ARALIACEÆ.
=Ivy= (_Hedera Helix_ L.). The berries of the Ivy are said to be largely
eaten by certain birds (_e.g._ blackbirds, thrushes, wood-pigeons), but
have poisoned children. The plant has long been said to be poisonous,
but no definite case of poisoning of live stock has been discovered;
possibly farm live stock would need to eat a considerable quantity for
serious effects to be induced. Indeed, when keep is short, it is quite
common in some districts to see Ivy strewed on the fields for cattle and
sheep to eat, and it is very frequently given to sick animals by country
people (Garnett).
_Toxic Principle._ This has not been closely studied, but ivy contains a
bitter principle which is strongly cathartic, emetic and purgative. Ivy
contains a poisonous glucoside _Hederin_ (C_{64}H_{104}O_{19}) and a
resin (_Gummi hederæ_).
_Symptoms._ As suggested above, it is doubtful whether animals have been
poisoned by Ivy. Symptoms given appear to refer to children, and consist
in sickness, diarrhœa, nervous symptoms, excitement at first, then
convulsions and paralysis (Müller). Sickness and purgation (Esser).
Cornevin states that the symptoms are complex, emeto-purgative effects
being present, with nervous symptoms resembling those of intoxication,
viz. excitement, then coma, convulsions, uncertain gait, and stertorous
respiration.
REFERENCES.
73, 76, 81, 130, 208, 240.
CAPRIFOLIACEÆ.
=Common Elder= (_Sambucus nigra_ L.) and =Dwarf Elder= (_S. Ebulus_ L.).
These two plants are usually avoided by stock, no doubt in view of their
odour, more particularly in the case of the latter species. The bark,
leaves and berries of both species were noticed by Cornevin as having
pronounced purgative properties, and the berries of _S. Ebulus_ as
having poisoned turkeys. Esser remarks that the use of _S. Ebulus_ by
country folk as a purgative has caused fatal poisoning. The leaves of
_S. nigra_ have caused severe irritant poisoning in a child.
_Toxic Principle._ Some doubt exists as to the poisonous principle
of the Elders, the leaves of which contain _Sambunigrin_
(C_{14}H_{17}O_{6}N), a cyanogenetic glucoside; the alkaloid
_Sambucine_; and a purgative principle. According to Cornevin drying
reduces the toxicity but does not destroy it.
_Symptoms._ The symptoms are not very definite, but small quantities
cause purgation, while large quantities induce depression and violent
emetic and cathartic effects, with diarrhœa, abundant diuresis and
acceleration of pulse. The leaves of _S. Ebulus_ have caused vomiting,
obstinate constipation and enteritis in a boy, and in the case of
another boy the flowers caused vertigo and headache.
REFERENCES.
4, 73, 81, 203, 233.
COMPOSITÆ.
=Tansy= (_Tanacetum vulgare_ L.). Live stock are most unlikely to eat
this plant, as it is bitter and acrid. Cattle appear to have been
poisoned by it in Germany, Kobert’s opinion being that death had
resulted from tansy. There have also been many serious cases of human
poisoning.
_Toxic Principle._ Tansy contains the bitter, volatile and poisonous
_Oil of Tansy_.
_Symptoms._ Tansy Oil has been employed as an abortifacient, and
produces convulsions, violent spasms, frequent and feeble pulse, and
paralysis of the heart and lungs, inducing a condition similar to that
observed in rabies.
Pammel cites cases of the action of the oil from the plant on _dogs_.
According to Pott the tansy imparts a bitter taste to the milk of cows
which eat it.
REFERENCES.
161, 203, 204, 213.
=Ragwort= (_Senecio Jacobœa_ L.). No suspicion appears to have been
focussed on Ragwort in Britain, but it must be recorded here as the
cause in Canada of the Pictou cattle disease, or hepatic cirrhosis, a
somewhat fatal disease which has caused much loss during the last few
years. In New Zealand also the same disease has been experienced, and
has caused considerable mortality among sheep. In one case sheep were
closely pastured on about 4000 acres with the object of eradicating the
too prevalent weed, but after a year losses ensued. Gilruth concluded
that if the weed does not monopolise the ground, sheep may, with few
exceptions, eat it daily without suffering ill effects. Cattle and
horses avoided it when possible.
It may be remarked that in Britain feeding the young shoots off with
sheep, which seem to like the plant, is regarded as the best plan of
reducing Ragwort in grass land. So far there seems to be no record of
injury from this cause.
In South Africa cirrhosis of the liver in cattle (locally termed Molteno
cattle sickness) has been traced to _S. latifolius_, 8 to 10 lb. of
which in daily feeds of 2 to 6 oz. caused death in about six weeks.
Another species, _S. Burchellii_, is similarly poisonous, ½ lb. daily
for four days having killed an ox on the fifth day; at Molteno half the
quantity proved fatal. Both species are fatal to cattle and horses.
