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THE SHORES OF THE ADRIATIC
THE AUSTRIAN SIDE
[Illustration: HERZEGOVINIAN WOMEN AT A BAKER'S SHOP IN RAGUSA.
_Frontispiece_]
THE SHORES OF THE ADRIATIC
THE AUSTRIAN SIDE
THE KÜSTENLANDE, ISTRIA, AND DALMATIA
By F. HAMILTON JACKSON, R.B.A.
VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE INSTITUTE OF DECORATIVE DESIGNERS CANTOR LECTURER,
ETC.
FULLY ILLUSTRATED WITH PLANS. DRAWINGS BY THE AUTHOR, AND PHOTOGRAPHS
TAKEN SPECIALLY FOR THIS WORK
[Illustration]
LONDON JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W. 1908
PRINTED BY HAZELL, WATSON AND VINEY, LD., LONDON AND AYLESBURY.
PREFACE
This volume is complementary to that dealing with the Italian side of
the Adriatic, and follows much the same lines. It has not been thought
necessary to repeat what appeared there about the sea itself, but some
further details on the subject have been added in an introductory
chapter. The concluding chapter treats of the influence which the two
coasts exerted on each other, and contains some hints as to certain
archæological problems of great interest, which deserve fuller and more
individual treatment than they can receive in such a work as the
present.
In a country which still contains so much that is unfamiliar, so many
mediæval survivals in customs and costume, and so much that is fine in
scenery, architecture, and the decorative arts, the picturesque aspect
of the country has been dwelt upon more than was the case in dealing
with the Italian side, and the meticulous description of buildings has
to a great extent been abandoned, except in cases where it was necessary
for the full understanding of the deductions drawn from existing
details. At the same time, matters of archæology have not been
neglected, and the rich remains of mediæval goldsmiths' work have
received special attention. The costume, the customs, and the folk-lore
of the Morlacchi are also treated of in considerable detail.
The determination of the Croat majority to stamp out the Italian
language by insisting upon instruction in the schools being given
solely in Croat will, in the course of a generation, make Italian a
foreign language understood by few; and it seems wise for those who
desire to visit Dalmatia to do so soon, while it is still understood and
before Italian culture is forgotten.
The present work does not pretend to in any way rival Mr. T.G. Jackson's
classic volumes on the architecture of the country, in completeness of
historical treatment or architectural detail. Though Sir Gardner
Wilkinson had published a book on the country, and the brothers Adam's
full description of Diocletian's Palace was well known to connoisseurs,
he may be said to have practically discovered Dalmatia for the
Englishman; and it is a proof of the excellence of his work that, though
twenty years have elapsed since it was published, it has never been
surpassed, and its value remains undiminished. To these volumes the
author desires to acknowledge his indebtedness, as well as to the
"Mittheilungen" of the Austrian Central Commission for the Conservation
of Historical Monuments; the "Bullettino di Storia Dalmata," conducted
by Mgr. Bulic at Spalato; the "Atti" of the Istrian "Società di
Archeologia e Storia Patria," published at Parenzo; and the "Archeografo
Triestino," published at Trieste, all chronicling discoveries as they
were made, and containing articles giving interesting and reliable
information upon the history and antiquities of the coast. In addition,
the following works have been consulted:
Freeman's "Subject Lands of Venice"; Munro's "Rambles and Studies in
Bosnia and Herzegovina"; Neale's "Travels in Dalmatia"; Villari's
"Ragusa"; Benussi's "L'Istria"; Bianchi's "Zara Cristiana" and
"Antichità Romane e mediævale di Zara"; Mgr. Bulic's "Guide to Spalato
