* * * * *
=LORD COBHAM ADJUDGED A HERETIC.=
Then the Archbishop read a bill of his judgement, and convicted him for
a heretic.
After the reading of the bill, the Lord said, "Though ye judge my body,
I hope to GOD! that He will save my soul!" and he said that he "would
stand to the death, by these things beforesaid; with the help of JESU!"
And then he said to all the people, "Sirs, for GOD's love! be well ware
of these men! for they will beguile you else! and lead you blindlings
into hell, and themselves also! For CHRIST saith, 'If one blind man lead
another, both fall into the ditch!"
And after this, thus he prayed for his enemies, and said, "LORD GOD! I
beseech thee, forgive my pursuers! if it be thy will!"
* * * * *
And then he was led again to the Tower of London: and thus was the end.
* * * * *
=THE MS. NOTICE IN LONDON STREETS.=
While the Lord of COBHAM was in the Tower, he sent out privily to his
friends; and they, at his desire, informed and writ this bill that
followeth next, commending it to the people, that they should cease the
slanders and leasings that his enemies made on him.
_For as mickle as Sir JOHN OLDCASTLE, Knight and
Lord of COBHAM, is untruly convicted and prisoned,
and falsely reported and slandered among the people
by his adversaries, that he should otherwise
feel and speak of the Sacraments of Holy
Church, and especially of the blessed
Sacrament of the Altar, than
was written in his_ Belief,
_which was indented
and taken to the
Clergy, and set
up in divers
open places
in the city of
London: Known
be it to all the world
that he never varied in any
point therefrom; but this is plainly
his_ Belief, _that all the Sacraments of
Holy Church be profitable and meedful to
all them that shall be saved, taking them after
the intent that GOD and Holy Church hath
ordained. Furthermore he believeth
that the blessed Sacrament of the
Altar is verily and
truly CHRIST's
body in form
of bread_.
Truth long-hid now is disclosed.
Praised be GOD! Amen.
_On Translating the Bible._
[Chapter XV. of the Prologue to the
second recension of the Wycliffite
Version. Attributed to
JOHN PURVEY.]
On Translating the Bible.
[_Chapter xv. of the Prologue to the second recension of the
Wycliffite Version. Attributed to_ JOHN PURVEY.]
=c. 1385-90.=
=How every man should con and keep the scripture, and holy
writ is the scripture of peoples, as Jerome saith.=
For as much as Christ saith that the gospel shall be preached in all the
world, and David saith of the apostles and their preaching, "the sound
of them yede out into each land, and the words of them yeden out into
the ends of the world," and eft David saith, "the Lord shall tell in the
scriptures of peoples, and of these princes that were in it," that is,
in holy church, and as Jerome saith on that verse, "holy writ is the
scripture of peoples, for it is made, that all peoples should know it,"
and the princes of the church, that were therein, be the apostles, that
had authority to write holy writ, for by that same that the apostles
wrote their scriptures by authority, and confirming of the Holy Ghost,
it is holy scripture, and faith of Christian men, and this dignity hath
no man after them, be he never so holy, never so cunning, as Jerome
witnesseth on that verse. Also, Christ saith of the Jews that cried
"Hosanna" to him in the temple, that though they were still, stones
should cry, and by stones he understandeth heathen men, that worshipped
stones for their gods. And we English men be come of heathen men,
therefore we be understood by these stones, that should cry holy writ,
and as Jews, that is interpreted knowledging, signify clerks, that
should knowledge to God, by repentance of sins, and by voice of God's
hearing, so our lewd men, suing the corner-stone Christ, may be
signified by stones, that be hard and abiding in the foundation; for
though covetous clerks be wood by simony, heresy and many other sins,
and despise and stop holy writ, as much as they may, yet the lewd people
crieth after holy writ, to con it, and keep it, with great cost and
peril of their life. For these reasons and other, with common charity to
save all men in our realm, which God would have saved, a simple creature
hath translated the bible out of Latin into English. First, this simple
creature had much travail, with divers fellows and helpers, to gather
many old bibles, and other doctors, and common gloses, and to make one
Latin bible some deal true; and then to study it of the new, the text
with the glose, and other doctors, as he might get, and specially
Lyra[27] on the Old Testament, that helped full much in this work; the
third time to counsel with old grammarians and old divines, of hard
words, and hard sentences, how they might best be understood and
translated; the fourth time to translate as clearly as he could to the
sentence, and to have many good fellows and cunning at the correcting of
