RELIGION.—WORSHIP, SACRIFICES, ETC.
Odin’s religion—Sun worship—The Three Annual Sacrifices—The
Atonement Boar and Bragi Toast—The Victory Sacrifice—Temple
Priests—Animals for Sacrifices—Sacrificial
ceremonies—Divination—Chips—Drawing of lots—Consecration of land
and property—Worship of Thor—Sign of the Hammer—The Svastica—Story
of Framar.
The earlier Edda or Sagas which relate to us the traditions about Odin
and the Asar do not give any description of the sacred ceremonies or
rites they performed.
From the Ynglinga Saga we learn that the hero Odin of the North
sacrificed after the manner of the Asar, and that the sacrifices made by
him, Njörd, Frey, and Freyja, were to a power worshipped by them, but we
are not told who the god or power was. It probably was in some instances
the sun, represented perhaps by the eye of the earlier and mythical Odin
of the Völuspa—who, as we have seen, pledged his eye for a drink from
the well of Urd; we know that the worship of the sun was widely spread
at one period in the history of the world.[217] How the change from the
worship of this unknown power to the worship of Odin and the other gods
took place we are not told; but it may, we think, be taken for granted
that many of the ceremonies and beliefs mentioned in the Sagas were of
very ancient origin.
It is only by a study of all the Sagas that we gain a knowledge of the
beliefs, religious ceremonies, mode of worship and superstitions of the
people of the North, which are often minutely described. It is somewhat
difficult for the present generation of English people, living in Great
Britain and other countries, to realise that no more than eight
centuries ago many of their forefathers believed and practised the rites
we are going to describe, and that so slow was the march of
Christianity, that six or seven hundred years ago the provinces of
North-Eastern Prussia, Vindland, Pomerania, &c., whose inhabitants are
among the finest in Europe, were still heathen.
It is certain that Odin and some of the Asars were deified and
worshipped in all the countries of the North, and with the lapse of time
their fame is found to increase. The attributes of Odin were believed to
be many.
There were three principal sacrifices a year, at which the people
assembled in the chief temples:—_Vetrarblót_, _Midsvetrarblót_, and
_Sigrblót_.
“It is their custom to have a sacrifice in the autumn and welcome the
winter, another at mid-winter, the third at the beginning of summer;
then they welcome the summer. The _Eynir_, _Sparbyggjar_, _Verdælir_ and
_Skeynir_ take part in this. There are twelve men[218] who are the
foremost in managing the sacrifice-feasts: this spring Ölvir is to hold
the feast; he is now very busy in Mæri, and all provisions needed for
the feast are brought thither.” (St. Olaf, 115; cf. id. 123).
The first of these, called _Vetrarblót_[219] (Winter sacrifice), which
took place on winter nights[220] in the month of Gói, was a sacrifice
for a good winter. The 14th of October, which was the ancient month of
Gói, is still called winter-night, or the first night of winter.
“That autumn the news was told King Olaf from Thrándheim that the
Thrands had had great feasts during the winter nights: there had been
great drinking. The King was told that all cups were hallowed to the
Asar according to ancient custom. It was also said that cattle and
horses were slaughtered there, the altars reddened with blood, and
sacrifices made for the bettering of the year. Also it was said that
they all thought it evident that the gods were angry because the men of
Hálogaland had become Christians” (St. Olaf, 113. Heimskringla).
The second _Midsvetrarblót_ (Mid-winter sacrifice), also called
_Jólablót_[221] (Yule sacrifice), was held at mid-winter, or in the
beginning of the month of Thór (middle of January), to ensure a good
year and peace, and lasted three days; at this feast it was customary to
make vows to some of the gods, especially Frey, at Yule-eve. It seems to
have been the greatest and most important of all, and many animals were
slaughtered at it.[222] The 12th of January is still called mid-winter
in Norway.[223] This sacrifice plainly shows that the blessings of peace
were appreciated by this warlike race. The Swedes, as we have read, wept
over the death of Njörd, for during his time there were good years and
peace.
“King Fornjót ruled Jötland (Jötunland) which is called Finnland and
Kvenland, that is east of the arm of the sea which goes on the opposite
side of Gandvik and which we call Helsingjabotn (Bothnian Gulf). Fornjót
had three sons: Hler, whom we call Ægir, Logi, and Kári, who was father
of Frosti, the father of Gnár the old; his son was Thorri, who had two
sons, Nor and Gor; his daughter was Gói. Thorri was a great sacrificer;
he had a great sacrifice every year at mid-winter which was called
Thorra blót; from this the month was named (Thorri). One winter Gói
disappeared at the Thorri sacrifice; she was searched for and not found.
