bobbin net and machine lace, manufactures which have risen to so much
importance both in England and France, and have placed lace within the
reach of all classes of society. The subject has been so ably treated by
Mr. Felkin that we refer our readers to his excellent work for its full
history.[1237]
This manufacture has its epochs:--
1768. Net first made by machinery.
1809. Invention of bobbin net.
1837. The Jacquard system applied to the bobbin net machine.
It has been already told how Barbara Uttmann made a plain thread net in
Germany three centuries before any attempt was made to produce it by
machinery.[1238]
This invention is usually assigned to Hammond, a stocking framework knitter
of Nottingham, who, examining one day the broad lace on his wife's cap,
thought he could {448}apply his machine to the production of a similar
article.[1239] His attempt so far succeeded that, by means of the
stocking-frame invented the previous century,[1240] he produced, 1768, not
lace, but a kind of knitting, of running loops or stitches, like that
afterwards known as "Brussels ground." In 1777, Else and Harvey introduced
at Nottingham the "pin" or point net machine, so named because made on
sharp pins or points. "Point net" was afterwards improved, and the
"barleycorn" introduced: "square" and "spider net" appear in succession.
But with all these improvements machinery had not yet arrived at producing
a solid net, it was still only knitting, a single thread passing from one
end of the frame to the other; and if a thread broke the work was
unravelled; the threads, therefore, required to be gummed together, to give
stiffness and solidity to the net. To remedy this evil, the warp or chain
machine was invented, uniting the knitter's and the weaver's mechanism.
Vandyke,[1241] a Flemish workman, and three Englishmen dispute the
invention. This new machine was again improved and made "Mechlin net," from
which the machine took its name.
For forty years from Hammond's first attempt on the stocking-frame, endless
efforts were made to arrive at imitating the ground of pillow lace, and
there are few manufactures in which so much capital has been expended, and
so much invention called forth. Each projector fancied {449}he had
discovered the true stitch, and patents after patents were taken out,
resulting mostly in disappointment.
The machine for making "bobbin" net was invented by John Heathcoat, son of
a farmer at Longwhatton (Leicestershire). After serving his apprenticeship
he settled at Nottingham, and while occupied in putting together stocking
and net machines, gave his attention to improving the Mechlin net
frame.[1242] In 1809, in conjunction with Mr. Lacy, he took out a patent
for fourteen years for his new and highly ingenious bobbin net machine,
which he called Old Loughborough, after the town to which he then removed.
"Bobbin net" was so named because the threads are wound upon bobbins.[1243]
It was "twisted" instead of "looped" net. Heathcoat began by making net
little more than an inch in width,[1244] and afterwards succeeded in
producing it a yard wide. There are now machines which make it three yards
and a half in width.[1245]
In 1811 that vandal association called the Luddites[1246] entered his
manufactory and destroyed twenty-seven of his machines, of the value of
£8,000. Indignant at their conduct he removed to Tiverton,[1247] in
Devonshire.
{450}In 1818 the first power machines were put to work, and the year 1823
is memorable for the "bobbin net fever." Mr. Heathcoat's patent having
expired, all Nottingham went mad. Everyone wished to make bobbin net.
Numerous individuals, clergymen, lawyers, doctors, and others, readily
embarked capital in so tempting a speculation. Prices fell in proportion as
production increased; but the demand was immense, and the Nottingham lace
frame became the organ of general supply, rivalling and supplanting in
plain nets the most finished productions of France and the
Netherlands.[1248] Dr. Ure says: "It was no uncommon thing for an artisan
to leave his usual calling and betake himself to a lace frame, of which he
was part proprietor, and realize, by working upon it, twenty, thirty, nay,
even forty shillings a day. In consequence of such wonderful gains,
Nottingham, with Loughborough and the adjoining villages, became the scene
of an epidemic mania. Many, though nearly void of mechanical genius or the
constructive talent, tormented themselves night and day with projects of
bobbins, pushers, lockers, point-bars, and needles of every various form,
till their minds got permanently bewildered. Several lost their senses
altogether, and some, after cherishing visions of wealth as in the olden
time of alchemy, finding their schemes abortive, sank into despair and
committed suicide." Such is the history of the bobbin net[1249] invention
in England.[1250]
{451}We now pass on to
FRANCE.