the translation. First, it is to know, that the best translating is out
of Latin into English, to translate after the sentence, and not only
after the words, so that the sentence be as open, either opener, in
English as in Latin, and go not far from the letter; and if the letter
may not be sued in the translating, let the sentence ever be whole and
open, for the words owe to serve to the intent and sentence, and else
the words be superfluous either false. In translating into English, many
resolutions may make the sentence open, as an ablative case absolute may
be resolved into these three words, with covenable verb, _the while_,
_for_, _if_, as grammarians say; as thus, _the master reading, I stand_,
may be resolved thus, _while the master readeth, I stand_, either _if
the master readeth_, etc., either _for the master_, etc.; and sometimes
it will accord well with the sentence to be resolved into _when_, either
into _afterward_, thus _when the master read, I stood_, either _after
the master read, I stood_; and sometime it may well be resolved into a
verb of the same tense, as other be in the same reason, and into this
word _et_, that is, _and_ in English, as thus, _arescentibus hominibus
prae timore_, that is, _and men shall wax dry for dread_. Also a
participle of a present tense, either preterite, of active voice, either
passive, may be resolved into a verb of the same tense, and a
conjunction copulative, as thus, _dicens_, that is, _saying_, may be
resolved thus, _and saith_, either _that saith_; and this will, in many
places, make the sentence open, where to English it after the word,
would be dark and doubtful. Also a relative, _which_, may be resolved
into his antecedent with a conjunction copulative, as thus, _which
runneth, and he runneth_. Also when a word is once set in a reason, it
may be set forth as oft as it is understood, either as oft as reason and
need ask; and this word _autem_ either _vero_, may stand for _forsooth_,
either for _but_, and thus I use commonly; and sometimes it may stand
for _and_, as old grammarians say. Also when rightful construction is
letted by relation, I resolve it openly, thus, where this reason,
_Dominum formidabunt adversarii ejus_, should be Englished thus by the
letter, _the Lord his adversaries shall dread_, I English it thus by
resolution, _the adversaries of the Lord shall dread him_; and so of
other reasons that be like. At the beginning I purposed, with God's
help, to make the sentence as true and open in English as it is in
Latin, either more true and more open than it is in Latin; and I pray,
for charity and for common profit of Christian souls, that if any wise
man find any default of the truth of translation, let him set in the
true sentence and open of holy writ, but look that he examine truly his
Latin bible, for no doubt he shall find full many bibles in Latin full
false, if he look, many, namely new; and the common Latin bibles have
more need to be corrected, as many as I have seen in my life, than hath
the English bible late translated; and where the Hebrew, by witness of
Jerome, of Lyra, and other expositors discordeth from our Latin bibles,
I have set in the margin, by manner of a glose, what the Hebrew hath,
and how it is understood in some place; and I did this most in the
Psalter, that of all our books discordeth most from Hebrew; for the
church readeth not the Psalter by the last translation of Jerome out of
Hebrew into Latin, but another translation of other men, that had much
less cunning and holiness than Jerome had; and in full few books the
church readeth the translation of Jerome, as it may be proved by the
proper originals of Jerome, which he glosed. And whether I have
translated as openly or openlier in English as in Latin, let wise men
deem, that know well both languages, and know well the sentence of holy
scripture. And whether I have done thus, or nay, ne doubt, they that con
well the sentence of holy writ and English together, and will travail,
with God's grace, thereabout, may make the bible as true and as open,
yea, and openlier in English than it is in Latin. And no doubt to a
simple man, with God's grace and great travail, men might expound much
openlier and shortlier the bible in English, than the old great doctors
han expounded it in Latin, and much sharplier and groundlier than many
late postillators, either expositors, han done. But God, of his great
mercy, give to us grace to live well, and to say the truth in covenable
manner, and acceptable to God and his people, and to spill not our time,
be it short, be it long, at God's ordinance. But some, that seem wise
and holy, say thus, if men now were as holy as Jerome was, they might
translate out of Latin into English, as he did out of Hebrew and out of
Greek into Latin, and else they should not translate now, as them
thinketh, for default of holiness and of cunning. Though this