When the month had passed Thorri had a sacrifice in order to find out
where Gói was; this they called _Góiblót_, but they learnt nothing about
her” (Fornaldar Sögur ii., p. 17).
On the Yule-eve it was the custom to lead in procession a boar,
consecrated to Frey, called _Sónar golt_ (atonement-boar), and on this
those present placed their hands, made solemn vows, and drank the
_Bragi_ toast.
“King Heidrek had a boar fed; it was as large as the largest bull, but
so fine that it seemed as if every hair on it was of gold. He placed one
hand on its head and one on its bristles, and made a vow that never
should a man transgress so much that he should not have the lawful
judgment of his wise men, and these men should take care of the boar, or
else he should come with riddles which the king could not guess”
(Hervarar Saga, c. 14).
In the evening vows were made, and the atonement-boar (_sónar golt_) was
led forward; the men laid their hands on it, and made vows at the
_Bragi_ toast (Helga Kvida Hjörvardssonar).[224]
“In the winter the foster-brothers (Ingólf and Leif) made a feast for
the sons of the Jarl (Herstein, Hástein and Hólmstein, the sons of
Atli-jarl). At this feast Hólmstein made a vow that he would marry
Helga, the daughter of Örn, or no other woman. Men disliked this vow,
but Leif was seen to become red (in his face), and he and Hólmstein were
no friends when they parted at the feast” (Landnáma i., c. 3.)
“Thórodd was with another man at Thórar’s. There was a great Yule-feast,
the ale being provided by each one himself. There were many besides in
the hamlet, who all drank together during Yule. A short way off there
was another hamlet. There the brother-in-law of Thórar, a powerful and
wealthy man, lived; he had a grown-up son. They were to drink during the
half of the Yule at each other’s farm, and first at Thórar’s” (St. Olaf,
c. 151).
“One winter at Yuletide, when the people were assembled to drink, Finn
said: ‘Vows will be made in many places this evening, where it is not
better to be than here; now I vow that I will serve the king who is the
highest and in all things surpasses others’” (Fornmanna Sögur ii., ch.
201).
The third, called _Sigrblót_ (Victory sacrifice), for luck and victory,
occurred in the beginning of spring, about the middle of April, being
fixed at that time of the year because warfare and most Viking
expeditions took place in the summer. It was in honour of Odin, to whom
alone, as we see from the Sagas, sacrifices were made for victory.[225]
In those warlike days sacrifices relating to war were the most
important, for the life of the nation depended upon victory, and they
were consequently foremost among the people.
“Dag, son of Högni, made a sacrifice to Odin, to avenge his father (who
was slain by Helgi); Odin lent his spear to him. Dag met his
brother-in-law Helgi at the place called Fjoturlund, he pierced him with
the spear, and Helgi fell there” (Helga kvida Hundingsbana II).[226]
“In Sweden it was an old custom, from heathen times, that the chief
sacrifice (höfudblót) should be at Uppsalir in the month of Goi, and
that the sacrifice should be for peace and victory for the King, and men
should come thither from all over the Swedish realm” (St. Olaf, c. 76,
Heimskringla).
When Hakon jarl returned from Denmark, he ravaged both shores.
“When he had sailed eastward as far as the Gauta Skerries (rocky
islets), he went ashore and made a great sacrifice. Two ravens, which
croaked loudly, flew towards him, and the jarl thought that Odin must
have accepted the sacrifice and that he would have a good chance of
victory. He thereupon set fire to his ships and burned them all, and
went into the country with his men with warlike intentions” (Fornmanna
Sögur, vol. i.).
_Sacrifices._—The superintendents of the sacrifices as we have seen were
in the earliest times in the North the _Hofgodi_ (_temple priests_), who
were called Diar and Drotnar, and were held in great esteem and
veneration by the people; but in later times temporal rulers were also
priests, and had charge of the sacrifices.[227]
“All over Sweden men paid taxes to Odin; one penning (piece of money)
for every nose; and he had to defend their land against war; and
sacrifice for a good year” (Ynglinga Saga, c. 8).