and Salona"; Caprin's "Il Trecento a Trieste," "Alpi Gulie," and
"L'Istria noblissima"; Carrara's "La Dalmazia descritta"; Chiudina's
"Le Castella di Spalato"; Fabianich's "La Dalmazia nè primi cinque
secoli del Cristianesimo"; Fosco's "La Cathedrale di Sebenico";
Franceschi's "L'Istria"; Gelcich's "Memorie storiche delle Bocche di
Cattaro" and "Dello Sviluppo civile di Ragusa"; Lago's "Memorie sulla
Dalmazia"; Lucio's "History of Dalmatia and Traù"; Ludwig and Molmenti's
"Vittore Carpaccio"; Mantegazza's "L'Altra Sponda"; Modrich's "La
Dalmazia"; Pasini's "Il Tesoro di S. Marco in Venezia"; Cav. G.B. di
Rossi's "La Capsella Argentea africana," &c., and the two series of
"Bullettino di Archeologia Cristiana"; Sabalich's "Guida Archeologica di
Zaza"; Tamaro's "Le Citta dell' Istria"; and volumes of the Zara
"Annuario Dalmatico"; Bamberger's "Blaues Meer und Schwarze Berge";
Danilo's "Dalmatien"; "Die Monarchic in Wort und Bild"; Eitelberger von
Edelberg's "Gesammelte Kunsthistorischen Schriften"; Hauser's "Spalato
und die monumente Dalmatiens"; Heider's "Mittelaltliche Kunst denkmale
des OEsterreichischen Kaiserstaates"; Passarge's "Dalmatien und
Montenegro"; Petermann's "Führer durch Dalmatien"; Tomasin's "Die
Volkstamme im Gebiete von Triest und in Istrien"; Von Warsberg's
"Dalmatien"; and Count Lanckoronski's magnificent monograph of the
Cathedral of Aquileia.
A small portion of the matter of this volume has appeared in _The
Builder_ and _The Guardian_, but has been revised and, to a great
extent, rewritten. The author's thanks are due to the proprietors for
permission to republish these articles. He desires to express his thanks
also to the Austrian Government especially, and to the ecclesiastical
authorities, for special facilities very kindly afforded him for
prosecuting his studies; to the Central Commission, for the loan of
clichés of most of the plans; to the directorate of the Archeografo
Triestino, for permission to reproduce the plan of the cathedral,
Trieste; to the Istrian Archæological Society, for the plan of the three
cathedrals of Parenzo, and for permission, very courteously given by the
president, Dr. Amoroso, to use anything published by them on the
subject; to Mgr. Bulic, Sig. Maionica, Curator of the Museum, Aquileia,
and to Sig. Puschi, of the Museum, Trieste, for much information kindly
given by word of mouth; and to Mr. Palmer, Librarian of the Art Library,
South Kensington, for calling his attention to several books which were
exceedingly useful.
The photographs (as in the Italian volume) are from the excellent
negatives of Mr. Cooper Ashton, the travelling companion of many foreign
archæological expeditions.
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE v
LISTS OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND PLANS xi-xv
I. INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER 1
II. THE RACES AND THEIR CUSTOMS 6
III. AQUILEIA 23
IV. GRADO 41
V. GRADO TO TRIESTE 54
VI. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF ISTRIA 69
VII. MUGGIA TO PIRANO 79
VIII. UMACO TO PARENZO 104
IX. PARENZO 107
X. TO POLA BY SEA 127
XI. TO POLA BY LAND 133
XII. POLA 143
XIII. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ISTRIAN COAST 160
XIV. FIUME AND VEGLIA 163
XV. OSSERO AND CHERSO 180
XVI. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF DALMATIA 187
XVII. ARBE 192
XVIII. ZARA 205
XIX. SEBENICO 245
XX. TRAÙ AND THE RIVIERA DEI SETTE CASTELLI 262
XXI. SPALATO 292
XXII. THE SOUTHERN GROUP OF ISLANDS 316
XXIII. RAGUSA 333
XXIV. THE BOCCHE DI CATTARO 369
XXV. THE RECIPROCAL INFLUENCES OF THE TWO SHORES 397
INDEX 409
ILLUSTRATIONS
I. FROM PHOTOGRAPHS
Herzegovinian Women at a Baker's Shop in Ragusa _Frontispiece_
Statue of Venus, Museum, Aquileia _Facing page_ 36
Pulpit in the Cathedral, Grado " 45
Shipping at Trieste: the Canal, with the Greek Church