_Toxic Principle._ As regards _S. Jacobœa_ nothing appears to be known
as to any toxic principles, though an alkaloid has been isolated by Watt
(1911), but not fully described. The South African _S. latifolius_,
however, was examined at the Imperial Institute, and two new crystalline
alkaloids were isolated—_Senecifoline_ (C_{18}H_{27}O_{8}N) and
_Senecifolidine_ (C_{18}H_{25}O_{7}N)—1·20 per cent. being present in
the plant before flowering and 0·49 per cent. after flowering.
_Symptoms._ As they may to some extent serve as a guide in relation to
possible Ragwort poisoning in Britain the symptoms observed from
poisoning by the South African species may be given: Severe and strained
purging: fæces yellowish to dark brown; cows cease to give milk;
abdominal pain, groaning; animal may go mad and charge anyone
approaching, or lie with outstretched head, drooping ears, staring coat,
and dull glaring eyes; death usual within three days from commencement
of purging. The post-mortem shows an inflamed fourth stomach; hardened
condition of the liver, often dull grey with spots in the interior;
expanded gall bladder, with dull yellow viscid bile.
REFERENCES.
43, 128, 195, 260.
=Wild Lettuce= (_Lactuca_ sp.). Just how far the two species _L.
scariola_ L. and _L. virosa_ L. are really poisonous is not clearly
known, and it is probable that to be seriously harmful to farm live
stock they would need to be ingested in considerable quantity, and this
they never seem to be. They are certainly not actively poisonous, though
Bailey and Gordon say that “we have been informed that this European
plant—now a national pest—is sometimes eaten by cattle, on whom it has
been observed to have had an injurious effect.”
_Toxic Principle._ Authorities differ as to the substances to which the
toxic property, if any, is to be attributed. According to Ludwig the
milky juice, known as _Lactucarium_, includes _Lactucone_, _Lactucin_,
and _Lactucic Acid_, the second of these being the narcotic substance.
Nearly half the weight of _Lactucarium_ (a form of dried juice) consists
of the tasteless inodorous _Lactucone_ or _Lactucerin_ (C_{14}H_{22}O),
and the bitter taste is due to _Lactupicrine_, Lactucin and Lactucic
Acid. In the leaves of _L. virosa_, Dymond found traces of _Hyoscyamine_
or a similar substance (_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1892, Vol. 61, p. 90).
_Symptoms._ Intoxication is produced similar to that caused by poppy
heads; the narcotic effects are dominant (Cornevin).
REFERENCES.
11, 73, 81, 130, 213, 240.
ERICACEÆ.
=Rhododendron= (_Rhododendron_ sp.). The literature points to there
being no doubt as to the poisonous character of a number of species of
_Rhododendron_, and indeed most species are suspected. Animals do not
appear to eat Rhododendrons very extensively, but both English and
Belgian veterinary surgeons have published records of poisoning of sheep
and goats by _R. ponticum_. Suspected cases were recorded in the
_Journal of the Board of Agriculture_ (1907 and 1914); three cases of
cattle poisoning in the _Veterinary Record_ (1900, 1906, and 1907); one
of calves in the _Veterinarian_ (1859); and three of sheep-poisoning—one
in the _Veterinary Journal_ (1906), and two in the _Veterinarian_
(1865); but these cases were not all fatal. The death of 19 out of 21
cross-bred Scotch lambs due to eating _R. ponticum_ was reported by C.
T. Baines in the _Journal of the Land Agents Society_ (Aug. 1914, p.
373). The plant was eaten after a heavy fall of snow. Chesnut includes
_R. maximum_ as one of the thirty most poisonous plants of the United
States. According to Cornevin, _R. ferrugineum_ causes frequent
poisoning of animals which graze on the plateaux where it
grows—especially sheep and goats, the latter providing the most victims,
as they willingly browse the young shoots and leaves. _R. californicum_
is said to be poisonous to sheep in Oregon. _R. Chrysanthum_, the leaves
of which have been used in Russia and Germany for rheumatism, has caused
poisoning in man. _R. punctatum_ and _R. hirsutum_ appear to be not less
poisonous.
Both leaves and flowers are narcotic, and even the honey in the flowers
is regarded with suspicion. The following quotations are not without
interest:—
“In these regions (Tungu) many of my goats and kids had died foaming at
the mouth and grinding their teeth, and I have discovered the cause to
arise from their eating the leaves of _Rhododendron cinnabarinum_ (“Kema
Kechoong,” Lepcha; Kema signifying Rhododendron); this species alone is
said to be poisonous, and when used as a fuel it causes the face to
swell and the eyes to inflame, of which I observed several instances.”
(Hooker, _Himalayan Journals_, ii. p. 150).
“_Rhododendron arboreum_ becomes plentiful at 5000 to 6000 feet (East
Nepal), forming a large tree on dry clayey slopes.... In the contracted
parts of the valley the mountains often dip to the riverbed in
precipices of gneiss under the ledges of which wild bees build pendulous
nests looking like huge bats suspended by their wings; they are two or
three feet long and as broad at the top whence they taper downwards; the
honey is much sought for except in spring, when it is said to be
poisoned by Rhododendron flowers just as that eaten by the soldiers in
the retreat of the Ten Thousand was by the flowers of _R. ponticum_.”
