, olibanum, _a.a._ 1-1/2 ℔.
Myrrh, 2-1/2 ℔.
Sandarac, 1/2 ℔.
Aloes, 4 ℔.
Spirits of wine, 4 ℔.
Salt, 4 ℥.
Venice turpentine, 3 ℔.
Fluid styrax, 2 ℔.
Balsam of copaiba, 1/2 ℔.
Balsam of Peru, 2 ℥.
Cere-cloth.
“The heart, after having been emptied, washed with spirits of wine and
dried, was placed in a glass vessel with this liquor; and this same
organ, having been filled with a balm made of canella, cloves, myrrh,
styrax, and benzoin, was put into a sack of cere-cloth of its own
shape, which was again enclosed in a box of lead, cordiform, which was
immediately soldered, to be presented to Madame la Duchesse d’Arpajon,
who placed it in the hands of Monseigneur, the Bishop of Meaux, first
almoner of the late Madame la Duchesse, who deposited it subsequently
in the Val-de-Grace. The opening of the body was made most accurately
by M. Dionis, her first surgeon. M. Riqueur filled all the cavities
with stoupes and powdered balm. Incisions were made along the arms as
far down as the hands; these were supplied with aromatic powder, after
expressing all the blood and washing with spirits of wine; the same
operation was repeated on the thighs, which were incised in different
places down to the feet, and all was neatly sewed up. A coarse brush
was used to rub the body with a hot liquid balm, made of turpentine,
styrax, and the balsams of copaiba and Peru, as already prescribed.
Each part was enveloped in bandages soaked in spirits of wine, placing
as much as possible of the said aromatic powder between the body and
the bandages. The body was dressed in a chemise and a religious tunic,
and surrounded with other marks of a particular devotion, such as
a little chain of iron, at the end of which was a cross, which the
princess kept in a trunk which she had brought with her from Bavaria.
The body was then enveloped in cere-cloth and compactly tied, in order
to be placed in a leaden coffin; at the bottom and throughout which,
there was four fingers depth of the said balm in powder. This coffin,
being well soldered, was enclosed in another of wood, all the vacant
spaces having been filled with dried aromatic herbs. The entrails,
after being well prepared, were placed in a leaden coffin, with a great
quantity of the same aromatic powders, which, being well soldered, was
enclosed in a barrel of wood.”
We shall have occasion again to recur to this mode of preparation;
observing only, that a subject thus mutilated, slashed, and stuffed,
has more the resemblance of prepared meat than an embalmed body; that
the sentiment which led to a recourse to embalming, ought to create
a deep horror for the mutilation of a body which it was desirable to
possess in all its integrity; that, in fine, the operation of embalming
thus practised is more cruel for the feelings, than the natural
destruction and dissolution of the parts.
CHAPTER VI.
ART OF EMBALMING IN OUR OWN DAYS, PREVIOUS TO MY DISCOVERIES.
Organic chemistry has made great progress since the commencement of
the present century, and the facts upon which it is constituted have
been sufficiently known and accurately studied, to elevate it to the
rank of an exact science. Numerous applications have been made, with
immense advantage to the arts and sciences; but the great light it has
shed in such numerous directions, has but feebly enlightened the art
of embalming, and we will say, with M. Pelletan, that we cannot but be
astonished to observe, that the same processes are continued in our
day which were only predicated on the description of Herodotus upon
points evidently defective, and that without any kind of discernment
or analysis, in a manner entirely routine. No regard has been taken to
the enormous difference which the dissimilitude of exterior conditions
must establish between our practices and those of the Egyptians. It
is, nevertheless, an art thus constituted, which will invoke the aid
of three learned professions. It was, indeed, a grave subject of
discussion to determine, whether the physician, the surgeon, or the
apothecary, ought to take precedence in the honours of this operation.
A conciliatory spirit once arose in one of these disputes; after long
consideration and mature examination, it was concluded, that the three
professions rendered such services in these circumstances, that they
should march in a line, and that they ought, in consequence, to render
each other aid and support in a common cause. Nevertheless, judging
from the great incisions, perforations, the flesh hacked and stuffed
with perfumes, the arbiter would have been justified in deciding that
the hog-butcher possessed superior claims to any of his competitors for
practising embalming. We shall be convinced, in reading the following
notice, that the pretensions which we claim in favour of an honest
artist, are neither ridiculous nor extravagant.