The animals for sacrifice, which were generally oxen, horses, sheep,
boars, and falcons, fattened in order to be of large size and fine
appearance, were slaughtered by the temple priest, and in later times,
as a rule, in front of the idols.[228] Sometimes the superintendence of
the sacrificing feast alternated between a certain number of the
foremost bœndr[229] of the fylki.[230]
“It happened in Sweden that the bull which was to be sacrificed was old
and so well fed that it was vicious; when men wanted to capture it it
ran into the woods and became furious” (Ynglinga, ch. 30).
The people believed that good or bad years were often caused by faith,
or want of faith, in the Asa creed; a year was good when their chiefs
sacrificed much, bad when they were not zealous sacrificers.[231]
The ceremony was divided into two parts: first the slaughtering of
animals, and reddening of the temple and altars with blood—probably on
the first night; then the sacrificial feast.
In some places the expenses[232] of these feasts were defrayed by the
godi, who in return had the care of the temple possessions and of the
temple tolls:[233] in the earliest times people had to pay taxes—a
custom said to have been instituted by Odin.
It was the custom to cook the flesh of the slaughtered animals in large
kettles hanging over these fires along the floor of the temple. The
people then assembled to eat it seated along the walls, and the filled
horns were carried between or round the fires, which were probably
regarded as holy, the person having charge of the feast consecrating the
horns and the meat (_i.e._, making the sign of the hammer of Thor over
them). First was drunk the horn of Odin, for victory and power; then
Thor’s horn by those who trusted in their own strength and power;
Njörd’s and Frey’s horn for good years and peace; Bragi’s when solemn
vows were made; and the memorial toast for dead kinsmen which was
proposed by the sacrificing priest.[234]
Of the solemn ceremonies which took place at the slaying of the living
animals we have no description, but the blood from the sacrifices of
either animals or human beings was collected into a bowl
(_Hlaut-bolli_), generally of copper, which had its place in the temple
at the principal altar. The altars and walls of the temple, and the
people and idols, were spattered with blood with a kind of broom called
_Hlaut-tein_ (blood-twigs).
“Sigurd Hlada-jarl was a very great sacrificer, as his father Hakon had
been; he kept up all the sacrificing-feasts in Thrandheim on the king’s
behalf. It was an old custom when a sacrifice was to take place that all
the bœndr should come to the temple, and take with them the provisions
needed while the feast lasted. Every man was to bring ale; there were
also slaughtered all kinds of small cattle, as well as horses. All the
blood which came therefrom was called _hlaut_ (sacrifice blood), the
vessels for holding it _hlaut-bowls_, and the twigs, _hlaut-twigs_. With
them the altars had to be reddened all over, and also the walls of the
temple inside and outside; then the men were to be sprinkled with them,
but the flesh had to be boiled for people to eat.
“Fires were to burn on the middle of the temple floor, and kettles to be
put on them; the drinking-horns had to be carried around the fire. The
chief who made the feast had to consecrate the horns, and all the
sacrifice-food. The horn (toast) of Odin must be drunk first, for the
victory and power of their king; and then the horn of Njörd and Frey,
for a good year and peace. Many used to drink Bragi’s horn next to
these. Men also drank horns for those of their kinsmen who had been
great men; these were called _minni_ (memorial horns). Sigurd jarl was a
most open-handed man; he did a very famous deed, as he held a great
sacrificing feast at Hladir, and himself alone paid all the costs”
(Hakon Adalsteinsfostri (Hkr.), ch. 16).
It was customary to try and find out the decrees of fate or the will of
the gods by a kind of divination or casting of lots with chips dipped in
the blood of sacrifices; the most common way of making inquiry was by
_Blótspán_ (sacrifice chip) and by lots (_hlut_)—both methods of casting
lots, but differently performed—the former of which apparently meant the
throwing these sacred chips of wood.
Mention is made of the use of scales with lots in them, on one side
favourable, on the other side unfavourable; if the favourable one went
higher up than the other, it was a good omen.
Einar, an Icelander, and one of Hakon jarl’s scalds, wanted to leave him
and join Sigvaldi his foe at the battle of the Jomsviking, for he
thought he had not as much honour with the jarl as formerly.
“When Hakon saw that he was going, he shouted for him to come and speak
with him, and so he did; the jarl took two scales of burnished silver,
gilt all over; with them were two weights, one of gold, the other of
silver, on each of which a likeness was made; they were called _lots_
and were of the kind customary with men. Strong qualities were in them,
and the jarl used them for all things of importance to him. He used to
put them on the scales and tell what each of them should signify to him.