(_l.c._ i. p. 200).
_Toxic Principle._ The leaves and flowers contain a bitter poisonous
glucoside, _Andromedotoxin_ (C_{31}H_{50}O_{10}), which has been
regarded as more poisonous than Aconitine. Other glucosides found in
Rhododendrons are _Ericolin_ (C_{34}H_{56}O_{21}), _Arbutin_
(C_{12}H_{16}O_{7}), and _Rhododendrin_ (C_{16}H_{22}O_{7}), but it is
not clearly shown whether these are poisonous when ingested; Kobert,
however, includes the two former among cerebro-spinal poisons.
_Symptoms._ In the case of goats Cornevin records intense pain,
diarrhœa, discomfort, gritting of teeth, salivation, and frequently
vomiting; while there is reduced lactation, trembling, spasms, vertigo,
loss of power, and death. Lander notes similar symptoms in cattle and
sheep.
According to Eve (_Veterinary Record_, 1907), a reddish colour was
observed in the milk of a cow poisoned by Rhododendron.
REFERENCES.
4, 16, 53, 63, 73, 76, 81, 144, 161, 170, 203, 205, 211, 212, 213, 231,
252, 264.
=Azalea= (_Azalea_ sp.). A suspected case of poisoning was recorded in
the _Journal of the Board of Agriculture_ in 1907. No British record of
poisoning has been found. Various species of Azalea (_A. pontica_, _A.
indica_, _A. arborescens_, _A. nudiflora_, etc.) are stated to be very
poisonous to all animals which browse on them in the East. Cuttings
should never be thrown down where they can be eaten by stock.
_Toxic Principle._ Little work has been done on these plants, but they
are believed to contain _Ericolin_, _Arbutin_, and _Andromedotoxin_ as
in the case of rhododendrons (p. 47).
_Symptoms._ Azaleas appear to be narcotic, and to produce symptoms
resembling those caused by _Lolium temulentum_ (Cornevin).
REFERENCES.
73, 144, 190, 205.
PRIMULACEÆ.
=Scarlet Pimpernel= (_Anagallis arvensis_ L.). Unless it occurs in very
considerable quantity this little plant is unlikely to be eaten to an
extent sufficient to cause definite poisonous symptoms, as it is a
cornfield weed. It may be taken, however, if animals are allowed to run
over stubble. Sheep are said to refuse it in general, but have died from
eating it (see below).
There seems to be no doubt that if eaten in sufficient quantity it has a
poisonous action, having an irritant action on the digestive tract—the
intestines—as well as producing narcotic effects. Strasburger notes it
as “slightly poisonous”; Bailey says “a dog is stated to have been
destroyed by making it swallow three drachms of the extract,” while
according to Hyams the fluid extract in 4 drachm doses is fatal to dogs
(the size of the dog is not mentioned!); at the Veterinary School at
Lyons horses were intentionally killed by administering a decoction of
the plant; in America Chesnut notes it as suspected of killing a horse;
Ewart says it “has been reported to render the chaff from oat crops
infested by the weed unpalatable to stock”; and Gilruth states that a
year or two ago it was responsible for the death of a large number of
sheep in Victoria, apparently acting as a narcotic poison (_Amer. Vet.
Rev._, July, 1913, p. 383.). On the Pacific coast the plant is known as
“Poison Weed.” Grognier and Orfila are stated to have put its poisonous
properties beyond doubt.
_Toxic Principle._ The plant contains the glucoside _Cyclamin_
(C_{20}H_{34}O_{10}), and a saponin-like substance (Pammel). Van Rijn
says it contains two glucosides.
_Symptoms._ The plant has an irritating effect on the intestines and a
stupefying effect on the nervous system. Cornevin states that it is
never taken by the larger domestic animals in quantity sufficient to
cause poisoning.
REFERENCES.
10, 73, 82, 190, 203, 235, 252.
OLEACEÆ.
=Privet= (_Ligustrum vulgare_ L.). The facts as to the poisonous
character of Privet are by no means clear, but Taylor records a case in
which three children who ate the berries were attacked by violent
purging, and a boy and girl died. Turner observed a case in which horses
died after eating Privet.
_Toxic Principle._ The Privet is stated to contain the poisonous
glucosides _Ligustrin_ and _Ligustron_, not mentioned by Van Rijn,
who says it contains _Syringin_ (C_{17}H_{24}O_{9}), while Pammel
(1911) adds the bitter glucosidal principle _Syringopicrin_
(C_{26}H_{24}O_{17}).
_Symptoms._ In horses Turner observed loss of power in the hind limbs,
with a pulse of 50, temperature 102° F., slightly injected mucous
membranes, and dilated pupils, with death in 36 to 48 hours. The berries
are stated by Müller to cause sickness and diarrhœa.
REFERENCES.
130, 190, 203, 233, 252.
CONVOLVULACEÆ.