M. Boudet, charged with the embalming of the senators, gives us a
faithful account of the method which he followed to preserve the
magnates of the empire.
There was prepared for this operation:--
1. A powder composed of tan, decrepitated salt, quinquina, canella,
and other astringent and aromatic substances, Jew’s pitch, benzoin,
&c.; the whole mixed and reduced to a fine powder, and sprinkled with
essential oils: the tan forms one-half the weight, the salt one-fourth.
2. Alcohol saturated with camphor.
3. Camphorated vinegar, with spirits of camphor.
4. A varnish, composed of the balsam of Peru, and balsam of copaiba,
fluid styrax, oil of nutmeg, lavender, and thyme, &c.
5. Alcohol saturated with hyper-oxygenated muriate of mercury.
The whole being prepared, the cavities are opened with large incisions,
and the viscera extracted; a crucial incision is made in the
integuments of the cranium, the skull sawn circularly, and the brain
removed; the intestinal tube is to be opened its whole length, and
numerous deep incisions made in it; the whole to be washed repeatedly;
after expressing them, wash them again in camphorated vinegar, and
again with camphorated alcohol. All the internal parts thus prepared
and rolled in the compound powder, are ready to be replaced. Numerous
incisions are then to be made on the internal surfaces of the great
cavities, following the direction of the muscles; wash all the parts
and express them well; to which must succeed lotions of vinegar and
camphorated alcohol; afterwards apply with a small brush, the alcoholic
solution of corrosive sublimate to all the incisions; it produces much
heat, the muscles become bleached, and the surface is promptly dried.
This done, a layer of varnish must be applied to all the internal
incisions, filling them with the powder; the varnish is also applied to
all the internal surfaces of the cavities, also a layer of the powder
which will adhere to the varnish; each viscera is then to be replaced
in its proper position, adding as much of the powder as is necessary
to fill the vacant spaces, and sew up the integuments, taking care to
varnish and powder the internal surface of those which are contiguous
to the bones. All the cavities being closed, varnish the external
incisions and fill them with powder; varnish also the whole surface
of the skin, and apply a layer of powder which will adhere generally.
To the corpse thus embalmed, apply to every part, including the face,
methodical bandages, which will produce a general pressure and cover
all the surface; varnish the first bandage, and apply a layer of
powder; and finally, a second bandage, which must also be varnished;
when the body is deposited in a leaden coffin, and all the spaces
filled with compound powder, solder on the lid, and the operation is
finished.[5]
[5] It is astonishing that M. Boudet, charged with the embalming
of the senators of the empire, did not think of profiting by the
discoveries of the illustrious Chaussier, in order to simplify a
method so ridiculously empirical; for, between his processes and the
thousand formulæ of Penicher, the difference is not very great; it is
the same accumulation of powders, resins, balms, essences, &c. He had,
notwithstanding, a good example to follow in anticipation of a better,
which was the embalming of Colonel Morland.
It will be perceived that, in this method, the access of air is, as
much as possible, opposed; but this precaution is illusory, since
in place of drying the body, it has been filled with powders which
are real hygrometers, and which only absorb humidity to become
themselves loaded with it: that indispensable condition to all perfect
preservation was here wanting, _completely to desiccate the body_,
still preserving it afterwards from all humidity and access of air;
adding further, that many of these substances neutralize each other.
M. Pelletan, who furnishes us with the preceding criticism, proposes
to rectify the method after the data which we derive from those of the
Egyptians, of Clauderus, and the researches of Rouelle. Consequently,
we must proceed in the following manner: remove all the viscera, sew
up carefully the integuments, plunge the body for several weeks, in a
weak solution of sub-carbonate of soda, after having filled all the
cavities with it; wash the corpse freely, and soak it for some days
in an aluminous bath, to remove all the alkaline particles; expose it
afterwards to the air, or in a stove, to produce desiccation, taking
care to fill all the cavities with tow, and with resinous and aromatic
matters, so as to preserve the form; desiccation once completed,
varnish with care the whole surface of the body, and envelope it in a
double bandage, impregnated, and covered with the same varnish. This
method, which approaches nearly that of the Egyptians, would secure,
without doubt, a perfect preservation, provided the body be placed in a
situation exempt from all humidity, and the temperature of which is not
variable.