"To the great trading nation, to the great manufacturing nation, no
progress which any portion of the human race can make in knowledge, in
taste for the conveniences of life, or in the wealth by which these
conveniences are produced, can be matter of indifference."--Macaulay.
Since the failure[1251] of Lee, in 1610, to introduce the stocking-frame
into France, that country remained ignorant of a manufacture which was
daily progressing in England, on whom she was dependent for stockings and
for net.
In 1778 Caillen attempted a kind of net "tricot dentelle," for which he
obtained a gratuity from the Academy of £40, but his method did not
succeed; it was, like the first efforts of our countrymen, only knitting.
In 1784 Louis XVI. sent the Duke de Liancourt to England to study the
improvements in the stocking and net machinery, and to bring back a frame.
He was accompanied by Rhumbolt, who worked in a manufactory at Nottingham,
and having acquired the art, returned to France. Monarchy had fallen, but
the French Republic, 1793-4, granted Rhumbolt the sum of 110,000 francs
(£4,400). The machine he brought with him was the point net.[1252]
The cessation of all commercial intercourse prevented France from keeping
pace with the improvements making in England; yet, singularly enough, at
the beginning of the nineteenth century more net was manufactured in France
than in England. At the time of the Peace of Amiens (1802) there were 2,000
frames in Lyons and Nîmes, while there were scarcely 1,200 in England; but
the superiority of the English net was incontestable, so, to protect the
national manufacture, Napoleon prohibited the importation. This of course
increased its demand; the net was in request in proportion as it was
prohibited. The best mart for Nottingham was the French market, so the
Nottingham net trade took every means to pass their produce into France.
{452}Hayne, one of the proprietors of the "barley-corn" net, had gone to
Paris to make arrangements for smuggling it over, when the war broke out,
and he was detained. Napoleon proposed that he should set up a machine in
France; but he preferred continuing his illicit trade, which he carried on
with great success until 1809, when his own agent informed against him, his
goods were seized and burned, and having in one seizure lost £60,000
(1,500,000 fr.), he was completely ruined, and fled to England.[1253]
The French manufacturers took out various patents for the improvement of
their "Mechlin" machines, and one was taken, in 1809, for making a crossed
net called "fond de glace"; but the same year Heathcoat producing the
bobbin net machine, the inventors could not sustain the competition.
Every attempt was made to get over bobbin net machines; but the export of
English machinery was punished by transportation, and the Nottingham
manufacturers established at their own expense a line of surveillance to
prevent the bobbin net machines from going out. In spite of all these
precautions, Cutts, an old workman of Heathcoat's, contrived to elude their
vigilance, and, in 1815, to import a machine to Valenciennes, whence he
removed it to Douai, where he entered into partnership with M. Thomassin.
In 1816 they produced the first bobbin net dress made in France. It was
embroidered by hand by a workwoman of Douai, and presented by the makers to
the Duchesse d'Angoulême. About the end of the year 1816 James Clark
introduced a machine into Calais, which he passed in pieces by means of
some French sailors. These two were the first bobbin net machines set up in
France.
It is not within our limits to follow the Calais lace manufacturers through
their progress; suffice it to say that it was in 1817 that the first bobbin
net machine worked, concealed from all eyes, at Saint-Pierre-lez-Calais,
now, if not the rival of Nottingham, at least the great {453}centre of the
bobbin net and machinery lace manufactures in France.[1254]
St. Quentin, Douai, Cambrai, Rouen, Caen, have all in turn been the seats
of the tulle manufacture. Some of these fabrics are extinct; the others
have a very limited trade compared with Saint-Pierre and Lyons.