=Bindweeds= (_Convolvulus sepium_ L. and _C. arvensis_ L.). The creeping
rootstocks and foliage, as well as the seeds, are held to be more or
less poisonous if eaten in quantity, and as long ago as 1872 Olver
recorded (_Veterinarian_, 1872) that pigs which ate freely of
_Convolvulus_ died. These species, when eaten in considerable quantity,
appear to be cathartic and purgative, causing symptoms resembling those
due to jalap.
REFERENCES.
82, 141, 190, 203, 254.
SOLANACEÆ.
=Thorn Apple= (_Datura Stramonium_ L.). This species is an escape from
cultivation, but on occasion occurs plentifully in gardens, and if
allowed to seed may escape to arable fields and find its way to stock,
though it does not appear to have done so in Britain. Several species of
_Datura_ are recognized as virulent poisons in North America, where they
are known as Jimson Weeds. All parts are poisonous, especially the
seeds, which have a somewhat sweetish taste, and have frequently caused
accidents to children who have eaten them. Cases are recorded in the
United States in which cattle have been poisoned by eating the leaves of
young plants in hay. Live stock, however, usually avoid the plant, which
has an unpleasant odour and taste, while the seeds are enclosed in
thorny capsules. Walsh states that the seeds are very fatal to young
ostriches. Drying does not destroy the toxicity.
_Toxic Principle._ The Thorn Apple is usually stated to contain the
highly poisonous narcotic alkaloid _Daturine_, but this appears to be a
mixture of the two alkaloids _Hyoscyamine_ (C_{17}H_{23}O_{3}N) and
_Atropine_ (C_{17}H_{23}O_{3}N), which, together with the alkaloid
_Scopolamine_, or _Hyoscine_ (C_{17}H_{21}O_{4}N), have been found in
the plant, the principal constituent being Hyoscyamine. In some analyses
as much as 0·33 per cent. of Atropine has been found in the seeds, and
0·2 per cent. in the leaves (Pammel). The three alkaloids occur together
to the extent of 0·48 to 3·33 per cent. in the leaves, 0·43 per cent. in
the flowers, and 0·1 per cent. in the root, Hyoscyamine predominating
(Esser). An investigation conducted at the Imperial Institute (_Bul.
Imp. Inst._, 1911) showed the amount of alkaloids in European specimens
to be:—
Seeds 0·21 to 0·48 per cent.
Leaves up to 0·4 „
Stems average 0·22 „
Roots average 0·17 „
_Symptoms._ The general effect of _Datura_ poisoning appears to resemble
that of _Atropa Belladonna_, but is by some considered more rapidly
effective. There is paralysis, dilatation of the pupils, suspension of
secretion and of the inhibitory fibres of the vagus, leading to rapid
action of the heart (Lander). Poisoning may terminate fatally. Pammel
quotes Winslow as stating that two grains of Atropine produce mild toxic
symptoms in the horse; cattle are as susceptible as horses, though
herbivora are not so easily influenced as carnivora. Chesnut gives the
following symptoms: “Headache, vertigo, nausea, extreme thirst, dry,
burning skin, and general nervous confusion, with dilated pupils, loss
of sight and of voluntary motion, and sometimes mania, convulsions, and
death.” Walsh gives the toxic symptoms in ostriches as staggering gait,
spasmodic jerking of the neck, stupor, and death in a comatose state.
REFERENCES.
4, 10, 16, 39, 52, 53, 73, 81, 92, 128, 141, 170, 203, 213, 260.
=Henbane= (_Hyoscyamus niger_ L.). The poisonous character of Henbane is
well known, but the plant is by no means common (except in Ireland),
though found in parts of England, Scotland, and Wales. Poisoning of live
stock may occasionally occur, but the disagreeable odour is likely to
prevent all but abnormal or very hungry animals from touching it. The
seeds are eaten by birds, apparently without injury, but poisoned
chickens which ate the ripe seeds in Montana. Cornevin records that cows
have been poisoned by eating the plant when given mixed with other
herbage. There are numbers of cases of children having been poisoned by
eating the seeds. The root has also caused accidents by being taken for
other herbs, and the young shoots and leaves have been used in error as
a vegetable. A case was reported in the press in 1910 in which 25 men
and women visitors at a Davos pension suffered from the effects of
eating the root of Henbane given in error for horse-radish, or mixed
with it. All suffered from strange hallucinations, but with prompt and
careful treatment all had recovered in twelve hours. Kanngiesser says
that poisoning by this plant very seldom terminates fatally.
Welsby records a case in which animals were poisoned in a field in which
Henbane was grown for medicinal use some years before (_Veterinary
Record_, 1903). According to Rodet and Baillet (_vide_ Cornevin) small
quantities of the seeds are in some countries mixed with the food of
fattening stock; if true that fattening is promoted, it is probably due
to the inducement to quiet and repose caused by the narcotic properties
of the seeds.
_Toxic Principle._ Poisoning by Henbane is due to the alkaloids
_Hyoscyamine_ (C_{17}H_{23}NO_{3}) and the closely related _Hyoscine_,
or _Scopolamine_ (C_{17}H_{21}O_{4}N). The glucoside _Hyoscypicrin_ is
also found in Henbane. The poisonous property is not eradicated by
drying or boiling. The leaves of Henbane grown in Europe contain from
0·04 to 0·08 per cent. of total alkaloid, and the seeds 0·06 to 0·10 per
cent. (_Bul. Imp. Inst._, 1911).