replication seem colourable, it hath no good ground, neither reason,
neither charity, for why this replication is more against saint Jerome,
and against the first seventy translators, and against holy church, than
against simple men, that translate now into English; for saint Jerome
was not so holy as the apostles and evangelists, whose books he
translated into Latin, neither had he so high gifts of the Holy Ghost as
they had; and much more the seventy translators were not so holy as
Moses and the prophets, and specially David, neither they had so great
gifts of God, as Moses and the prophets had. Furthermore holy church
approveth, not only the true translation of mean Christian men,
steadfast in Christian faith, but also of open heretics, that did away
many mysteries of Jesus Christ by guileful translation, as Jerome
witnesseth in a prologue on Job, and in the prologue of Daniel. Much
more let the Church of England approve the true and whole translation of
simple men, that would for no good in earth, by their witting and power,
put away the least truth, yea, the least letter, either tittle, of holy
writ, that beareth substance, either charge. And dispute they not of the
holiness of men now living in this deadly life, for they con not
thereon, and it is reserved only to God's doom. If they know any
notable default by the translators, either helpers of them, let them
blame the default by charity and mercy, and let them never damn a thing
that may be done lawfully by God's law, as wearing of a good cloth for a
time, either riding on a horse for a great journey, when they wit not
wherefore it is done; for such things may be done of simple men, with as
great charity and virtue, as some, that hold them great and wise, can
ride in a gilt saddle, either use cushions and beds and cloths of gold
and of silk, with other vanities of the world. God grant pity, mercy,
and charity, and love of common profit, and put away such foolish dooms,
that be against reason and charity. Yet worldly clerks ask greatly what
spirit maketh idiots hardy to translate now the bible into English,
since the four great doctors durst never do this? This replication, is
so lewd, that it needeth no answer, no but stillness, either courteous
scorn; for the great doctors were none English men, neither they were
conversant among English men, neither in case they could the language of
English, but they ceased never till they had holy writ in their mother
tongue, of their own people. For Jerome, that was a Latin man of birth,
translated the Bible, both out of Hebrew and out of Greek, into Latin,
and expounded full much thereto; and Austin, and many more Latins
expounded the bible, for many parts, in Latin, to Latin men, among which
they dwelt, and Latin was a common language to their people about Rome,
and beyond, and on this half, as English is common language to our
people, and yet this day the common people in Italy speak Latin corrupt,
as true men say, that han been in Italy; and the number of translators
out of Greek into Latin passeth man's knowing, as Austin witnesseth in
the 2nd book of Christian Teaching, and saith thus, "the translators out
of Hebrew into Greek may be numbered, but Latin translators, either they
that translated into Latin, may not be numbered in any manner." For in
the first times of faith, each man, as a Greek book came to him, and he
seemed to himself to have some cunning of Greek and of Latin, was hardy
to translate; and this thing helped more than letted understanding, if
readers be not negligent, forwhy the beholding of many books hath
showed oft, either declared, some darker sentences. This saith Austin
there. Therefore Grosted saith, that it was God's will, that divers men
translated, and that divers translations be in the church, for where one
said darkly, one either more said openly. Lord God! since at the
beginning of faith so many men translated into Latin, and to great
profit of Latin men, let one simple creature of God translate into
English, for profit of English men; for if worldly clerks look well
their chronicles and books, they should find, that Bede translated the
bible, and expounded much in Saxon, that was English, either common
language of this land, in his time; and not only Bede, but also King
Alured, that founded Oxford, translated in his last days the beginning
of the Psalter into Saxon, and would more, if he had lived longer. Also
French men, Beemers[28] and Bretons have the bible, and other books of
devotion and of exposition, translated in their mother language; why
should not English men have the same in their mother language, I can not
wit, no but for falseness and negligence of clerks, either for our
people is not worthy to have so great grace and gift of God, in pain of
their old sins. God for his mercy amend these evil causes, and make our
people to have, and con, and keep truly holy writ, to life and death!