When it went well, and the one he wanted came up, the lot in the scale
which signified what he wanted never kept quiet, but moved on the scale
and made a tinkling sound. These costly things he gave to Einar, who
became merry and glad, and desisted from going to Sigvald. From this he
got a name and was afterwards called Skálaglam = ‘scale tinkle’”
(Jomsviking Saga).
“Ingjald gathered men and went against Granmar and his son-in-law,
Hjörvard; he had a far larger host than the two others. The battle was
hard, and after a short time the chiefs of Fjadrundaland,
Vestr-Gautland, Nœriki, and Attundaland (they were with Ingjald), and
all the host from these lands, fled. Ingjald received many wounds, and
with difficulty escaped to his ships; his foster-father Svipdag the
Blind fell there, with both his sons, Gautvid and Hulvid. Ingjald went
back to Uppsalir dissatisfied with the expedition; he saw that the hosts
from the kingdoms he had conquered were unfaithful. After this there was
a great war between the kings; but when it had lasted some time the
friends of both brought about a reconciliation. The kings appointed a
meeting, met, and all three made peace, which was to stand while they
lived; this was bound with oaths and pledges. The next spring Granmar
went to Uppsalir to sacrifice for peace, as was the custom towards
summer. The sacrifice-chip fell so as to show that he would not live
long” (Ynglinga Saga, c. 42).
Marks were cut on pieces of wood or other material, and each person had
his mark. Sometimes the places at feasts were assigned by lot, and lots
were also drawn for human sacrifice. The images of some of the gods were
sometimes marked on the lots.[235]
“At the advice of powerful men it was agreed that the kings should draw
lots as to which of them should hereafter rule, and the _lots were to be
cut_ and put in the folds of a cloak. Then Eystein asked his brother
King Olaf with whom he sided in this matter. He answered: ‘We have long
kept our love for each other and agreed well; thy will in regard to the
rule of the land and the laws, King Eystein, is also mine. Eystein said:
‘I advise thee, King Sigurd, to cut the third lot for the cloak, for
King Olaf, like ourselves, is the son of Magnús.’ Sigurd answered: ‘Men
can see that every expedient has now been tried, for thou wantest to
have two lots where I have one, but I will not deprive King Olaf of any
honour.’ Then the lots were put into the cloak, and the lot of King
Sigurd came up, and he was to rule” (Sigurd Jorsalafari’s Saga, c. 21).
It seems to have been the custom among zealous sacrificers to consecrate
their lands and property to the gods, without however denying themselves
the use and enjoyment thereof. That this was customary all over the
North we may conclude from the mass of names of farms, villages, &c.,
named after the gods Odin, Frey, and Thor.
In their colonies the people followed the same custom of dedicating
their settlements or lands to the gods, and we find ample proof of this
in England, Normandy, Iceland, the Orkneys and Faroe Islands.
Among the gods most worshipped besides Odin were Frey, Thor and Njörd.
We find from the Sagas that Frey was worshipped equally in Norway,
Iceland, and Sweden, and no doubt also in Denmark.
One summer when Hallfred and his followers came from Iceland to Norway,
and asked for tidings, they were told that there had been a change of
chiefs in Norway; that Hakon Jarl was dead, and Olaf Tryggvason had come
instead with a new creed and commandments.
“Then the men on the ship agreed to make a vow; they vowed to give much
property to Frey if they got a fair wind to Sweden, but to Thor or Odin
if they got to Iceland; if they should not get a fair wind to sail, the
King should have his way.” They never got a fair wind, and had to sail
to Thrándheim (Hallfredar Saga, c. 5).
“When Hrafnkel had settled at Adalbol (Iceland) he had a great
sacrifice. He had a large temple made. He loved Frey more than other
gods, and gave him one-half of all his most precious things. He settled
in the whole valley and gave lands to the people, but wanted to rule
them and became _godi_ (= temple-priest and judge) over them. After this
his name was lengthened and he was called Frey’s godi.”
[Illustration:
Fig. 774.—Runic stone, with hammer, at Stenqvista Södermanland,
Sweden. Stones with a similar-shaped hammer have been found in
several places in Denmark and Sweden.
]
“Hrafnkel owned one valuable thing which he loved more than any other.
This was a horse with a dark stripe along its back which he called
Freyfaxi; he devoted to his friend Frey one-half of this horse, and
loved it so much that he made a vow to slay any man who rode it against
his will” (Hrafnkel Freysgodi’s Saga).