_Symptoms._ Henbane is an anodyne, and hypnotic. The symptoms resemble
those caused by _Atropa Belladonna_ (p. 58). The important differences
(Cornevin) are that there is here abundant salivation and no dryness of
the mouth as in _Atropa_. There is dilatation of the pupils; and
mydriasis, which is dissipated more slowly than in Belladonna poisoning.
Further differences in the action of the two poisons are given by
Winslow (_via_ Pammel): The tetanic stage succeeding spinal paralysis
observed in Atropine poisoning does not ensue with Hyoscine. The latter
alkaloid slightly depresses and slows the heart and does not paralyse
the vagus terminations, nor depress the motor and sensory nerves or
muscles. The circulation is but slightly influenced, and vasomotor
depression only occurs in the later stage of lethal poisoning. Death
occurs from paralysis of the respiratory centres. Poisoning in animals
is exhibited by loss of muscular power, slowing and failure of
respiration, stupor, and asphyxia. The pulse may be infrequent, the
pupils are dilated, and the skin is moist rather than dry.
The following symptoms in animals are given by Welsby: Nervo-muscular
exaltation, eyelids and irides much dilated, eyes amaurotic and very
bright, pulse full, temperature normal, respiration difficult and
hurried, profuse salivation, muscles of neck and extremities in a state
of tetanic rigidity, considerable abdominal distension, stercoraceous
and renal emunctories entirely suspended, death.
In a _cow_ there was observed, two hours after eating, dilatation of
pupils, the conjunctivæ were injected, and the carotids beat violently.
There were general convulsions, loud respiration, salivation, and
purgation. According to Pott the milk of affected cows is of an
unpleasant taste.
REFERENCES.
4, 16, 39, 57, 68, 73, 81, 128, 141, 151, 157, 161, 190, 203, 205, 213,
257.
=Garden Nightshade= (_Solanum nigrum_ L.). This species is described as
“one of the widest spread weeds over every part of the globe, except the
extreme north and south; varying so much in warmer regions as to have
been described under more than forty names” (Bentham and Hooker). In the
same way there can be no doubt that, though it must always be regarded
as poisonous, this plant varies considerably in toxicity according to
soil, climate, and general condition of growth. For this reason the
plant may sometimes be eaten in considerable quantities without ill
effects, while in other cases it will undoubtedly prove poisonous.
Children have been poisoned by the berries, but may on occasion eat them
with no other ill effect than a stomach ache, or, if eaten in excess,
sickness and purging. The berries “have even been used instead of
raisins for plum puddings with no effects out of the ordinary” (Ewart).
The plant has also been used in Queensland and elsewhere as a substitute
for spinach. In several cases the plant has proved fatal. Gohier gave 3
kilogrammes (6½ lb.) of the green plant to a horse and observed no
serious symptoms. Cases of poisoning are recorded for calves, sheep,
goats and pigs (Chesnut and Wilcox). According to Lehmann, Schraber and
Haller, the berries are poisonous to ducks and chickens. Over thirty
years ago the death of a number of cattle in Victoria was recorded as
being due to poisoning by this weed.
Though cases of poisoning of stock are rare, partly perhaps because the
plant is a weed of arable land and partly because animals are likely to
avoid it unless starved, _Solanum nigrum_ must be regarded as a
poisonous plant, any examples of which may prove toxic. The downy and
more prostrate form has been considered the most poisonous.
The “Wonderberry,” said to be a hybrid between _Solanum guineense_ and
_S. villosum_, which are probably varieties of _S. nigrum_, cannot in
England be distinguished from the last named, the fruits of which appear
to be edible in some countries and poisonous in others. Greshoff found
that fruits of the “Wonderberry” contained more Solanine than the wild
English _S. nigrum_ or the Canadian form known as the “Huckleberry,” and
hence they should not be eaten.
_Toxic Principle._ The Garden Nightshade, in particular the berries,
contains the alkaloidal glucoside _Solanine_, of which the formula is
considered doubtful. Solanine is readily converted into sugar and the
poisonous _Solanidine_. It was isolated from the berries in 1821, and
though decidedly active in sufficient quantity is not a violent poison.
A small quantity of _Solanine_ is present in the stem and berries, but
these are probably less poisonous than green potatoes (p. 54).
_Symptoms._ The symptoms of poisoning are apparently much the same in
man and animals: “Stupefaction; staggering; loss of speech, feeling, and
consciousness; cramps and sometimes convulsions. The pupil is generally
dilated.”
REFERENCES.
4, 10, 11, 16, 17, 52, 53, 57, 73, 81, 82, 128, 141, 161, 203, 235, 240.
=Bittersweet= (_Solanum Dulcamara_ L.). Some doubt exists in regard to
the toxic character of this common denizen of the hedge-row, some
persons regarding the berries as harmless and others as poisonous.