We should acknowledge the justice of these observations, and thank M.
Pelletan for having substituted an accurate and rational proceeding
for blind and thoughtless practices. The operation, nevertheless, as
proposed by the professor, still exacts numerous mutilations. The
inconvenience and inutility of so many efforts to preserve the body of
our own kind, was, besides, long experienced by many spirited writers;
which is proved by the eagerness with which they took advantage of
the discoveries of Chaussier, respecting the properties of corrosive
sublimate applied to embalming. By his researches it was proved, that
this salt preserved animal matters soaked in its aqueous solution;
that it produced this effect by an intimate combination with animal
matter; in fine, that this matter saturated with corrosive sublimate,
passed so quickly into a state of desiccation, that it was necessary
to moderate it, to prevent the horny hardening of the soft parts.
Parts thus prepared, are rigid, hard, grayish, and preserved at the
same time from putrefaction and insects. No time was lost to profit
by this property of the deuto-chloride of mercury, to apply it to the
preservation of whole bodies. It was, in fine, the last method of
embalming practised previously to my own, and held as very superior to
that of the ancients. We shall collect here, some observations cited as
remarkable examples, and as proofs of the excellence of the process. It
will remain for us afterwards to appreciate its merits. Let us first
see the facts.
_First fact, (A.) Preparation made by Beclard._
M. Beclard, chief of the anatomical works at the School of Medicine,
was charged with the preservation of the body of a young man thirty
years of age, who died of a hectic fever. The relatives desired to
place the body in a glass case, and _requested, above all, that it
should not be opened_. In spite of the disadvantage of this last
restriction, M. Beclard succeeded in this operation by the following
process: _the intestines were withdrawn, opened, and cleaned in a
portion of their length, by a little hole made in the abdomen_. He
penetrated the chest by means of _two incisions_, under the armpits;
through which water was injected; _a small hole_ was also made in
the cranium; the blood of the abdominal and cutaneous veins was, as
much as possible, expressed out, a mercurial solution was injected
into the trachea, and the salt in substance introduced into all the
cavities; the corpse was then soaked in a bath saturated with corrosive
sublimate. During the first month it appeared to offer some signs of
putrefaction; it was then thought necessary to introduce an instrument
into the abdomen by the aid of which the _peritoneum was incised_
at different points, M. Beclard having already remarked, that those
parts situated beneath the serous membranes, escaped the action of the
sublimate: the body was returned to the bath; some scarifications were
made beneath those points of the skin which appeared greenish; the
epidermis of the soles of the feet also protected the subjacent parts;
this was removed; finally, after two months sojourn in the sublimated
bath, the body being withdrawn during a hot and dry season, became
desiccated in a few days. It was preserved for a year enclosed in a
box, without exhaling any odour, or without any sign of alteration.
The skin is of a leaden gray colour, and the features of the face are
deformed by the emaciation of the lips and cheeks.
_Second fact, (B.) Preservation of the body of Colonel Morland._
In one of the German campaigns, M. le Baron Larrey was charged with the
direction of the preservation of the body of the brave Colonel Morland,
who received a mortal wound in one of the most brilliant charges. M.
