RANUNCULACEÆ.
=Traveller’s Joy= (_Clematis Vitalba_ L.). The extent to which this
species is poisonous is not clear, though all parts are stated to be
poisonous, acrid and narcotic, while the juice tends to blister the
skin. It is remarked by Cornevin that it is less poisonous in spring,
when the ass and goat browse on it to a considerable extent without
serious trouble, than later, when it cannot be eaten without danger.
_Toxic Principle._ Traveller’s Joy appears to contain strongly poisonous
substances which have not been closely investigated. Greshoff found a
_Saponin_ in the leaves[2]. The poison is dissipated by heat.
Footnote 2:
Kobert states that various species of _Clematis_, _Ranunculus_,
_Anemone_, and also _Caltha palustris_ and _Trollius europæus_,
contain _Anemonal_ or _Pulsatilla-camphor_, which causes strong local
irritation, burning and swelling in the mouth, vomiting, intestinal
inflammation, etc.
_Symptoms._ When eaten in quantity the young shoots are diuretic,
violently purgative, causing dysentery, and in rare cases death. Applied
to the exterior it is irritating and even vesicatory. (Cornevin.)
REFERENCES.
63, 81, 101, 130, 161, 233.
=Anemone= (_Anemone_ sp.). Both our native species of Anemone appear to
be more or less poisonous in character: the Wood Anemone or Wind Flower
(_A. nemorosa_ L.), and also the Pasque Flower (_A. Pulsatilla_ L.).
These plants, the former of which grows in woods and damp shady spots in
fields, and the latter on chalk downs and limestone pastures, may on
occasion be taken by stock in early spring, when green herbage is not
too plentiful, but deaths appear to be rare, even if they have occurred.
All parts of the plants contain a toxic principle, which is volatile and
destroyed by drying.
_Toxic Principle._ The toxic substance is stated to be _Anemone-camphor_
(oil of Anemone) which imparts a bitter taste to the plants, and itself
gives rise in the plant to _Anemonic acid_ and _Anemonin_
(C_{10}H_{8}O_{4}), a very poisonous, narcotic substance, stated to be
neither a glucoside, nor an alkaloid, but a ring ketone with the
properties of an acid anhydride.
_Symptoms._—The symptoms recorded by Cornevin in the poisoning of
animals by the fresh plants are nausea, coughing, vomiting (if
possible), stupefaction, muscular tremors, and violent colic,
accompanied at times by hæmaturia and always by diarrhœa and dysentery.
There are pronounced respiratory and heart troubles.
Pott confirms the symptoms of hæmaturia, diarrhœa, and inflammation of
the stomach and intestines in the case of _A. Pulsatilla_ when fed in
the green condition. According to Esser, the plant poison affects the
spinal cord and the brain, the symptoms being similar to those produced
by _Aconitum Napellus_.
REFERENCES.
16, 63, 81, 191, 197, 198, 213, 233, 240.
=Buttercups= (_Ranunculus_ sp.). A number of species of _Ranunculus_ are
acrid, irritant or severely poisonous, as the case may be. There are
variations in the poisonous character according to the season, and some
parts of the plant are more toxic than others. At the time the young
shoots develop in the spring but little of the poisonous principle is
present, and some (_e.g._ _R. Ficaria_) are not then poisonous, but a
larger quantity of the poisonous principle forms later, and some species
are especially dangerous at the time of flowering, after which the
toxicity decreases with the maturity and state of dryness of the plant.
The flowers are the most poisonous, and then the leaves and stem. It
does not seem to have been demonstrated that the seeds of any species
are dangerous, though Henslow states that the fruits of some species,
when green, appear to be most intensely acrid.
Some species of _Ranunculus_ are especially harmful (_R. sceleratus_,
_R. Flammula_, and _R. bulbosus_), while others are less so (_R.
lingua_, _R. Ficaria_, _R. acris_). The toxic principle is volatile, and
buttercups are easily rendered innocuous by drying or boiling—so much so
that when dried in hay they may be regarded as a nourishing food for
stock, and are readily eaten. Indeed, _R. repens_ is scarcely, if at
all, injurious even when green, though a case of fatal poisoning to
sheep said to be due to this species was reported in the _Veterinarian_
in 1844. Fresh _R. aquatilis_ is held to be quite harmless, and has been
used as a fodder. “Along the banks of the Hampshire Avon, and other
places in the same neighbourhood, it is used by the peasantry as fodder.