and Sant' Antonio " 57
Pirano, from near the Cathedral " 97
Marble Capital of the Sixth Century, Parenzo " 113
High-altar, Parenzo, from the South Aisle " 116
Wine-boats in the Fiumara Canal, Fiume " 163
South Portion of Choir-screen, Cathedral, Veglia " 173
The Harbour of Besca Nova " 176
Chimneys at Besca Nova " 178
Monstrance in Colleggiata, Ossero " 184
Smergo Fishermen " 186
Ascent to the Ramparts, Zara " 205
Carving on Right Jamb of West Door, Cathedral, Traù " 272
Interior of the Cathedral, Traù " 276
Door of the "Atrio Rotondo," Palace of Diocletian,
Spalato " 294
Interior of the Cathedral, Spalato " 296
Panel from Guvina's Doors of the Cathedral, Spalato " 299
Stall-backs in Choir, Cathedral, Spalato " 300
A Morlacco Family, between Salona and Clissa " 314
Travelling at ease: among the Islands " 329
Herzegovinian Charcoal Porter, Gravosa " 334
Reliquary of the Head of S. Blaise, Cathedral
Treasury, Ragusa " 343
Cloister of the Dominican Convent, Ragusa " 349
Lavabo in Sacristy of Franciscan Convent, Ragusa " 353
Loggia of Rector's Palace, Ragusa " 354
Capital from the Loggia, Rector's Palace, Ragusa " 355
Æsculapius Capital, Rector's Palace, Ragusa " 356
Fountain of Onofrio di La Cava, Ragusa " 357
Reliquary of the Head of S. Trifone, Cattaro " 384
Albanian Horse-dealers, Cattaro " 388
II. FULL-PAGE LINE DRAWINGS
Narthex of the Cathedral, Aquileia " 35
A Corner in Grado " 42
The Patriarch's Throne, Cathedral, Grado " 46
Choir-screen and Ambo, Muggia Vecchia " 81
The "Fontico" and S. Giacorno, Capodistria " 90
The Piazza da Ponte, Capodistria " 92
The Inner Harbour, Pirano " 94
Opus Sectile in the Apse, Cathedral, Parenzo " 114
The Atrium and Western Façade, Cathedral, Parenzo " 119
View across the Nave, Cathedral, Parenzo " 131
An Istrian Farm-house " 133
Interior of the Basilica, San Lorenzo in Pasenatico " 134
Entrance to the Castle, Pisino " 137
An Angle of the Castle, San Vincenti " 139
Arch of the Sergii, Pola " 145
The Amphitheatre, Pola " 146
West Doorway, S. Francesco, Pola " 154
Interior of the Cathedral, Veglia " 171
In the Harbour, Besca Nova " 175
The Main Street, Besca Nova " 177
Lussin Grande " 181
West Door of the Colleggiata, Ossero " 183
The Landing-place, Arbe " 193
The Porta Marina, Zara " 207
North Door of Western Façade, Cathedral, Zara " 220
Apse of S. Crisogono, Zara " 230
Entrance to the Town of Nona " 239
Eastern End of Cathedral, Sebenico " 248
Late Venetian-Gothic Doorway, Sebenico " 253
South-east Portion of Choir, Cathedral, Sebenico " 254
Belfry of Greek Church, Sebenico " 257
The Porta Marina and Custom House, Traù " 265
The Porta S. Giovanni, Traù " 266
A Decayed Palace, Traù " 282
The Quay, Castel Vecchio " 287
The Porta Aurea, Spalato " 293
Italian Fruit and Vegetable Boats, Spalato " 303
Cloister of S. Francesco, Spalato " 305
Osteria at Salona " 310
Basilica of the Christian Cemetery, Salona " 312
Porta Pile, Ragusa " 336
Torre Menze and Fort S. Lorenzo, Ragusa " 337
La Sponza and Onofrio's Fountain, Ragusa " 359
The Ruined Bastion, Castelnuovo, Bocche di Cattaro " 373
Dobrota, Bocche di Cattaro " 378
Ciborium of S. Trifone, Cattaro " 383
S. Luka, Cattaro " 385
The Scuola Nautica, Cattaro " 386
III. LINE DRAWINGS IN TEXT
Knocker of the Rector's Palace, Ragusa _On Title_
Antique Statue in the Museum, Aquileia _page_ 37
Figure of S. Giusto, Campanile of the Cathedral, Trieste " 63
Arco di Riccardo, Trieste " 65
West End of the Church, Muggia Vecchia " 80
Knocker on Palazzo Tacco, Capodistria " 91
Greek Benedictional Cross, Parenzo " 117
Sarcophagus of S. Eufemia, Rovigno " 130
Wayside Chapel outside San Vincenti " 140
Stall on the Wine-quay, Fiume " 164
Veglia, showing the Castle Towers 172
Reliquary of the Head of Sant Christopher 196
Arbe, from the Shore 203
Morlacco Girl, Zara 212
Going to Market, Zara 213