But in translating of words equivocal, that is, that hath many
significations under one letter, may lightly be peril, for Austin saith
in the 2nd book of Christian Teaching, that if equivocal words be not
translated into the sense, either understanding, of the author, it is
error; as in that place of the Psalm, _the feet of them be swift to shed
out blood_, the Greek word is equivocal to _sharp_ and _swift_, and he
that translated _sharp feet_, erred, and a book that hath _sharp feet_,
is false, and must be amended; as that sentence _unkind young trees
shall not give deep roots_, oweth to be thus, _plantings of aoutrry
shall not give deep roots_. Austin saith this there. Therefore a
translator hath great need to study well the sentence, both before and
after, and look that such equivocal words accord with the sentence, and
he hath need to live a clean life, and be full devout in prayers, and
have not his wit occupied about worldly things, that the Holy Spirit,
author of wisdom, and cunning, and truth, dress him in his work, and
suffer him not for to err. Also this word _ex_ signifieth sometimes
_of_, and sometimes it signifieth _by_, as Jerome saith; and this word
_enim_ signifieth commonly _forsooth_, and, as Jerome saith, it
signifieth _cause thus, for why_; and this word _secundum_ is taken for
_after_, as many men say, and commonly, but it signifieth well _by_,
either _up_, thus _by your word_, either _up your word_. Many such
adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions be set oft one for another, and
at free choice of authors sometimes; and now they shall be taken as it
accordeth best to the sentence. By this manner, with good living and
great travail, men may come to true and clear translating, and true
understanding of holy writ, seem it never so hard at the beginning. God
grant to us all grace to con well, and keep well holy writ, and suffer
joyfully some pain for it at the last! Amen.
Footnotes:
[27] _Nicolaus de Lyra._
[28] Bohemians.
_Dialogue between a LORD and a CLERK upon Translation._
[From TREVISA'S Translation of HIGDEN'S _Polychronicon_.]
_Dialogue between a Lord and a Clerk upon Translation._
From Trevisa's Translation of Higden's _Polychronicon_.
=1387 ?=
THE LORD.--Sith the time that the great and high tower of Babylon was
builded, men have spoken with divers tongues, in such wise that divers
men be strange to other and understand not others' speech. Speech is not
known but if it be learned; common learning of speech is by hearing, and
so alway he that is deaf is alway dumb, for he may not hear speech for
to learn. So men of far countries and lands that have divers speeches,
if neither of them have learned others' language, neither of them wot
what other meaneth. Though they meet and have great need of information
and of lore of talking and of speech, be the need never so great,
neither of them understandeth other's speech no more than gagling of
geese. For jangle that one never so fast, that other is never the wiser,
though he shrew him instead of 'good-morrow'! This is a great mischief
that followeth now mankind; but God of His mercy and grace hath ordained
double remedy. One is that some man learneth and knoweth many divers
speeches, and so between strange men, of the which neither understandeth
other's speech, such a man may be mean and tell either what other will
mean. That other remedy is that one language is learned, used, and known
in many nations and lands. And so Latin is learned, known, and used,
specially on this half Greece, in all the nations and lands of Europe.
Therefore clerks, of their goodness and courtesy, make and write their
books in Latin, for their writing and books should be understood in
divers nations and lands. And so Ranulphus, monk of Chester (Ralph
Higden), wrote in Latin his books of Chronicles, that describeth the
world about in length and in breadth, and maketh mention and mind of
doings and deeds of marvels and wonders, and reckoneth the years to his
last days from the first making of heaven and of earth. And so therein
is great and noble information and lore to them that can therein read
and understand. Therefore I would have these books of Chronicles
translated out of Latin into English, for the more men should them
understand and have thereof cunning, information and lore.
THE CLERK.--These books of Chronicles be written in Latin, and Latin is
used and understood on this half Greece in all the nations and lands of
Europe. And commonly English is not so wide understood, ne known; and
the English translation should no man understand but English men alone;
then how should the more men understand the Chronicles, though they were
translated out of Latin, that is so wide used and known, into English,
that is not used and known but of English men alone?
THE LORD.--This question and doubt is easy to assail. For if these
Chronicles were translated out of Latin into English, then by that so
many the more men should understand them as understand English, and no
Latin.
THE CLERK.--Ye can speak, read, and understand Latin; then it needeth
not to have such an English translation.
THE LORD.--I deny this argument; for though I can speak, read, and
understand Latin, there is much Latin in these books of Chronicles that
I can not understand, neither thou, without studying, avisement, and
looking of other books. Also, though it were not needful for me, it is
needful for other men that understand no Latin.