They collect it in boats and give it to their cows and horses, allowing
the former about twenty to thirty pounds a day. One man is said to have
kept five cows and a horse, with little other food but what they could
pick up on the heath, using no hay but when the river was frozen. Hogs
eat it and will live upon it alone until put up to fatten.” (Johnson and
Sowerby—_Useful Plants of Great Britain_.)
_R. sceleratus_ L., or Celery-leaved Buttercup, is probably the most
toxic species, and it is stated that in man a single flower may cause
poisonous symptoms resembling those due to _Anemone_ and _Colchicum_. It
is considered especially dangerous to cattle, and has caused many
losses: among its French names are _Mort aux Vaches_, and _Herbe
sardonique_. Poor people have been known to eat the young shoots when
boiled, heat dispelling the poison.
_R. Flammula_ L., the Lesser Spearwort, has repeatedly proved fatal to
horses and cattle.
_R. bulbosus_ L., the Bulbous Buttercup, is somewhat variable in
toxicity, and is least dangerous after the flowers have dropped their
corolla, and the bulb-like rootstock is most harmful in autumn and
winter. The flowers are the most dangerous part.
_R. Ficaria_ L., Lesser Celandine, varies in toxicity with locality and
season, being most harmful at the flowering period. It is stated that
wood-pigeons eat the roots with avidity, and that the young shoots have
been eaten as a salad in Germany, as they are not toxic. An English
veterinary surgeon (Flower) recorded that three heifers were poisoned by
it (_Vide_ Cornevin).
_R. acris_ L., Acrid Buttercup or Tall Crowfoot, is a frequent cause of
poisoning in cattle, and Cornevin says it is perhaps the species which
causes the most accidents.
_Toxic Principle._ The buttercups contain an acrid and bitter juice, the
chemical properties and composition of which are not well known, but it
is believed that the substance is identical with the _Anemonin_ of the
_Anemone_ sp. (_q.v._). Beckurts isolated _Anemonin_ and _Anemonic acid_
from _R. acer_. Pott, however, states that the poisonous species contain
the two alkaloids _Aconitine_ and _Delphinine_.
_Symptoms._ The buttercups are acrid, burning and narcotic, causing
irritation of the mucous membrane, with inflammation of the intestinal
tract.
Cornevin shows that _R. sceleratus_ induces gastro-enteritis, colic,
diarrhœa with excretion of black foul-smelling fæces, vomiting when
possible, falling-off in milk yield in cows, nervous symptoms, reduction
in pulse, and stertorous respiration, dilation of the pupils, enfeebled
condition, difficult mastication, spasmodic movements of the ears, lips,
etc.,—followed in serious cases by convulsions, sinking of the eye in
its socket, possibly stoppage, and death in 6 to 12 hours after
convulsions first appeared.
In the _horse_ symptoms substantially similar to the above have been
recorded (Lander).
In _cows_, Pott records hæmaturia, and reddish or bitter milk.
_Sheep_ after eating _R. repens_ have been noticed to fall suddenly in
the field; their eyes rolled, and some animals showed dizziness, and
died with the head inclined over the left flank (Lander).
REFERENCES.
47, 63, 81, 112, 130, 140, 145, 170, 203, 204, 205, 213, 233, 235.
=Marsh Marigold= or =King-Cup= (_Caltha palustris_ L.). Like the species
of _Ranunculus_, the Marsh Marigold is to some extent poisonous in
character, and both animals and man have suffered. Cattle have died from
eating it, and Müller records the poisoning of many horses, one of which
died. In general, animals refuse it, but may possibly eat it when
pressed with hunger in times of scarcity of green herbage. Cornevin
states that it has little or no acrid properties when very young, but
that it is toxic by the time of flowering—acridity increasing with age.