Possibly the plant varies in toxicity. Floyer states that 30 berries
killed a dog. Though stock rarely touch the plant there seems to be no
doubt that it is poisonous, stem, leaves, and berries containing the
toxic alkaloid found in _S. nigrum_ and the potato (_q.v._), and it is
especially possible that poisoning may follow the ingestion of the
berries. Johnson and Sowerby (1861) say that the leaves are narcotic,
causing nausea and giddiness, and that the fruit is equally harmful,
though no fatal cases then seemed to be recorded. Gillam records (_Vet.
Record_, 1906) a case of poisoning of sheep. An anonymous writer in the
_Mark Lane Express_ (July 24, 1911) states emphatically that this plant
is very poisonous, and that he has known 14 per cent. of the sheep on a
farm to be killed by it in a year, while his veterinary surgeon had had
40 cases that season, some proving fatal.
_Toxic Principle._ Like _S. nigrum_, the stems, leaves, and berries of
Bittersweet contain _Solanine_. The berries are stated by Esser to
contain 0·3 to 0·7 per cent. of Solanine. The stems also contain the
glucoside _Dulcamarin_ (C_{22}H_{34}O_{10}), which imparts a bitter
taste to the plant, but which has not been fully studied.
_Symptoms._ In the case recorded by Gillam (see above) the symptoms
observed in sheep were small intermittent pulse, temperature 104° F.,
quickened respiration, staggering gait, dilated pupil, and greenish
diarrhœa. The symptoms appear to be the same in the case of cattle
(_Farmer and Stockbreeder_, July 10, 1911).
REFERENCES.
4, 16, 40, 50, 52, 73, 81, 141, 147, 203, 213, 257.
=The Potato= (_Solanum tuberosum_ L.). Though potato haulm is more or
less commonly utilised on the Continent as a green fodder, and has been
so used in England, yet there are good grounds for the general belief
that it is not a suitable food for stock. The tubers may in general be
eaten with impunity, but, under certain conditions, cannot be regarded
as blameless, since they have caused serious injury. There are certainly
records of injury to man from eating Potatoes, and accidents with
animals have occurred more commonly. “Greened” tubers, and tubers with
young shoots appear to be the chief cause of accidents, and, as regards
live stock, usually when fed raw.
Cornevin knew of no case of poisoning in man, and considered that this
was probably because man (1) eats only the part poorest in the toxic
principle (see below), (2) does not eat the skin, (3) always cooks the
tubers, and (4) rarely subsists only on potatoes for a considerable
time. He found accidents among _animals_, however, not rare. In fact,
eliminating cases possibly due to changes caused by weather, cryptogams,
and ferments, he found poisonings every year unquestionably due to
Solanine, chiefly among cattle. Cows will eat the haulm without trouble
in times of scarcity of green fodder, but to the detriment of their
health if such feeding is prolonged.
Macfadyen showed some time since that old sprouted Potatoes, even after
boiling, are poisonous to horses. In 1896 eleven horses died from eating
in most instances small quantities of spoiled and somewhat sprouted
Potatoes, and two test-horses fed on the Potatoes died. In this case,
however, it was conjectured that the poison was probably some organic
substance generated by the bacteria or fungi growing on the Potatoes.
Chesnut and Wilcox (1901) recorded the death of six pigs due to eating
sprouted uncooked Potatoes; after cooking the potatoes did not cause
poisoning. With sufficient boiling most of the poison appears to remain
behind in the water and might be thrown away.
Cases of poisoning of stock by Potatoes appear to have occurred more or
less frequently in Germany. Two such cases were noted in the _Berliner
Tierärztliche Wochenschrift_ in 1909, in one of which 64 cows developed
symptoms of poisoning after being fed on a large quantity of raw tubers,
while in the other instance two cows became ill after eating Potato
parings—which, as shown below, contain more Solanine than the “flesh.”
In the case of two children who died, F. W. Stoddart, Public Analyst of
Bristol, after a post-mortem in one case, gave a very guarded opinion
that death was probably due to Solanine poisoning, due to eating raw
Potato peel, but was not confident. A most interesting case of severe
but not fatal poisoning is described in _The Lancet_ (1899). No less
than 56 soldiers in Berlin were badly affected, until the supply of
Potatoes was stopped, but the men recovered.
Pammel (1911) states that some persons cannot eat Potatoes because
poisonous to them, but such persons must be extremely rare, and
hypersensitive to minimum quantities of Solanine, which is almost if not
quite absent in the “flesh” of Potatoes.
_Toxic Principle._ The Potato plant, like the other species of _Solanum_
mentioned above, contains _Solanine_, which occurs not only in the
haulm, but in the flowers and fruits, and in the peel of the tubers.
_Solanidine_ also occurs ready-formed in the young sprouts of potatoes
to the extent of 1·5 per cent. (Allen). In the case of the soldiers
poisoned in Berlin analysis demonstrated the presence of Solanine to the
extent of 0·038 per cent. in boiled tubers and 0·024 per cent. in raw
tubers, and on an average every man who fell ill had 0·3 gramme of the
alkaloid, a sufficient quantity to produce toxic results. Esser (1910)
states that in midsummer the haulm contains 0·0925 per cent. of Solanine
but late in summer only 0·0374 per cent. In the tubers the alkaloid
occurs in the inner layers of the peel to the extent of 0·0124 per
cent., red or pink varieties containing rather more than yellow sorts.