At Lyons silk net is mostly made.[1255] Dating from 1791, various patents
have been taken out for its manufacture. These silk nets were embroidered
at Condrieu (Rhône), and were (the black especially for veils and mantles)
much esteemed, particularly in Spain.
In 1825 the "tulle bobine grenadine," black and white, was brought out by
M. Doguin, who afterwards used the fine silks, and invented that popular
material first called "zephyr," since "illusion." His son, in 1838, brought
out the "tulle Bruxelles."
BELGIUM.
In 1834[1256] eight bobbin net machines were set up in Brussels by Mr.
Washer, for the purpose of making the double and triple twisted net, upon
which the pillow flowers are sewn to produce the Brussels application lace.
Mr. Washer devoted himself exclusively to the making of the extra fine
mesh, training up workmen specially to this minute work. In a few years he
succeeded in excelling the English manufacture; and this net, universally
known as "Brussels net," has nearly superseded the expensive pillow ground,
and has thereby materially decreased the price of Brussels lace. It is made
of English cotton, stated, in the specimens exhibited in 1867, as costing
£44 per pound.
{454}MACHINERY LACE.
"Qui sait si le métier à tulle ne sera pas un jour, en quelque sorte, un
vrai coussin de dentellière, et les bobines de véritables fuseaux
manoeuvrés par des mains mécaniques."--Aubry, in 1851.
If England boasts the invention of bobbin net, to France must be assigned
the application of the Jacquard system to the net-frame, and consequently
the invention of machinery lace. Shawls and large pieces in "run lace," as
it is termed, had previously been made after this manner at Nottingham and
Derby. The pattern proposed to be "run in" is printed by means of engraved
wood blocks on the ground, which, if white, is of cotton; if black, of
silk. The ground is stretched on a frame; the "lace-runner" places her left
hand under the net, and with the right works the pattern. The filling up of
the interior is termed either "fining" or "open-working," as the original
meshes of the net are brought to a smaller or larger size by the
needle.[1257]
In 1820 Symes, of Nottingham, invented a pattern which he called "Grecian"
net. This was followed by the "spot," or "point d'esprit," and various
other fancy nets--bullet-hole, tattings, and others.
The Jacquard system had been used at Lyons with the Mechlin frame in 1823-4
for making patterned net and embroidered blondes. This suggested the
possibility of applying the Jacquard cards to making lace, and in 1836 to
1838 Mr. Ferguson,[1258] by applying it to the circular bobbin net frame,
brought out the black silk net called "dentelle de Cambrai," an imitation
of Chantilly. The pattern was woven by the machine, the brodé or relief
"run in."
Various patents[1259] were immediately taken out in England and France.
Nottingham and Saint-Pierre-lez-Calais rival {455}each other in the variety
of their productions. At the International Exhibition of 1867 Nottingham
exhibited Spanish laces, most faithful copies of the costly pillow-made
Barcelona; imitations of Mechlin, the brodé and picot executed by hand;
Brussels needle-point; Caen blondes, and Valenciennes rivalling those of
Calais; also Cluny and the black laces of Chantilly and Mirecourt.
The French, by adopting what is technically termed eight "motives," produce
their lace of a finer make and more complex pattern. The Calais lace is an
admirable copy of the square-grounded Valenciennes, and is the staple trade
of the manufacture. Calais also produces blondes, black and white, silver
and gold, the white nearly approaching in brilliancy and whiteness the
famed productions of Caen, which, by their cheapness, they have expelled
from competition. She also imitates the woollen laces of Le Puy, together
with black and white laces innumerable.
"Broadly speaking, lace-making by machinery is more nearly like the pillow
lace-making process than that of needle-point. The machine continues to
twist any desired threads around one another. In pillow lace-making,
besides twisting, we have plaiting, and this plaiting has not been
reproduced by the majority of lace machines. Quite recently, however, a
French machine, called the 'Dentellière,' has been invented to do the
plaiting. A description of this machine has been published in _La Nature_
(March 3rd, 1881).