_Toxic Principle._ The toxic character of the Marsh Marigold has not
been fully investigated, though the presence of an alkaloid has been
determined, and A. B. Smith states that the toxic properties are due to
the alkaloid _Jervine_ (C_{26}H_{37}O_{3}N2H_{2}O) and the glucoside
_Helleborin_ (C_{36}H_{42}O_{6}). On drying—_e.g._ in hay—the plant
becomes harmless, as in the case of most species of _Ranunculus_.
_Symptoms._ Cornevin records that _cattle_ have died from inflammation
of the digestive tract, and gives the symptoms as those of _Ranunculus_
poisoning. There seem to be digestive troubles, diarrhœa, and loss of
milk production, even (according to Rusby) when fed with hay. In the
_horse_, there is colic, bloating, and inflammation of the bladder,
while the urine is dark red. According to Cornevin, the symptoms are
similar to those produced by _Ranunculus_ sp. Pammel quotes Friedberger
and Fröhner as stating that the plant causes hæmaturia. Five persons who
ate it as a herb were “seized with violent sickness and pain in the
abdomen, followed by diarrhœa and general œdematous swelling over the
whole body,” but they recovered (Johnson and Sowerby).
REFERENCES.
63, 81, 140, 190, 203, 213, 233.
=Hellebores= (_Helleborus_ sp.). Two poisonous species of hellebore may
on occasion be taken by live stock, though rarely—Stinking Hellebore
(_H. fœtidus_ L.) and Green Hellebore (_H. viridis_ L.). The much
esteemed Christmas Rose (_H. niger_) is also toxic, but unlikely to be
eaten by stock. In no case should trimmings of these plants from
shrubberies, etc., be thrown to stock—cows have died from eating such
trimmings. The two species first mentioned are equally toxic, all parts
are poisonous, and drying does not render them innocuous. Cornevin
records that animals have been killed by _H. fœtidus_, and says that 9½
oz. of the fresh root or 2½ oz. of the dried root are poisonous doses to
the horse, while 120 to 150 grains are fatal to sheep. It was recorded
in 1847 (_Veterinarian_) by Mayer that a horse was fatally poisoned
through eating five half-pints of the chopped-up leaves of this species
in two days in a bran mash. In regard to this species also Johnson and
Sowerby write: “The Bear’s-Foot has been used as a vermifuge ever since
the days of Hippocrates, notwithstanding its dangerous qualities. Every
part of the plant is a violent cathartic, but far too uncertain in the
degree of its action to be safely administered.”
_Toxic Principle._ Both species contain the poisonous glucosides
_Helleborin_ (C_{36}H_{42}O_{6}), a highly narcotic and powerful poison;
_Helleborein_ (C_{26}H_{44}O_{15}); and the alkaloid _Jervine_
(C_{26}H_{37}O_{3}N2H_{2}O).
_Symptoms._ The Hellebores are cathartic, narcotic, and drastically
purgative. Stupor is followed by death with spasms in the case of _H.
viridis_ (Pammel). In general there is in the horse and ox bloody
purgation, salivation, attempts to vomit, and excessive urination,
according to Lander, who cites Mayer as noting violent straining and the
discharge of frothy mucus, but no effort to vomit, the heart action
resembling that observed in Digitalis poisoning, showing periodic
intervals of arrest in systole.
Müller gives the symptoms in cattle and sheep after eating the leaves as
loss of appetite, nausea, and even vomiting, salivation, grinding of
teeth, wind, colic, bloody diarrhœa, decrepitude, giddiness, loss of
sensation, convulsions, and not seldom death.
Affected cows are stated to give bitter milk which has purgative effects
(Pott).
The poisoning of two cows by _H. viridis_ came under the notice of
Cornevin. There was observed loss of appetite, diarrhœa, tenesmus,
violent attempts to evacuate, which after 5 or 6 days resulted only in
the expulsion of glareous blackish matter; to the end the pulse was slow
and intermittent. The heart beats were weak, and after 5 or 6 beats
there was a stop equal in duration to at least a beat and a half. A
remarkable fact was the very gradual loss of condition, while the milk
secretion was maintained until the last day. In one case death occurred
after 12 days and in the other after 28 days.
REFERENCES.
63, 81, 130, 140, 170, 190, 203, 205, 213, 233, 254.