THE CLERK.--Men that understand no Latin may learn and understand.
THE LORD.--Not all; for some may not for other manner business, some for
age, some for default of wit, some for default of chattel, other of
friends to find them to school, and some for other divers defaults and
lets.
THE CLERK.--It needeth not that all such know the Chronicles.
THE LORD.--Speak not too straitly of thing that needeth; for straitly to
speak of thing that needeth, only thing that is, and may not fail,
needeth to be. And so it needeth that God be, for God is, and may not
fail. And, so for to speak, no man needeth for to know the Chronicles,
for it might and may be that no man them knoweth. Otherwise to speak of
thing that needeth; somewhat needeth for to sustain or to have other
things thereby, and so meat and drink needeth for keeping and sustenance
of life. And, so for to speak, no man needeth for to know the
Chronicles. But in the third manner to speak of thing that needeth, all
that is profitable needeth, and, so for to speak, all men need to know
the Chronicles.
THE CLERK.--Then they that understand no Latin may ask and be informed
and ytaught of them that understand Latin.
THE LORD.--Thou speakest wonderly, for the lewd man wots not what he
should ask, and namely of lore of deeds that come never in his mind; nor
wots of whom commonly he should ask. Also, not all men that understand
Latin have such books to inform lewd men; also some can not, and some
may not, have while, and so it needeth to have an English translation.
THE CLERK.--The Latin is both good and fair, therefore it needeth not to
have an English translation.
THE LORD.--The reason is worthy to be plunged in a pludde and laid in
powder of lewdness and of shame. It might well be that thou makest only
in mirth and in game.
THE CLERK.--The reason must stand but it be assoiled.
THE LORD.--A blear-eyed man, but he were all blind of wit, might see the
solution of this reason; and though he were blind he might grope the
solution, but if his feeling him failed. For if this reason were aught
worth, by such manner arguing men might prove that the three score and
ten interpreters, and Aquila, Symachus, Theodocion, and Origines were
lewdly occupied when they translated holy writ out of Hebrew into Greek;
and also that Saint Jerome was lewdly occupied when he translated holy
writ out of Hebrew into Latin, for the Hebrew is both good and fair and
y-written by inspiration of the Holy Ghost; and all these for their
translations be highly praised of all Holy Church. Then the foresaid
lewd reason is worthy to be powdered, laid a-water and y-soused. Also
holy writ in Latin is both good and fair, and yet for to make a sermon
of holy writ all in Latin to men that can English and no Latin, it were
a lewd deed, for they be never the wiser for the Latin, but it be told
them in English what it is to mean; and it may not be told in English
what the Latin is to mean without translation out of Latin into English.
Then it needeth to have an English translation, and for to keep it in
mind that it be not forgeten, it is better that such a translation be
made and written than said and not written. And so this foresaid lewd
reason should move no man that hath any wit to leave the making of
English translation.
THE CLERK--A great deal of these books standeth much by holy writ, by
holy doctors, and by philosophy; then these books should not be
translated into English.
THE LORD--It is wonder that thou makest so feeble arguments, and hast
gone so long to school. Aristotle's books and other books also of logic
and of philosophy were translated out of Greek into Latin. Also at
praying of King Charles, John Scott translated Deny's books out of Greek
into Latin, and then out of Latin into French; then what hath English
trespassed that it might not be translated into English? Also King
Alured, that founded the University of Oxford, translated the best laws
into English tongue, and a great deal of the Psalter out of Latin into
English, and caused Wyrefrith, Bishop of Worcester, to translate Saint
Gregory's books, the dialogues, out of Latin into Saxon. Also Caedmon of
Whitby was inspired of the Holy Ghost, and made wonder poesies in
English nigh of all the stories of holy writ. Also the holy man Beda
translated St. John's gospel out of Latin into English. Also thou wotest
where the Apocalypse is written in the walls and roof of a chapel, both
in Latin and in French. Also the gospel, and prophecy, and the right
faith of holy church must be taught and preached to English men that can
no Latin. Then the gospel, and prophecy, and the right faith of holy
church must be told them in English, and that is not done but by English
translation, for such English preaching is very translation, and such
English preaching is good and needful; then English translation is good
and needful.
THE CLERK--If a translation were made that might be amended in any
point, some men it would blame.