"Whilst the ordinary lace-making machine belongs to the family of weaving
machines, the Dentellière more nearly resembles the pillow of a lace-worker
with the threads arranged over the pillow. In general appearance it looks
something like a large semicircular frame-work of iron--with thousands of
threads from the outer semicircle converging to the centre, representing
the table or pillow. Over this central table is the apparatus which holds
the end threads side by side, and which regulates the plaiting of them. The
cost of producing lace in this manner is said to be greater at present than
by hand."[1260]
{456}Almost every description of lace is now fabricated by machinery;[1261]
and it is often no easy task, even for a practised eye, to detect the
difference. Still, we must ever be of opinion that the most finished
productions of the frame never possess the touch, the finish, or the beauty
of the laces made by hand. The invention of machine-made lace has this
peculiarity--it has not diminished the demand for the finer fabrics of the
pillow and the needle. On the contrary, the rich have sought more eagerly
than ever the exquisite works of Brussels and Alençon, since machinery has
brought the wearing of lace within the reach of all classes of society.
[Illustration: Fig. 163.
THE LAGETTA, OR LACE-BARK TREE.]
The inner bark of the Lagetta, or Lace-bark tree[1262] of Jamaica, may be
separated into thin layers, and then into distinct meshes, bearing some
resemblance to lace (Fig. 163). Of this material a cravat and ruffles were
presented to King Charles II. by the Governor of Jamaica; and at the
Exhibition of 1851 a dress of the same fibre was presented to Queen
Victoria, which her Majesty was graciously pleased to accept.
{457}Caterpillars have been made to spin lace veils by the ingenious
contrivance of a gentleman of Munich.[1263] These veils are not strong, but
surprisingly light--one, a yard square, would scarcely weigh five grains,
whilst a patent net veil of the same size weighs 262.
Asbestos has also been woven into lace: and a specimen of this mineral lace
is, we have been told, in the Cabinet of Natural History at the Garden of
Plants, Paris.
{459}APPENDIX.
_The Notes marked with an * show that the works referred to have been
examined by the Author._[1264]
1.
[Sidenote: 1527. _Cologne. P. Quentell._]
Eyn new kunstlich boich, dair yn. C. vnd. xxxviij. figuren, monster ad'
stalen befonden, wie man na der rechter art, Lauffer werck, Spansche
stich, mit der nälen, vort vp der Ramen, vnd vp der laden, borden
wirckenn sall, wilche stalen all etzo samen verbessert synt, vnd vyl
kunstlicher gemacht, d[=a] dye eirsten, &c. Sere nutzlich allen wapen
sticker, frauwen, ionfferen, vnd met ger, dair uns solch kunst lichtlich
tzu leren.
D Gedruckt tzu Collen vp dem Doemhoff dwrch Peter Quentell.
Anno. M. D. XXXVJJ.[1265]
Small 8vo, 22 ff., 42 plates.
Title in Gothic letters; beneath, woodcuts representing women at work.
On the back of the leaf, a large escutcheon, the three crowns of
Cologne in chief; supporters, a lion and a griffin. Below, "O Foelix
Colonia. 1527."
The patterns consist of mediæval and arabesque borders, alphabets,
etc., some on white, others on black grounds. Some with counted
stitches.
Quentell refers to a previous edition. Brunet and the Marquis d'Adda
mention a copy, 1529, with the portrait of Charles V., and a second
edition 1532.
2.
[Sidenote: 1527. _Cologne. P. Quinty._]
Liure noveau et subtil touchant lart et sci[=e]ce tant de brouderie
fronssures, tapisseries c[=o]me aultres mestiers qu[=o] fait alesguille,
soit au petit mestier, aultelisse ou sur toille clere, tresvtile et
necessaire a toutes, gens usans des mestiers et ars {460}dessuld, ou
semblables, ou il y ha C. et. xxxviij patrons de diuers ouvraiges faich
per art et proportion.