=Larkspur= (_Delphinium Ajacis_ Reich.). In the United States of America
certain species of Larkspur are exceedingly harmful to live stock, and
it has been said that “with the exception of the Loco weeds there is
probably no poisonous plant on the cattle ranges of the West that has
caused such heavy losses to stockmen as has larkspur” (_Far. Bul. 53, U.
S. Dept. Agric._). _D. Ajacis_ is the only British species, occurring in
cornfields in Cambridgeshire, Sussex and elsewhere, and, like the
Continental species _D. Consolida_, must be regarded as poisonous and
fatal to cattle, while horses and sheep may also suffer. Sheep and
goats, however, appear to resist the poison unless taken in considerable
quantity. Wilcox fatally poisoned a yearling lamb within an hour of
administering per os the extract from less than 1 oz. of the dried
leaves of an American species. The seeds are the most dangerous part of
the Larkspur, and should never be ground up with wheat should the two
plants grow together. The seeds of _D. Staphisagria_ are used in
medicine.
_Toxic Principle._ The species _D. Ajacis_ has been little studied, but
_D. Consolida_ and _D. Staphisagria_ contain the alkaloids _Delphinine_
(C_{31}H_{49}O_{7}N), very poisonous and having a bitter taste;
_Delphisine_ (C_{31}H_{49}O_{7}N), which is extremely poisonous;
_Delphinoidine_ (C_{42}H_{68}N_{2}O_{7}), which is poisonous; and
_Staphisagrine_.
_Symptoms._ The seeds are stated to be emetic and purgative, and _D.
Consolida_ is stated by Pott to be an acute narcotic poison to horses
and cattle. In general the symptoms appear to resemble those produced by
_Aconitum_ (p. 15). There is salivation, vomiting, colic, convulsions,
and general paralysis (Müller).
REFERENCES.
16, 63, 93, 128, 130, 190, 203, 204, 205, 213, 233.
=Monkshood= (_Aconitum Napellus_ L.). The extremely poisonous character
of this plant has been recognised since ancient times, and it is
mentioned by Pliny, Dioscorides, etc. It is not common in the wild state
in Britain—chiefly occurring in some Welsh and one or two West of
England counties—and is not very liable to cause poisoning of live stock
in Britain. Cases of poisoning of horses, cattle, sheep and pigs have
been recorded on the Continent, however (Cornevin), and cows died in
Victoria. Linnæus says that it is fatal to cows and goats when they eat
it fresh, but that when dried it does no harm to horses. Medical works
record many cases of human poisoning, particularly in cases where the
root has been mistaken for horse radish—from which, however, it markedly
differs. The leaves at first taste insipid and then sharply burning; the
root when fresh smells like the radish and has a slightly sweetish
taste, which is succeeded by characteristic tingling of the tongue and a
sensation of numbness in the mouth.
_Toxic Principle._ Monkshood is very poisonous, and though all parts are
toxic the root is the most dangerous, and next the seeds and leaves. The
plant seems to vary in toxicity with age and climate, being but slightly
active when very young, most active just before flowering, and at the
minimum of activity when the seeds ripen. The cultivated form is stated
to be much less poisonous than the wild one. Drying removes a part of
the toxic substance, and boiling removes most of it. The plant contains
the toxic alkaloid _Aconitine_ (C_{34}H_{45}NO_{11}), and also Aconine
(C_{25}H_{39}NO_{9}). The root contains 0·17 to 0·28 per cent. of
_Aconitine_, but the leaves and flowers less.
_Symptoms._ The chief symptoms are those of depression, and are
manifested through the nervous system and the circulatory and
respiratory organs. Tetanic symptoms are also present. There is loss of
appetite, salivation, inflammation of the mucous membrane of the mouth
and jaws, grinding of teeth, nausea and vomiting, great restlessness and
colic; the animal groans and walks with an uncertain gait owing to
bodily weakness, giddiness and paralysis of hind feet or of all limbs;
there is also a notable slackening in the pulse, breathing becomes
difficult, consciousness is lost and the pupils are dilated. Death
ensues in most cases within a few hours, and after convulsions.