Ribes aided him in this preparation.[6] They at first removed all the
viscera through an incision made in a line with the crest of the right
ilium, and in cutting the attachments of the diaphragm, and the canals
which pass through the superior opening of the chest, the crown of the
trephine applied to the posterior part of the cranium permitted the
brain to be cleaned out by repeated injections. The eye was opened
by bursting its globe. Having introduced the powdered sublimate into
all the cavities, those of the face were plugged in order to prevent
emaciation; the features were protected by graduated compresses and
methodical bandages; the whole body was itself enveloped in several
cloths, and placed in a barrel of super-saturated solution of corrosive
sublimate; in this state the whole was forwarded to Paris. At the
end of some months the barrel was opened; the body was found well
preserved; on exposure to the air it dried quickly; care was taken to
fill all the cavities with stoupes; the membranes of the eye, which had
retired to the bottom of the orbit, were replaced by eyes of enamel;
the hair, the eyelids, and the mustaches were preserved; _the features
were recognisable_, and the body varnished carefully, and dressed in
the usual clothes, produced a soft and melancholy illusion in those who
had known this excellent officer. Now that several years have passed,
the body of Colonel Morland, placed in a glass case in the library of
M. Larrey, offers no sign of alteration, exhales no odour, and remains
_perfectly recognisable_, although the skin looks _brown, and as if
tanned_, and _all the cellular membrane appears to have disappeared_,
so that the form of the muscles may be perceived through the dried
integuments.
[6] We ought to render homage to the zeal and noble devotion which
enabled the celebrated Larrey to surmount all the difficulties of his
position to preserve the body of a companion in arms.
_Remarks on observing Colonel Morland’s body._--We have seen the body
of Colonel Morland, and we can comprehend that persons who have known
him, and who have seen him dressed, may carry the illusion so far as to
recognise some of his features. But, as for ourselves, it appeared to
us impossible that a corpse, the white skin of which had become brown
and tanned, of which all the cellular tissue had disappeared, and the
general aspect of which is that of a rigid membrane glued to the bones,
and some few dried fleshy fasciculi, should preserve a great likeness
to the subject of which it affords only some wrecks. We confine
ourselves here to the indication of the exaggeration of this fact in
particular; we shall touch upon this subject again in our general
remarks.
_Third fact, (C.) Preservation of a young girl of ten years._
M. Boudet, apothecary, was requested by a mother to prepare the body of
a daughter who had died at the age of ten years, in such a manner that
she could continually enjoy the sight of her.
A bust had been made of the infant, and they had taken care to choose,
at the moment of death, eyes of enamel perfectly resembling her own.
M. Boudet, untrammelled in his operation, which was performed at his
own house, commenced by removing the viscera, by the aid of incisions
skilfully managed. He extracted the brain through the occiput. The
eyes were taken out and replaced by a plug; all the cavities were
immediately filled with a dry stoupe, and the openings closed with
accurate sutures. During these various preparations, the body had
been plunged in a bath of pure alcohol, then into an alcohol bath
containing a little sublimate. All being thus disposed of, the body
was placed in a bath of distilled water, saturated with the sublimate,
and in which still soaked some parcels filled with this salt. The body
remained three months in this solution; forty pounds of the sublimate
were consumed; much of the mild muriate was precipitated; even a
portion of the mercury was revivified; but it is _necessary to observe_
that the vase in which he operated _was of lead_, which should occasion
the decomposition, and augment the consummation of the sublimate. At
the end of three months the body was withdrawn from the bath, in order
to proceed to the desiccation; it was suspended by bands in order to
avoid deforming it, and to let it drain: care was taken to elevate
the walls of the cavities with new stoupes, when they appeared to
be deformed; the eyelids and the lips were kept closed with English
taffeta. When the desiccation was completed, artificial eyes were put
in, some features of the face were changed, and particularly the upper
lip. A skilful artist modelled them in wax imitating the bust, which
served him as a model; the skin being observed of a gray colour, it was
coloured with paint; the hair, perfectly preserved, was very natural;
finally, this infant, clothed in its ordinary dress, and enclosed in a
glass case, presents a perfect resemblance, and causes an extraordinary
illusion.