En primere a culoge (Cologne) par matrepiere quinty demor[=a]t denpre
leglie de iii roies.[1266]
The same cut as the preceding, with the arms of Cologne, which seems to
have been engraved for a great Bible printed by Quentell, in 1527, and
is no guide for the date. Figs. 164, 165.
[Illustration: Fig. 164.
METRE P. QUINTY.--Cologne, 1527.]
[Illustration: Fig. 165.
METRE P. QUINTY.--Cologne, 1527.]
3.
[Sidenote: 1530. _Venice. A. Taglienti_]
Opera nuova che insegna a le D[=o]ne a cuscire: a racc[=a]mare: e a
disegnar a ciascuno: Et la ditta opera sara di grande utilita ad ogni
artista: per esser il disegno ad ogniuno necessario: la qual e ititolata
esempio di rac[=a]mi.[1267]
4to, 23 ff., 36 plates.
Title in red Gothic letters; beneath four woodcuts representing women
at work. Two pages of dedication to the ladies, by Giovanni Antonio
Taglienti, in which he says his book is for the instruction of each
"valorosa donna & tutte altre donzelle, con gli huomini insieme &
fanciulli, liquali si dilettarano de imparar a disegnar, cuscir, &
raccammar."
{461}Then follows a most miscellaneous collection of what he terms, in
his dedication, "fregi, frisi, tondi maravigliosi, groppi moreschi et
arabeschi, ucelli volanti, fiori, lettere antique, maiuscoli, & le
francesche," etc., three pages very much like the pictures in a child's
spelling book, rounds (tondi) for cushions, and two pages representing
hearts and scrolls; hearts transfixed, one with an arrow, another with
a sword, a third torn open by two hands, motto on the scroll:--
"La virtù, al huomo sempre li resta
Nè morte nol pò privar di questa."
On the other page hearts transfixed by two arrows, with two eyes above:
"Occhi piangete accompagnete il core. Inclita virtus." Then follow six
pages of instructions, from which we learn the various stitches in
which these wonderful patterns may be executed, "damaschino, rilevato,
a filo, sopra punto, ingaseato, Ciprioto, croceato, pugliese, scritto,
incroceato, in aere, fatto su la rate, a magliata, desfilato, & di
racammo," to be sewn in various coloured silks, gold and silver thread,
or black silk, for "collari di huomo & di donna, camisciole con
pettorali, frisi di contorni di letti, entemelle di cuscini, frisi di
alcun boccassino, & scufie," etc. On the last page, "Stampa in Vineggia
per Giovan Antonio Tagliente & i Fratelli de Sabbio. 1530." Brunet
gives an edition dated 1528.
4.
[Sidenote: 1530. _Paris F. Pelegrin._]
La fleur de la science de pourtraicture et patrons de broderie. Facon
arabicque, et ytalique. Cum priviligio regis.
Frontispiece. Title in Gothic letters. A large figure of Sol (?), with
a yoke, his feet chained, a ball, maybe the Earth, at the end of the
chain. In one hand he holds a scroll with the legend, "Exitus acta
probat." Privilege of "Francoys par la grace de Dieu roy de France," to
"Francisque pelegrin de Florence," to publish "ung livre de fueillages,
entrelatz et ouvraiges moresques, et Damasquins," for six years.
"D[=o]ne a bordeaulx le xvii. jour de Juing. L'an de grace mil cinq
cens tr[=e]te Et de nostre regne le seiziesme."
Ce present livre a este imprime a paris par jaques nyverd. Le iv. jour
daoust. Lan de grace mil cinq c[=e]s xxx. Pour noble h[=o]me messire
Francisque Pelegrin de florence.
On les vend a paris En la grant rue sainct Anthoyne devant les
tournelles. Au logis de monseigneur le comte de Carpes. Par messire
Fr[=a]cisque pelegrin de florence.[1268]
Small fol., 62 ff., 58 plates, consisting of graceful moresque
patterns, no animals or natural objects represented. At plate 33,
surrounded by arabesques, is an N, the initial of the printer.