Altar of Sant' Anastasia, Zara 225
Reliquary of Sant' Orontius, Zara 226
Reliquary of the Clothes of Our Lord, S. Maria Nuova, Zara 234
Costume of Sebenico 257
Late Gothic Lintel at Traù 283
A Quaint Costume, Traù 286
Reliquaries and Chalice, Treasury, Spalato Cathedral 297
Morse in the Treasury, Spalato Cathedral 298
Porta Maggiore, Lesina 319
West Door of the Cathedral, Curzola 326
Head Reliquary in Cathedral, Ragusa 345
Reliquary of the Jaw of S. Stephen of Hungary 346
A Corner of the Walls, Cattaro 388
Montenegrins in the Market, Cattaro 392
Early Greek Ship, from Millingen's Vases _Tailpiece_
IV. PLANS AND SECTIONS
Plan of the Cathedral, Aquileia 28
Plan of the Cathedral, Trieste 60
Plan of Pulpit, Muggia Vecchia 82
Plan of the Three Basilicas, Parenzo 109
Plan of S. Maria Formosa, Pola 148
Plans of S. Donate, Zara 214
Plans and Section of S. Lorenzo,
Zara _Between pages_ 216 _and_ 217
Plan of Foundations discovered on the Riva Nuova, Zara 218
Plan of the Cathedral, Zara 223
Plan of Cathedral Crypt, Zara 224
Plan of S. Nicolò, Nona 242
Plan and Sections, S. Barbara, Traù 268
Plan of the Cathedral, Traù 271
Plan of Cathedral and Campanile, Spalato 295
Plan of the Dominican Convent, Ragusa 348
Plan and Elevation of one Bay of Cloister, Dominican
Convent, Ragusa 352
Plan of La Sponza, Ragusa 358
Plan of the Cathedral, Cattaro 381
Map of Istria and Dalmatia _At end of book_
I
INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER
The two shores of the Adriatic are totally different in their natural
characteristics; the western being almost islandless and destitute of
harbours, while the eastern is fringed by an almost continuous chain of
islands and possesses several magnificent harbours which communicate
with the open sea by narrow channels easily fortified, the rocks rising
precipitously from the water along the greater part of the coast,
whereas on the Italian side there is an equally continuous strip of
alluvial plain between the foothills and the sea.
The Adriatic was once bounded by a kind of ridge stretching from Monte
Gargano to Albania. North of this line the depth is much less than in
the Ionian Sea. When the surface of the earth sank, the Dalmatian
islands were formed by the letting in of the sea. The depth near Parenzo
is about 120 ft.; in the Quarnero, near Fiume, 195 ft.; between Cherso
and Arbe, 335 ft.; and south-west of the island Zuri (some 24 miles from
the mainland), about 700 ft. Depths as great as 335 ft. to 490 ft. are,
however, not very common within nine miles of the mainland. In the
Bocche di Cattaro the depth near the mouth is 165 ft., but half a mile
west of the Punta d'Ostro, 335 ft. North of the line from Monte Gargano
to Pelagosa, Cazza, and Curzola it is never as much as 780 ft.;
south-east of this line the bottom sinks so much that between Cattaro
and Brindisi it reaches a depth of over 5,000 ft. The tide is scarcely
perceptible, and the currents are very slight. The land is still
sinking, as is proved by the Roman sarcophagi found beneath the water at
Vranjic and the submerged roads between Aquileia and Grado; while there
are records of the destruction of ancient towns from sudden subsidences,
as that of Cissa, near Rovigno. The subsidence has been calculated as
about a yard in 1,000 years. Cluverius proves from Ptolemy that in
antiquity the name Adriatic only applied to that part of the gulf which
lay to the north of a line between Monte Gargano and Durazzo. A passage
of Strabo, describing the people of Epirus, runs: "The Adriatic being
ended, the Ionian commences, the first shore of which is in the
neighbourhood of Epidamnus and Apollonia." When Venice conquered Durazzo
the limits of the Adriatic were extended, and it was thenceforth called
the Gulf of Venice. In 1859 the almost incredible fact is recorded that
it was frozen for several days!