_Remarks on these three observations._--Let us first remark that the
substitution of this process for all those that had previously been
employed, is a great progress. Indeed, in place of a multitude of
drugs, endowed with properties either opposite or unknown, a single
substance, studied with care, and of determined properties, is placed
in contact with the tissues, which become modified according to the
wishes of the embalmer. A charlatanism thus becomes a scientific
operation, since a method which preserves bodies, better or worse,
takes the place of others, which, far from preserving from corruption,
often accelerates it. Nevertheless, we must say, that embalming with
sublimate is still far from perfection, and, not to speak here of
the inconvenience resulting from the three cited observations, it
will be observed that the incisions and mutilations exist still in
this process; that they are necessary to it, since, in spite of the
_wishes of the family_, Professor Beclard was obliged to multiply
them, in order to arrest the progress of decomposition. Many months
are requisite for the perfect completion of the work, which renders
it impossible to recur to it under many circumstances. The action of
the sublimate, which combines with the gelatine, and gives rise to an
imputrescible compound, protected from the ravages of insects, deforms
the organs to such a degree, however, that the colour and general
aspect of the body are changed. This deformation is so great in the
third observation, that it was necessary to reform several organs: _the
upper lip was so damaged, that a skilful artist was obliged to reform
it in wax, as well as several other features of the face, in imitating
the bust, which served as a model; the skin being of a gray colour, it
was coloured with paint,_ &c.
These imperfections would of course be of less importance in the
preparation of anatomical parts; but, to preserve the body of a person
who was dear to us, they are serious, and leave a painful impression.
But to return to our exposition.
_Fourth fact, (D.) Proces-verbal of the embalming of the body of Louis
XVIII., King of France._
Extract from the procès-verbaux of the opening and embalming of the
late King Louis XVIII.--(_General Repertory of Anatomy, Physiology,
and Pathology, Vol. 8, p. 36, in 4to., 1829._)
_Proces-verbal of the embalming_, p. 40.
This day, 17th September, 1824, immediately after the opening of the
body of the late King Louis XVIII., and conformably to the instructions
given us by M., the Marquis de Brèzè, grand master of the ceremonies
of France, we, the undersigned, proceeded to the embalming, after the
following manner:
1st. The heart of the late king, after having been washed and macerated
for four or five hours in an alcoholic solution of the deuto-chloride
of mercury or corrosive sublimate, and having been filled and
surrounded with choice aromatics, was enclosed in a leaden box, bearing
an inscription indicative of the precious object which it contained.
2d. The viscera of the three great cavities of the body, after having
been incised, washed, and macerated six hours in the above-named
solution, were penetrated, filled, and surrounded with aromatics, and
enclosed in a leaden barrel, bearing an inscription indicative of the
parts it contained.
3d. The totality of the surface of the body, and the surfaces of
the great cavities, were successively washed with a solution of the
chloride of the oxide of sodium, and with the alcoholic solution of
the deuto-chloride of mercury.
4th. The fleshy parts, as well of the trunk as of the limbs, were
extensively and deeply incised, and afterwards washed with the above
named solutions.
5th. The surfaces of the body, of the cavities, and of the incisions,
were supplied with several applications of spirit varnish.
6th. All the cavities were filled with powders, formed of various
species of aromatics and resins.
7th. These cavities were closed by bringing their borders together,
sustained by numerous sutures.
8th. The limbs, the pelvis, the abdomen, the chest, the neck, and the
head, were successively surrounded with bandages, methodically applied.
9th. The whole surface of the body thus enveloped, was covered with
many layers of varnish.
10th. Upon this varnish were applied bandages of gum diachilon.
11th. Over the bandages of diachilon, other bandages of varnished
taffeta were applied.
12th. Finally, a last layer of bandages was applied over the varnished
taffeta.
13th. The embalming terminated, the head of the late king was covered
with a cap, his body with a chemise, his arms and breast with a vest,
with sleeves made of white silk; the whole with a sheet of batiste.
It was in this state that the body of the king was returned to M.
Brèzè, to be deposited in the coffin which was to enclose his mortal
remains at Saint Dennis.
Signed, Portal, Alibert, Dupuytren, Fabre, Distel, Thèvenot, Portal,
(for Ribes,) Auvity, Breschet, Mura, Moreau, Bardenat,
Vesque, Dalmas, Delagenerraye.
Here the process followed, although analogous in many respects to the
preceding, differs from them, however, in the addition of numerous
drugs, and in the rapidity of the preparation; the following nearly, in
all respects, the same, will furnish matter for reflection.