Kaufmann (quoted by Cornevin) observed in the _horse_ champing of the
jaws, salivation, fibrillous contraction of the muscles of the
olecranon, then of the buttocks, then of the whole body. The intestinal
pains were shown by the blows of the animal’s hind feet under and at the
back of the belly. There was also observed an intense and painful
contraction of the muscles in the inferior cervical region, the hyoid
and the abdomen; an increased sensibility; repeated evacuations; at
first congestion, then great paleness of the mucous membranes;
diminution in the volume of the arteries; faint whinnyings at the moment
of the contraction of the muscles of the neck, shoulders and stomach;
muscular rigidity of the posterior limbs; uncertain gait; laboured
breathing; and finally paralysis of motion, respiration and senses.
Lander in giving similar symptoms for the horse notices also choking
movements of the œsophagus, eructation of frothy matter, dilatation of
pupils and low temperature.
Kaufmann gives the poisonous doses of powdered root for the horse and
dog as 13 to 14 oz. and ⅙ oz. respectively.
REFERENCES.
4, 16, 63, 78, 81, 128, 130, 153, 161, 170, 203, 205, 213, 233.
PAPAVERACEÆ.
=Poppies= (_Papaver_ sp.). Poisoning by the two common poppies (_P.
Rhoeas_ L. and _P. dubium_ L.) is not common, but Cornevin says that the
former is poisonous in all its parts, and sufficiently so to cause
accidents every year. Animals may be affected by eating the plant when
mixed with green fodder, or by ingesting the seeds and capsules with
waste material after the winnowing and grading of cereals. Stock,
however, will most likely reject the plants, owing to their unpleasant
odour and taste, but cattle have been poisoned by eating unripe heads of
_P. Rhoeas_ when the plant was mixed with clover and sainfoin. _P.
dubium_ has caused poisoning of horses, cattle and pigs.
_Toxic Principle._ Both species contain the alkaloids _Morphine_
(C_{17}H_{19}NO_{3}) and _Rheadine_ (C_{21}H_{21}NO_{6}), which are
present in the milky juice of the plant. The latter, which was isolated
by Hesse, is believed to have no narcotic effects. The toxic principle
is not destroyed by heating, and the plant is therefore poisonous both
in the green state and when dried in hay.
_Symptoms._ It is remarked by Cornevin that cattle poisoned by _P.
Rhoeas_ at first exhibit symptoms of excitement, shown by continual
movement, by pawing of the soil or litter, increased respiration and
more rapid pulse; this is followed by stoppage of the digestive
functions, sometimes a little swelling of the eyelids, and coma, one
affected animal appearing to sleep while standing, remaining motionless,
and if forced to move walking in an unsteady manner. Finally, the animal
falls, and if a fatal result is likely (which is unusual) it remains
stretched on the ground; respiration becomes slower, the temperature
falls, and after a few convulsive movements death occurs owing to
asphyxia.
Müller notes excitement, wildness of look, dilatation of pupil,
convulsions; then coma, loss of sensation and symptoms of depression
replace those of excitement. There is salivation, bloating,
constipation, and in many cases also bloody diarrhoea. Death, however,
is rare.
Pott gives stupidity, retention of urine, colic, with sickness and
diarrhœa, convulsions, and epileptic symptoms, the animals falling over
and rolling.
REFERENCES.
4, 16, 63, 128, 190, 205, 213, 262.
=Greater Celandine= (_Chelidonium majus_ L.). This common plant exhales
an unpleasant odour, and when bruised or broken shows the presence of a
yellowish acrid juice, which becomes red immediately on exposure to the
air. It is an old medicinal drug plant, but is dangerous, being emetic
and purgative, with a strongly irritating effect on the digestive tract.
Animals are but rarely likely to take it, and no record of the death of
domesticated animals has been found.
_Toxic Principle._ Among the substances contained in the Greater
Celandine may be mentioned the bitter alkaloid _Chelidonine_
(C_{20}H_{19}NO_{5} + H_{2}O), which, especially occurring in the root,
does not appear to be poisonous, or is of feeble activity; the alkaloid
_Chelerythrine_ (C_{21}H_{17}NO_{4}), which is poisonous; and
_Protopine_ (C_{20}H_{19}NO_{5}). It is stated by Cornevin that the
toxic substance is not removed on drying, but Pott (1907) remarks that
the dried plant is harmless to animals, the poisonous alkaloid being
volatile and disappearing on drying.