The same authority says that damp soils tend to a higher percentage of
Solanine than dry soils[3], and that nitrogenous manuring as compared
with potash tends to an increase of Solanine. In fresh spring shoots 1·5
per cent. of the alkaloid has been found, and the percentage is
especially high in tubers which have been “greened” by long exposure to
light. As already stated it is the greened tubers which appear to be the
chief cause of accidents. Tubers with young shoots are richer in
poisonous alkaloids than those which have not yet been sprouted; such
tubers when fed raw to stock may on occasion induce poisoning, unless
fed only in small quantities.
Footnote 3:
On the other hand, potatoes grown in a dry sandy soil are stated to
contain more Solanine than those grown in other soils.
Writing in 1887 Cornevin remarked that Solanine, though neither very
active nor very abundant in Potatoes, nevertheless causes accidents, as
it is cumulative, or, to be more exact, is eliminated slowly.
_Symptoms._ In poisoning by potato _haulm_, Cornevin records
constipation, loss of appetite, rise in temperature, accelerated
circulation, normal respiration, salivation, tumefaction of eyelids,
eyes watery, conjunctivæ injected, and hair erect. The skin is covered
with scabs which exude matter, the skin being cracked. These scabs are
found especially on the scrotum of male cattle and the udder of female
cattle, but also in the caudal region and round the anus. An examination
of the mouth shows places on the upper jaw which are devoid of mucus and
are purulent at the centre, the mucus round the edges being swollen. The
posterior members are similarly but not so badly affected. Movement of
these members seems to cause the animal much pain. Defecation is
frequent, the fæces being liquid and dark in colour. The animals are
recumbent for a considerable time with the posterior members stretched
out. In the worst cases there is pronounced emaciation.
According to Friedberger and Fröhner (_vide_ Pammel) animals affected by
potato tops show symptoms resembling those of foot-and-mouth disease.
According to Pott the _berries_ cause colic and foul smelling diarrhœa
in _cattle_. A German veterinary surgeon after feeding the green plant
observed symptoms of delirium, paralysis, and flatulence. In other cases
trembling and uncertain gait, with paralysis of the spinal cord, have
been observed in _cows_.
In poisoning by _tubers_ there is depression, loss of appetite,
cessation of lactation, gritting of teeth, profound prostration, with a
remarkable somnolence, but no dilatation of the pupils. The animals
remain recumbent, with closed eyes, and refuse to get up. Respiration is
somewhat retarded, and the pulse is small and accelerated. There are
digestive disturbances, tympanitis, diarrhœa succeeds constipation, and
there is vomiting (where possible). The poisoning is usually fatal.
Where a large quantity of sprouted Potatoes has been fed the prostration
becomes paraplegia, with loss of sensibility, stupefaction, and death.
Where there is prolonged ingestion of a large quantity of unsprouted
tubers there is prostration, intestinal irritation, rapid emaciation and
death in marasmus after an illness of from one to three weeks
(Cornevin).
Pott states that potatoes diseased with wet rot, when fed raw, cause
digestive troubles, bloating, diarrhœa, abortion, and decrease in milk
yield, with fatal results in some cases. Potatoes diseased with dry rot
cause constipation in sucking pigs, and a “fishy” butter from cow’s
milk.
Lander notices two cases of poisoning of _horses_ by tubers. In the
first case the symptoms were a small and weak pulse, normal temperature
and loss of coordination in movements; complete loss of appetite,
excessive thirst, but inability to drink; mydriasis, stertorous
breathing, suspension of peristalsis, and slight tremors over the crural
muscles. In the second case there was a rapid and feeble pulse,
temperature 103° F., intense congestion of the mucous membranes, and
very fœtid diarrhœa, terminating fatally.
In poisoning of _horses_ after receiving large quantities of raw
Potatoes, Pott records boil-like swellings on the skin, loss of hair,
diarrhœa, inflammation of the stomach and intestines, skin irritation,
and swollen fetlocks and hocks.
In reference to the horses mentioned above (p. 55) it is stated that an
affected animal seems dull, and dies within twelve hours after being
first observed, without evincing any sign of pain. The first symptoms in
ten cases were weakness and loss of power over the limbs.
In _cows_ the symptoms (Müller) are loss of appetite, bloating,
diarrhœa, staggering, dilatation of pupils, convulsions, loss of
sensation and paralysis. In many cases, however, these symptoms do not
appear, but instead there are outbreaks on the skin of the hind legs
similar to those in foot-and-mouth disease. Pott mentions abortion as a
symptom. After the ingestion of green Potato parings by dairy cows he
remarks catarrh of the stomach and intestines, and bad milk and cheese;
consumption of diseased Potato parings resulted in the flow of hard
mucus from the mouth, the legs being badly swollen, and covered with
scabs, and the mouth and body covered with boils. Symptoms of paralysis
were noticed after feeding dirty Potato parings to four cows and four
bulls, and one cow died.