_Fifth and last fact, (E.) Notice of the process of embalming, adopted
for the body of L. D. C. D._
Before exposing the details of this embalming, we ought to remark, that
various reasons compelled us to modify, in different points, the plan
which we had traced out for ourselves, after reading those authors who
have written on this subject; thus, the family had earnestly desired
that no part of the body should be abstracted, wishing that the coffin
should contain the entire remains of L. D. C. D., their relation.
On the other hand, it was necessary to preserve his features and
physiognomy, in order that his body might be recognised on its arrival
to his family, who inhabit England. Finally, that which, above all,
prevented us pursuing a surer and more rational mode of operation, was
the particular circumstances of the case, allowing us only one sitting
to accomplish the embalming.
However this be, we shall now describe the process which was followed,
leaving for another article, which will appear immediately, the
modifications that may be introduced to diminish the difficulty and
expense, and, if possible, render the result more certain.
1. _Necroscopy._--The process to be followed even in this early stage
of the operation, is not a matter of indifference; all the external
parts having to retain their natural form, great care was necessary in
abstracting the viscera.
In order to secure this end, without, at the same time neglecting the
examination of the organs, the following plan was adopted:
_a._ An incision, commencing at the symphysis of the chin, following
the mesial line divided all the integuments and muscles down to the
symphysis pubis.
_b._ The sternum sawn through the middle permitted the hand to be
introduced into the cavity without destroying any part of the thoracic
walls.
_c._ All the organs, from the tongue to the bladder and rectum,
carefully detached, were withdrawn through this opening. (The result
of the necroscopy was published in the third part of the _Bulletin
Clinique_, p. 79.)
_d._ The eyes were extracted with precaution.
_e._ The integuments of the head were divided transversely, from one
mastoid apophysis to the other, and turned down before and behind to
the extent of three inches; it was in this space, where, by the aid of
two sections by the saw, one vertical, the other horizontal from behind
forwards, we were enabled to raise a segment of the cranium which
allowed of the extraction of the brain, the medulla oblongata being
cut off as low down as possible.
2. _Desiccation of the corpse._--This first operation over, the corpse
was, as much as possible, disembarrassed of the fluids which it
contained, whether in the great cavities, or in the cephalo-rachidien
canal. Then, by the aid of precious aromatics, and absorbing powders,
frequently renewed, the tissues were divested of their humidity.
3. _Maceration of the viscera._--After the examination of these, they
were freely washed in a saline solution, and then macerated for two
hours in a concentrated solution of alum, hydrochlorate of soda, and
chloride of sodium, (Gannal’s liquor,) and finally, they were submitted
for several hours more to the action of a concentrated solution of the
deuto-chloride of mercury.
4. _Maceration of the corpse._--All the parts having been conveniently
detached, alcoholic injections were made into the vessels of the limbs,
and into the rachidien canal; and immediately after each of these
partial injections, others were made, consisting of the deuto-chloride
of mercury, which were retained in the arteries by ligature, and in the
canal by a cork. Similar injections were also used for various regions
which are abundantly supplied with cellular tissue.
The members and the trunk, both internally and externally, were
sprinkled with a concentrated alcoholic solution of the deuto-chloride
of mercury, and enveloped for several hours with stoupes and compresses
steeped in this liquid. Finally, in order that no part should be
deprived of the conservative action of the corrosive sublimate, the
mouth, the nasal fossæ, the orbits, and the auditory passages, were
filled with little bags of this substance in powder; and by means of
profound and numerous incisions, the same was introduced in the muscles
of the limbs and back, &c. (These incisions, narrow at the surface,
extended deeply, and in various directions in the subjacent tissues.)
5. All the viscera were replaced in the great cavities formed by the
union of the thorax and abdomen.
This part of the operation was made with extreme minuteness; the organs
cut into pieces about the size of the fist, were separately dried in
balsamic powders, then supplied abundantly with chloride of lime,
and surrounded with stoupes steeped in the alcoholic solution of the
sublimate; each package, thus constituted, was invested in two plates
of lead, and placed in the cavity of the thorax; aromatic powders,
chloride of lime, and stoupes, steeped in the sublimate, separated the
different layers.