_Symptoms._ The action of this plant is acrid, irritant and narcotic,
emetic and purgative. Esser remarks that when Chelerythrine is
introduced on the nasal mucous membrane it causes violent sneezing, and
taken internally causes vomiting. Müller says that poisoning of
domesticated animals is not recorded, but that according to old accounts
500 grammes (about 1 lb.) of the fresh plant eaten by the horse will at
most cause slight diabetes.
REFERENCES.
16, 63, 81, 128, 141, 190, 203, 205, 213.
CRUCIFERÆ.
=Charlock= (_Brassica Sinapistrum_ Boiss.), also known as _B. Sinapis_
Visiani and _Sinapis arvensis_ L., may be regarded as harmless in the
young state, but liable to cause injury after flowering, when the seeds
have formed, when it may occasion serious accidents if eaten by live
stock. A case in which rape cake containing the seeds of charlock caused
poisoning was recorded in 1875 (_Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc._). The seeds
only are dangerous.
_Toxic Principle._ The seeds contain minute quantities of volatile _Oil
of Mustard_ or _Allyl-isothiocyanate_ (C_{3}H_{5}NCS), the alkaloid
_Sinapine_ (C_{16}H_{23}NO_{5}), and the alkaloidal glucoside
_Sinalbin_.
_Symptoms._ Ingestion of the seeds may cause inflammation of the stomach
and intestines (with loss of appetite, wind, colic, and diarrhœa);
inflammation of kidneys (difficult, excessive or bloody urination); and
nervous symptoms, with great exhaustion, uncertain gait, paralysis of
limbs and in isolated cases convulsions (Müller).
Pott also records increased salivation.
In the _horse_ Cornevin records great depression, difficult and
accelerated respiration, yellowish mucus and convulsive cough. A
characteristic symptom is the emission of frothy liquid through the
nostrils (as much as 10 litres in one hour). Death often occurs from
asphyxia in a fit of coughing.
In _cattle_, cake containing the seeds caused inflammation of the
intestines, exhausting diarrhœa, and unquenchable thirst.
The cultivated Mustards may induce similar effects, and Lander records
the following symptoms as caused by _Brassica nigra_:—In the _horse_,
bronchial symptoms, marked by difficulty in breathing and the discharge
of great quantities of yellowish frothy matter from the nose; in
_cattle_, uneasiness, restlessness and intense colic, with frantic
rushing about and mania, ending in exhaustion, falling, struggles and
collapse; in a recent case there were dullness, coldness, some tympany,
laboured respiration, staggering and falling, and in fatal cases,
immobility and a semi-comatose condition.
REFERENCES.
4, 16, 63, 76, 127, 170, 190, 205, 213, 219.
=Wild Radish= (_Raphanus Raphanistrum_ L.). As in the case of charlock,
the seeds of wild radish are very acrid, and susceptible of introducing
intestinal troubles if eaten by animals when mixed with cereals.
=Garlic Mustard= (_Alliaria officinalis_ Andrz.) and =Treacle Mustard=
(_Erysimum cheiranthoides_ L.). The seeds are stated to have properties
similar to _Brassica Sinapistrum_ (p. 18) owing to a pungent oil; and
when eaten in quantity to induce poisoning, inflammation of the
digestive tract and of the kidneys, as well as nervous symptoms
(Müller).
CARYOPHYLLACEÆ.
=Soapwort= (_Saponaria officinalis_ L.). This plant is more or less
poisonous, but is rarely, if ever, eaten by stock, and no recorded case
of the poisoning of stock has been met with.
_Toxic Principle._ The whole plant, especially the root, contains the
poisonous glucosidal _Saponin_ (C_{18}H_{28}O_{10})_{4}, a peculiar
substance which causes intense frothing when stirred in water.
_Symptoms._ No symptoms of animal poisoning by the plant are recorded,
but the action of Saponin in the blood stream is to induce dissolution
of the red cells, with stupefaction and paralysis, as in the killing of
fish by poisoning. It also causes vomiting and purging. Taken by the
mouth it causes inflammation of the alimentary tract, the contents of
which are fœtid and mixed with blood.