Thorkel had been forced to sell his land to Glum. Before he departed
from Thverá he went to the temple of Frey, leading thither an ox, and
said:
“Frey, who long hast been my patron, and hast accepted many gifts from
me and rewarded me well, now I give this ox to thee, so that Glum may
leave Thveráland as much against his will as I do now: let me see some
token whether thou acceptest it from me or not. At this the ox bellowed
loud and fell dead, which Thorkel liked well, and he was less sad
because he thought his prayer was heard”(Vigaglum’s Saga, c. 9).
Thor[236] like Frey was invoked. The poetical and figurative names given
to him are far from being as numerous and beautiful as those given to
Odin. It was customary, at least in the earliest times, to make the sign
of the hammer at burials and marriages.[237] This hammer was called
Mjollnir, and (Lokasenna) when Thor is taunted by Loki, he answers each
time by these lines—
“Be thou silent, coward,
My Thrudhamar (mighty hammer) Mjollnir[238]
Shall take thy talk from thee.”
But that the svastica was emblematic of the sign of Thor, and had been
adopted as such by the people of the North, is only an hypothesis, for
it is also found in Greece and other countries; there is nothing in the
Sagas to prove the assertion.
“Asbjörn Reyrketilsson and his brother Steinfinn took up land above
Krossá, and east of Fljot. Steinfinn lived at Steinfinnstadir, and no
man has descended from him. Asbjörn consecrated his land to Thor, and
called it Thorsmörk” (Landnama v., 2 ch.).
The hammer as an ornament is not uncommon, and may have been used as an
amulet, as is seen on several runic stones (see p. 352).
Even Christians called upon Thor for help in sea voyages and
difficulties.
“Eyvind, from Sweden, went on expeditions westward, and in Ireland
married Raförta, daughter of the Irish king Kjarval. She bore him a son,
Helgi, and they sent him to the Hebrides to be fostered. Two winters
later they came back to the Hebrides, and did not recognise him, as he
had been starved. They therefore called him Helgi the Lean, and took him
away. He was after this fostered in Ireland, and when grown up became a
highly honoured man, and was married to Thórun Hyrna, daughter of Ketil
Flatnose. They had many children; Hrólf and Ingjald were their sons.
Helgi the Lean went to Iceland with his wife and children. He had a very
mixed creed; he believed in Christ, but nevertheless invoked Thor for
help in sea voyages and in difficulties. When he saw Iceland, he
inquired from Thor where he should take up land. The answer told him to
go to the north coast of Iceland” (Landnama iii., 12).[239]
_Worship of Njörd._—Njörd[240] was also worshipped, though we have no
account of sacrifices made to him; but the formulary of the oath, “So
help me Frey, Njörd, and the Almighty As (Odin)!” shows the existence of
his worship. Egil calls upon him and the two other gods to drive Eirik
Blood-axe from the land.[241]
[Illustration:
Fig. 775.—½ real size.
]
[Illustration:
Fig. 776.—Thor’s hammer. In a field. Läby, Uppland. Real size.
]
[Illustration:
Fig. 777.—Thor’s hammer and chain of silver.—Bredsätra, Öland. Real
size.
]
There were men who did not believe in and did not worship Odin, as may
be seen from the following example:—
“Then came to Hrafnista, Framar, a viking king; he was a sacrificer and
iron did not wound him. He demanded in marriage Hrafnhild, the daughter
of Ketil Hæng. Ketil answered that she should choose a husband herself.
She refused Framar. Therefore Framar challenged Ketil to _holmganga_ at
Arhaug, on the first day of Yule, and said he should be every man’s
nithing if he did not come. On Yule-eve he came to Arhaug. Framar and
the men of the land sacrificed for good years.
“Bödmód, the son of Framar, after inviting Ketil to his hall, mentioned
Odin. When he named Odin, Ketil got angry, for he did not believe in
him; and sung a song:—
Odin worship
Did I never,
Though long I have lived;
I know that Framar
Will fall sooner than
This high head.
Twice the sword of Ketil did not bite; the third time it cut Framar from
the shoulder down to the loins. Then Framar sung:—
There is courage in Hæng,
_Dravendil_ is sharp,
It bit the word of Odin
As if it were nothing;
Now the father of Baldr proved false
It is unsafe to trust him;
Enjoy well thy hands,
Here we shall part.
Framar thereupon died, and Ketil went home” (Ketil Hæng’s Saga, c. 5).