THE LORD--If men blame that is not worthy to be blamed, then they be to
blame. Clerks know well enough that no sinful man doth so well that it
ne might do better, ne make so good a translation that he ne might be
better. Therefore Origines made two translations, and Jerome translated
thrice the Psalter. I desire not translation of these the best that
might be, for that were an idle desire for any man that is now alive,
but I would have a skilful translation, that might be known and
understood.
THE CLERK--Whether is you liefer have, a translation of these chronicles
in rhyme or in prose?
THE LORD--In prose, for commonly prose is more clear than rhyme, more
easy and more plain to know and understand.
THE CLERK--Then God grant us grace grathly to gin, wit and wisdom wisely
to work, might and mind of right meaning to make translation trusty and
true, pleasing to the Trinity, three persons and one God, in majesty,
that ever was and ever shall be, and made heaven and earth, and light
for to shine, and departed light and darkness, and called light, day,
and darkness, night; and so was made eventide and morrowtide one day,
that had no morrowtide. The second day He made the firmament between
waters, and departed waters that were under the firmament fro the waters
that were above the firmament, and called the firmament heaven. The
third day He gathered waters that be under the firmament into one place
and made the earth unheled, and named the gathering of waters, seas, and
dry earth, land; and made trees and grass. The fourth day he made sun
and moon and stars, and set them in the firmament of heaven there for to
shine, and to be tokens and signs to depart times and years, night and
day. The fifth day He made fowls and birds in the air, and fishes in the
water. The sixth day He made beasts of the land, and man of the earth,
and put them in Paradise, for he should work and wone therein. But man
brake God's hest and fell into sin, and was put out of Paradise into
woe and sorrow, worthy to be damned to the pain of hell without any end.
But the Holy Trinity had mercy of man, and the Father sent the Son, and
the Holy Ghost alight on a maid, and the Son took flesh and blood of
that blissful maid, and died on the Rood to save mankind, and arose the
third day, glorious and blissful, and taught his disciples, and ascended
into heaven when it was time; and shall come at the day of Doom and deem
quick and dead. Then all they that be written in the Book of Life shall
wend with Him into the bliss of heaven, and be there in body and soul,
and see and know His Godhead and Manhood in joy without any end.
_Thus endeth the Dialogue._
_The Epistle of Sir John Trevisa, Chaplain unto Lord Thomas of Barkley,
upon the translation of Polychronicon into our English tongue._
Wealth and worship to my worthy and worshipful Lord Sir Thomas, Lord of
Barkley! I, John Trevisa, your priest and beadsman, obedient and buxom
to work your will, hold in heart, think in thought, and mean in mind
your needful meaning and speech that ye spake and said, that ye would
have English translation of Ranulphus of Chester's books of chronicles.
Therefore I will fond to take that travail, and make English translation
of the same books, as God granteth me grace, for blame of backbiters
will I not blinne; for envy of enemies, for evil spiting and speech of
evil speakers will I not leave to do this deed; for travail will I not
spare. Comfort I have in meedful making and pleasing to God, and in
knowing that I wot that it is your will for to make this translation
clear and plain to be known and understood. In some place I shall set
word for word, and active for active, and passive for passive, a-row
right as it standeth, without changing of the order of words. But in
some place I must change the order of words, and set active for passive,
and again-ward. And in some place I must set a reason for a word, and
tell what it meaneth. But for all such changing, the meaning shall stand
and not be changed. But some words and names of countries, of lands, of
cities, of waters, of rivers, of mountains and hills, of persons, and
of places, must be set and stand for themselves in their own kind, as
Asia, Europe, Africa, and Syria, Mount Atlas, Sindi, and Oreb, Marach,
Jordan, and Arnon, Bethlehem, Nazareth, Jerusalem, and Damascus,
Hannibal, Rasin, Ahasuerus, and Cyrus, and many such words and names. If
any man make of these books of chronicles a better English translation,
and more profitable, God do him meed! And because ye make me do this
meedful deed, He that quiteth all good deeds quite your meed in the
bliss of heaven, in wealth and liking, with all the holy saints of
mankind and the nine orders of angels; as Angels, Archangels,
Principates, Potestates, Virtutes, Dominations, Thrones, Cherubim and
Seraphim, to see God in his blissful face, in joy without any end. Amen.
_Thus endeth he his epistle._
_Certain