REFERENCES.
16, 63, 76, 81, 203, 235.
=Corn Cockle= (_Agrostemma Githago_ L.). This well-known plant of
cornfields must be regarded as poisonous, though experiments and reports
as to its effects on the different classes of live stock vary widely.
Though a poisonous principle is found in nearly all parts of the plant,
the plant in the green state appears to be innocuous, and is in any case
rarely likely to be eaten fresh by stock, which probably refuse it on
account of its hairy character. The seeds, however, are by no means
harmless. They are rather large, and somewhat troublesome to separate
from cereal grains. When ground up with wheat they both discolour the
flour and impart a grey tint and disagreeable odour to bread made from
it. Further, flour containing a considerable quantity of cockle must,
owing to the poisonous character of the latter, be held to be unfit for
consumption. Fatal results have followed the use of bread containing
Corn Cockle. The toxic principle therefore is not destroyed by heating,
even in an oven in baking.
As regards domestic animals, Corn Cockle seeds have frequently been
mixed with feeding stuffs and have caused many deaths. Cornevin’s
experiments in feeding calves, pigs and fowls led to fatal results. He
was able to say that the amounts of cockle flour necessary to cause
death were:—
Calf 0·25 lb.│per 100 lb. live weight.
Pig 0·10 „ │ „
Dog 0·90 „ │ „
Fowl 0·25 „ │ „
Among other cases, Kornauth and Arche found that in their feeding trials
pigs were not killed, but albuminoid metabolism was diminished and fat
production increased. In 1893 pigs died in Germany with symptoms of
acute poisoning, when fed on tailings containing six per cent. of
cockle. In 1903–4 experiments showed that with the cow, sheep, pig and
goat, cockle is not poisonous when fed in amounts usually found in
feeding stuffs. Millspaugh gives a case in which two calves died on
being fed with two lots of 14½ oz. each of wheat flour containing 30 per
cent. and 45 per cent. of cockle seeds. About 1892 Nevinny concluded
that six grammes of cockle seed consumed in 1200 grammes of bread were
beyond doubt poisonous in effect, and that the sale of grain or flour
containing it should be forbidden. Kobert held that the sale of feeding
stuffs containing cockle should be forbidden by law. An extensive study
of this question was made by Pesch, who concluded that “Under certain
conditions Corn Cockle is injurious to domestic animals. The amount of
the poisonous substance in the seed is variable, depending probably upon
the season and the soil. Animals become accustomed to it, so that
amounts of seed which at first cause sickness, later have no injurious
effect. The susceptibility of animals to the poison varies both with the
species and the individual. Young animals are more readily affected than
older ones. It is believed that rodents and sheep are not susceptible,
and, as far as is known, grown cattle are only slightly or not at all
affected by the poison. Calves, swine, horses, and especially dogs, are
more or less susceptible. Concerning birds and fowls there is some
doubt.”
Though animals are reputed to become tolerant of the poison if the
cockle is only taken in small regular doses, yet there appears to be a
chronic form of poisoning due to this cause and termed _Githagism_,
while there is an acute poisoning due to the ingestion of large
quantities of the seeds which may cause death in 24 hours or less.
It is clear that the evidence is quite sufficient to warrant the
statement that the ingestion of more than a very small quantity of
cockle seed is dangerous, and the consumption of even small quantities
should be avoided. Thus care should be taken to remove the seeds from
cereal grains.
_Toxic Principle._ The dangerous substance contained in cockle seeds
is the glucoside variously known as _Githagin_, _Saponin_,
_Agrostemmin_, _Sapotoxin_, _Agrostemma-Sapotoxin_, or _Smilacin_
(C_{17}H_{26}O_{10})_{2}. This principle appears to occur chiefly in
the seeds, which contain up to 6·56 per cent., but it has been found
in small quantities in other parts of the plant. It is very freely
soluble in water, in which it froths like soap when shaken up, and it
has a sharp taste and no odour.