The heart, (for the satisfaction of the relatives,) was left entire,
and replaced in its natural position, after having been subjected to
the same preparations. The cranium was filled with the same substances
employed for the preservation of each organ.
6. The segment raised on a level with the lambdoidal suture, the
integuments are to be united by methodical suture, and the same is to
be done for the abdomen and thorax.
The seam on the scalp was not visible, because it was covered by the
hair, with which the head was yet abundantly covered. The trunk was
not deformed.
7. _Application of the bandages._--Previously to applying the bandages,
a coat of varnish is given to the whole body, with the exception of the
face, and immediately upon this varnish are placed layers of lead; it
is then only, that methodical bandages are made to cover all the parts,
from the fingers and toes to the head; each turn of bandage was fixed
by a point of suture, then covered again with another layer of varnish,
with new plates of lead, and finally, with a new bandage applied with
the same care as the first.
The face, until now remaining free, was submitted to the same
applications, but so arranged that it could be uncovered at any time,
without disturbing the rest of the bandages.
The body was then covered with a cloth, surrounded with a mantel of
satin, and deposited in a leaden coffin: it was left exposed to the air
for _more than twenty-four hours, without exhaling any other odour than
that of the aromatics employed_.
The operation which had commenced at ten o’clock in the morning, was
not terminated until after two in the morning.
The operation was very painful on account of the gas, particularly
the chlorine, which was freely exhaled towards the latter part of the
process, fatiguing the assistants, who were all tormented with a very
violent irritating cough.
Such are the details of this embalming, which had been announced as
constituting the perfection of the interesting necropsy described in
one of the late numbers of the _Bulletin Clinique_.
A. Loreau,
E. Chanut.
What strange naivetè on the part of the embalmer! he had just stated
that the operation was very painful on account of the gas, particularly
of the chlorine, which was freely exhaled during the latter part of
the process, very much fatiguing the assistants. Ought you not to have
anticipated this, you who were charged with such preparations? Ought
you not to have known even the inutility of such an incoherent mixture
of substances?
It is not excusable, indeed, to be ignorant that the chloride of lime,
(_chloride of the oxide of calcium_,) mixed with the deuto-chloride
of mercury, produces, with the disengagement of chlorine, two new
products, first, the chloride of calcium, (_muriate of lime_,) and the
deutoxide of mercury, (_red precipitate_,) an insoluble substance, to
which no one has ever attributed conservative properties. Upon what
principle, further, upon what positive knowledge are we authorized
to make so frequent use of the chloride of lime in embalming? No
scientific data justifies this practice. Is it because it possesses
disinfecting properties? But this is the very reason why it should
be rejected, for in what manner does it act upon putrid miasmata?
Is it not by decomposing them? No one doubts this, excepting always
the embalmers; who are probably also ignorant that it possesses in
the highest degree the property of decomposing animal and vegetable
matter. I have proved in the course of my researches, that _a fresh
corpse, injected with one of the chlorides of the oxide of sodium,
calcium, potassium, is in a complete state of dissolution, at the end
of forty-eight hours_.
These researches, which I have pushed in various directions, have
weighed hardest upon the substance which has been extolled as
excellent, and as very superior to any thing used by the ancients in
embalming: I applied myself to establish, as far as practicable, the
precise degree of confidence that the deuto-chloride of mercury merited
under these circumstances. It is very true that it preserves animal
matter plunged into a solution of it; but to what degree, and under
what rules? The following is a brief exposition:
1. Coarse anatomical pieces, (a preparation of the muscles of the arm,
for example,) plunged into and maintained in a saturated solution of
the deuto-chloride of mercury, and then dried, are protected from
corruption, but they become brown, stiff, and so deformed as scarcely
to be recognized.
2. The injection of this liquid is not sufficient to arrest the
progress of decomposition--this salt not being sufficiently soluble.
3. The simple immersion of a corpse in it hardens the skin, but the
muscles and all the viscera are decomposed.