The Austrian provinces which lie along the coast are, commencing at the
north, the Küstenlande, Istria, and Dalmatia. In the first the Julian
Alps form a great boundary wall to the plain of the Isonzo, from which
the ground rises between Monfalcone and Nabresina to the stony district
of the Karst. The Istrian ranges are spurs from this lofty plateau, the
chain culminating in Monte Maggiore, north-west of Fiume. All these
heights belong to the Julian Alps. Beyond Fiume, southwards, there are
three principal mountain chains, all of which have much the same
formation of limestone, pale brownish or grey in colour, with fossils
and streaks of other colours. The first is the Dinaric Alps or Velebits,
a continuation of the Julian Alps. These separate Dalmatia from Bosnia
as far as Imoschi, where they enter Herzegovina, finally joining the
Montenegrin chain. The chain of the shore commences on the left bank of
the Kerka and extends to the Narenta, which cuts it. It runs as far as
Trebinje, beyond the river. The Montenegrin mountains, which are so
impressive above the Bocche di Cattaro, joining with those of the
Herzegovina, make the third chain. The islands and rocks in the sea
appear to be submarine branches of the littoral chain; the strata lie in
the same direction--in the North Dalmatian islands to the north-west, in
the Southern to the west. On the peninsula of Sabbioncello they lie
partly in one and partly in the other direction. The former connection
between the islands and the mainland is proved by the remains of
rhinoceros, horse, and stag in the diluvial bone breccias of Lesina, and
the survival of the jackal in Giuppana, Curzola, and Sabbioncello.
Geologists hold that the deeply cut bays of Sabbioncello and Gravosa, as
well as of the Bocche di Cattaro, and the step-shaped sinkings of the
northern and eastern limestone mountains towards the Adriatic basin are
signs of the tearing away of the islands from the mainland, perhaps
through the destruction of the permeable strata.
These generally show in their forms the craggy and stony character of
the Dinaric Alps, rising perpendicularly from the water on the side of
the prevailing wind, and without vegetation. On the other side are
softer hills and plains with southern vegetation, the aromatic scents
from which are carried by the breeze. There are about twenty large
islands, some of which are over 30 miles long; but the number may be
raised to a hundred by counting in the small ones. They are generally in
groups or chains, though some are isolated. The water is generally deep
up to the shore, so there are very few sandbanks.
The greater portion of the naked surface of the land is formed of
limestone and dolomites, which are closely related: there are also, on
the lower levels, grey or red sands, among which schistous loams of
uniform colour predominate. These two formations stretch from one end of
the province to the other in sloping beds. They are interrupted here and
there by loam and schistous clay and horizontal beds of a kind of
limestone: below these are lignites and chalky limestone, in which
shells are found belonging to a later formation. The oldest formations
are the volcanic mountains near Knin and on Lissa. Next follow the trias
strata, as under the Velebits and westwards from Sinj, then the
sandstone beds, the different eocene beds and alluvial strata, as in the
plain of Dernis, north of the Vrana Lake, by Nona and Imoski. The
principal characteristic of the Karst district (to which Dalmatia
belongs geologically) is the way the water flows, sometimes above,
sometimes under ground. Where the woods were cut down to supply the
Romans and Venetians with material for constructing their fleets, and
where natural afforestation has been stopped by the feeding of sheep and
goats, the red earth has either been washed away by the rains or blown
away by the winds, so that it is only in the hollows that cultivation
can be carried on.