_Symptoms._ A sufficient quantity of the toxic substance may cause
nervous debility and dysentery—according to Chesnut “intense irritation
of the digestive tract, vomiting, headache, nausea, vertigo, diarrhœa,
hot skin, sharp pains in the spine, difficult locomotion, and depressed
breathing. Coma is sometimes present and may be followed by death. In
animals chronic diarrhœa and gradual depression.”
The chronic form, which occurs when small doses are repeated over a long
period (practically the only form found in human beings, but never in
animals, except perhaps in the pig) is characterized by gradual wasting
away, loss of breath, loss of strength, chronic diarrhœa, and nerve
troubles, death taking place in marasmus and decline. The active
principle acts as an irritant on the digestive tract, causing colic,
diarrhœa and enterorrhagia.
Cornevin describes the symptoms in the acute form of the poisoning in
the case of horses, cattle, pigs and dogs.
In the _horse_, if a small quantity only is taken, there is yawning,
heavy colic, stamping and evacuation of rather soft fæces. If larger
quantities are taken, the symptoms, which commence in about an hour, are
salivation, frequent yawning and turning of the head, colic, pale mucus,
hurried and weak pulse, rise in temperature and accelerated respiration.
Some time later there are muscular tremors succeeded by pronounced
rigidity, and the fæces are diarrhœic and fœtid. The animal lies down,
and getting up is painful; it falls into a kind of coma, stretches
itself to the utmost, and death takes place without convulsions.
In _cattle_, the symptoms observed one hour after eating are
restlessness, salivation, and grinding of the teeth. Excitement and
colic are followed sometimes by coughing, this state lasting from five
to eight hours. There is then a period of coma, characterized by
permanent decubitus, repeated fœtid diarrhœa, hurried and plaintive
respiration, accelerated and gradually weakening pulse, a gradual loss
of motor and sensory powers, and a progressive decline in temperature.
Death occurs in twenty-four hours.
In the case of _pigs_, the animal grunts, lies down and remains thus
with its snout embedded in the straw. There is vomiting, more or less
violent colic and diarrhœa, the evacuation consisting of bad-smelling,
spumous fæcal matter. At times there are clonic contractions. Young pigs
are most susceptible.
Pott cites cases in which abortion was a feature of the poisoning, both
in cows and pigs. The results of numerous experiments which he quotes
(among others some carried out for the Prussian Ministry of Agriculture)
are very contradictory, a small quantity causing death in some animals,
while others of the same species were left unharmed by large quantities.
He ascribes this to the very variable proportions of the poison present
in the seeds.
REFERENCES.
4, 16, 28, 46, 52, 53, 63, 76, 81, 82, 144, 161, 172, 184, 190, 203,
205, 213, 249.
HYPERICINEÆ.
=St. John’s Wort= (_Hypericum perforatum_ L.). There appears to be no
record of poisoning of live stock by this plant in Britain, but Cornevin
records that it injured breeding mares fed on lucerne containing it in
large proportion. Drying in converting into hay did not render it
innocuous. It is only poisonous if eaten in considerable quantity, and
in general animals are not likely to eat much of it voluntarily, owing
to its resinous odour when crushed, and a bitter and slightly saline
taste.
_Toxic Principle._ The poisonous properties of St. John’s Wort have not
been fully investigated, but it is stated to contain an oil and an acrid
bitter resin. Ewart says that it “contains an oil whose medicinal value
was formerly highly esteemed; but this oil, and the woody nature of the
plant, render it somewhat injurious in fodder.” Summers says (_Journ.
Agric. S. Australia_, Sept. 1911, p. 144) that “it is reported to be
decidedly injurious, causing horses who eat it to break out in sores,
while milk cows have a tendency to dry off owing to its effect on the
system.”
_Symptoms._ In mares, dullness, sinking of head, loss of appetite,
slackening of pulse and respiration, dilatation of pupils, defective
sight, and lips purple (Müller).
REFERENCES.
63, 82, 117, 190, 203.
GERANIACEÆ.
=Wood Sorrel= (_Oxalis Acetosella_ L.). Though rarely likely to be eaten
by stock this plant must be mentioned here, as it is considered
dangerous on account of its high content of oxalates, which may cause
serious illness and diarrhœa, and in the case of sheep even be fatal.
Pott says that the milk of cows eating it is with difficulty converted
into butter.
REFERENCE.
213.