5.
[Sidenote: 1529. _Venice. N. Zoppino._]
Esemplario di lavori: dove le tenere fanciulle & altre donne nobile
potranno facilment imparare il modo & ordine di lavorare, cusire,
racamare, & finalmente far tutte quelle gentillezze & lodevoli opere, le
quali pò fare una donna virtuosa con laco in {462}mano, con li suoi
compasse & misure. Vinezia, per Nicolo D'Aristotile detto Zoppino
MDXXIX. 8vo.[1269] 46 plates.
The Cav^{re} Merli quotes another edition, date 1530, in the possession
of the Avvocato Francesco Pianesani, and another he believes of 1529.
6.
[Sidenote: 1532. _Venice. N. Zoppino._]
Convivio delle belle Donne, dove con li. Nuovi raccami, &c. In fine:
Finisce il convivio delle, &c. Nuovamente stampato in Vinegia, per
Nicolo d'Aristotile, detto Zoppino del mese d'Agosto. MDXXXII.
In 4to, ff. 24.[1270]
7.
[Sidenote: 1537. _Venice. N. Zoppino._]
Gli universali de i belli Recami antichi, et moderni, ne i quali un
pellegrino ingegno, si di huomo come di donna potra in questa nostra eta
con l'ago vertuosamente esercitar si. Non ancora da alcuni dati altri
inluce.
Frontispiece, two ladies at work; dedication to "gli virtuosi Giovani
et gentilissime Fanciulle." At the end styles himself "Nicolo
d'Aristotile detto Zoppino." March, 1537.
In 4to, ff. 25, printed on both sides.[1271]
8.
[Sidenote: 1534. _Augsburg. Schartzemberger._]
Ain New Formbüchlin bin ich gnandt
Allen Künstlern noch unbekandt
Sih mich (lieber kauffer) recht an,
Findst drefftlich in diser kunff stan
Sch[=o]n gschnierlet, geböglet, auf gladt,
Und gold, auch sch[=o]n von premen stadt,
Es gibt dir ain prem unb ain kledyt.
Wenn mans recht aussainander schneydt,
Das kanst schneyden auss der Ellen,
Von Samat, Seyden, wie manss wolle,
Ich mag braucht wern in allem landt,
Wen man mich ers[=u]cht mit verstandt.
(At the end.)
Gedruckt in der Kaiserlichen Riechstatt, Augspurg, durch Johan
Schartzemberger. Fomschneyder. 1534.[1272]
Small obl., 20 ff., 38 plates.
Frontispiece. Title in black Gothic letters, at the foot three subjects
of women at work, printed in red.
The patterns, consisting of graceful arabesque borders, are also in red
(Figs. 166, 167, 168).
[Illustration: Fig. 166.
PATTERN BOOK.--Augsburg, 1534.]
[Illustration: Fig. 167.
PATTERN BOOK.--Augsburg, 1534.]
_To face page 462._
{463}[Illustration: Fig. 168.
AUGSBURG. 1534.]
9.
[Sidenote: _N. D. Antwerp. W. Vorsterman._]
A neawe treatys: as c[=o]cernynge the excellency of the nedle worcke
spânisshe stitche and weavynge in the frame, very necessary to al theym
wiche desyre the perfect knowledge of seamstry, quiltinge and brodry
worke, côteinynge an cxxxviij figures or tables, so playnli made & set
tout in portrature, the whiche is difficyll; and natôly for crafts m[=e]
but also for gentlewem[=e] & and iôge damosels that therein may obtayne
greater conynge delyte and pleasure.
These books be to sell at Andwarp in the golden Unycorne at Will[=m]
Vorstermans.
Gheprent tot Antwerpen in die camerstrate in den gulden eenhoren bey
Willem Vorsterman.[1273]
8vo, 24 ff., 46 plates.
Title in Gothic letters, with figures.
P. 1, dorso: Woodcut of a woman at work and a man sitting by her side.