In the case of the cows already referred to (p. 55) as poisoned in
Germany, it was remarked as a noticeable feature in both instances that
there was the appearance of eczema on the hind limbs, causing lameness.
A case in which _pigs_ were fed on uncooked, sprouted Potatoes is
noticed by Chesnut and Wilcox; there was slowly progressing paralysis,
which became complete after about 24 hours, increased salivation, and a
regurgitation of the stomach contents. According to Pott death may
result in pigs. The symptoms given by Lander for poisoning in pigs are
loss of appetite, dullness, exhaustion, imperceptible pulse, watery
diarrhœa, low temperature and comatose condition.
In the case of the poisoned soldiers the symptoms were those of acute
gastro-enteritis; rise in temperature to 103° F.; headache, colic,
diarrhœa, general debility; in some cases vomiting, in others nausea
only; several men fainted, and one had convulsions; the majority were
drowsy and apathetic; but all recovered.
REFERENCES.
4, 16, 19, 57, 73, 81, 128, 130, 141, 170, 190, 196, 203, 204, 205, 213.
=Deadly Nightshade= (_Atropa Belladonna_ L.). This plant has long been
known to be exceedingly poisonous, all parts containing a toxic
principle. Both man and domestic animals may be poisoned, though the
latter are very unlikely to touch the plant. As regards man, children
are most likely to be affected, owing to the attractive character of the
large bright black berries. Domestic animals appear to be rarely
poisoned and are less affected than man, and in any case the
susceptibility of various species—and even individuals of the same
species—is very variable. Human beings are most susceptible, followed by
the cat and dog; the horse is much less so; and the pig, goat, sheep,
and rabbit are little susceptible to poisoning, even on eating the
root—the most poisonous part (Cornevin). Gohier and others have given
over 2 lb. of the green plant to horses without ill effects, and this
repeated on three days did not cause marked pathological troubles.
Hertwig considered large ruminants to be more sensible than horses to
the action of Belladonna. It appears to be agreed that small ruminants
are very slightly susceptible to this plant. Birds are considered almost
insensitive, while rabbits may be fed for weeks on the leaves without
poisoning, as also sheep, goats, and pigs. Horses and cattle are more
sensitive but nevertheless resistant. The poison is no doubt quickly
removed by the kidneys, since ordinary injection of Belladonna causes
the usual symptoms. It is stated that the flesh of rabbits and birds
which have eaten the plant and have been slaughtered apparently healthy
is poisonous to man.
One berry can induce symptoms of human poisoning, and a child died after
eating only three berries. Mortality in human cases of poisoning by
Belladonna is given by Kanngiesser as 10 per cent.
_Toxic Principle._ Deadly Nightshade is the source of drugs widely used
in medicine, and its properties as regards man have been extensively
studied. The principal substance present is the alkaloid _Hyoscyamine_
(C_{17}H_{23}O_{3}N), readily converted into _Atropine_
(C_{17}H_{23}O_{3}N); _Scopolamine_ or _Hyoscine_ (C_{17}H_{21}O_{4}N),
and in smaller quantity _Apoatropine_, and _Belladonine_ are also
present.
All parts of the plant contain the toxic alkaloids, but in unequal
degree. The total quantity of the alkaloids is largest in the roots (0·4
to 1 per cent.), which in the fresh state contain no Atropine, but only
Hyoscyamine; the leaves and fruits contain less of the alkaloids, and
cultivated plants have been found to be poorer (0·26 per cent.) than
wild (0·4 per cent). The root has been found to be five times as toxic
as the berries. Drying does not destroy the poisonous properties.
_Symptoms._ In quantities which are not fatal the symptoms are nausea,
dilatation of pupils, muscular weakness, stumbling, falling, and rising
only to fall again. These are followed by vertigo, frenzy, and coma
(more rarely). There is a slight slackening in respiration, and an
increase in the rapidity of the heart’s action. Dysury and constipation
are observed.
In fatal quantities the symptoms are more intense and make their
appearance more rapidly. The nausea is accompanied by vomiting, and
there is almost complete loss of sight. Sensitiveness is at first
increased but later diminishes and gradually disappears; complete
incoordination of movements; increase in the heart’s action but a
gradually weakening pulse; stertorous, painful respiration; decrease in
temperature. There is repeated urination at the commencement of the
poisoning, and then dysury. At the approach of death there are muscular
trembling and clonic contractions. This phase of convulsions is short
but very clear in some cases: other cases do not leave the deep coma in
which they are plunged (Cornevin).
In regard to _cattle_, the following symptoms are given by Müller:
Injury to sight, dilatation of pupils, constipation, later bloody
evacuations, pain in hind limbs, rapid pulse, difficult breathing,
restlessness, frenzy and finally paralysis.
REFERENCES.
4, 16, 61, 73, 81, 128, 138, 143, 151, 157, 161, 190, 205.