The bitter north wind, the Bora, is the curse of the district. In the
island of Arbe it sometimes blows even in June and July, stripping the
vineyards as if hundreds of men had been at work, and carrying the salt
spray all over the island, to the great detriment of vegetation. It is
sometimes strong enough to upset pedestrians, and it is said that if it
were not for it, there would be neither winter nor cold in the Dalmatian
littoral. On the heights winter begins in November and lasts till April,
with heavy snowfalls; but on the coast spring begins in February, and
winter only at the beginning of December. The summer, which commences in
May, is usually rainless, with the heat tempered by sea-breezes, though
at the end of August heavy rains commence, and in autumn the frequent
changes of temperature are dangerous. The flora consists of nearly 2,500
species, described by Visiani in his "Flora Dalmatica." The aquatic
flora contains nearly 700 varieties, many of the seaweeds being
exclusively Dalmatian. Views on the coast of Ragusa, or at Castelnuovo,
in the Bocche, resemble those of Sardinia and Sicily. On one side may be
seen green meadows, fruit trees, flowing water, cornfields, beechwoods,
&c.; on the other, olive groves, thickets of arbutus, hedge plants the
height of a tree, myrtles, and bay; on the naked rock aloes grow and the
_opuntia_; in gardens, dwarf and date-palms, unprotected _cycas
revoluta_, and orange and lemon trees; and wide valleys are filled with
lofty carob trees--so close are the boundaries between the flora of
middle Europe and of the Mediterranean. Almonds flower in December, and
peas and beans are often gathered at Christmas. At Cannosa the date-palm
ripens its fruit, and flowers are always to be seen. The Euphorbia
Dendroides grows as high as in Crete, and rosemary bushes are frequently
up to the shoulder of a man. In August the Syrian hibiscus is violet-red
and the scarlet-red arbutus fruit hangs till Christmas. On Monte Marjan,
near Spalato, where Diocletian had his parks, the sheltered aspect
creates a tropical climate. Wild aloes grow 6 ft. high, and in midwinter
numbers of field flowers may be picked as if it were spring.
II
THE RACES AND THEIR CUSTOMS
The people of Istria and Dalmatia are a very mixed race, as might be
expected from the history of the countries. On these shores and islands
were Greek colonies and Roman _municipia_, which have left their trace
in the names of places and families. Greek colonies were at Issa
(Lissa), Pharia (Lesina), Epetium (Stobrec), Tragurium (Traù), Melita
(Meleda), Corcyra (Curzola), Buta (Budua), and Ambrachia (Brazza), to
name some of those which have survived as towns to the present day.
Roman family names occur especially round Spalato, such as Lutia
(Lucio), Cæpia (Cippico), Valeria (Valeri), Junia (Giunio), Coceia
(Coceich), Marcia (Marce), Cassia (Cassio), Cælia (Celio), and Statilia
(Statileo). Byzantine names testify to the rule of Byzantium, such as
Paleologo, Lascaris, Andronico, Grisogono, Catacumano. In Istria there
is a considerable admixture of German blood; on the rocks of Zara the
Crusaders abandoned sick Frenchmen; whilst thither and to Spalato also
came Ghibellines in exile. Franks, Croats, Bosniaks, Hungarians,
Genoese, Neapolitans, and above all, Venetians have held sway over
portions of the coast at different times. Families of Hungarian and
Bosnian gentlemen established the free commune of Poglizza; exiles from
Spain, Jews, for the most part driven out in 1492, established
themselves at Spalato and Ragusa; Lombards descended upon the coasts and
islands; and Venetians commenced to establish themselves in Dalmatia in
the eleventh century, Istria coming even earlier more or less under
their influence. In 1552, in the Council of Zara, out of seventeen noble
families more than two-thirds were of Italian descent; and at Lesina the
proportion was even greater. At Zara the Italians still preponderate,
but the Slav element is in the majority in the greater part of Dalmatia,
and even in the country parts of Istria. There are also many French,
Hungarians, Bosniaks, Herzegovinians, Germans, Swiss, and gypsies, the
Slav majority increasing towards the south.
In Istria the present inhabitants may be divided into Italians,
Roumanians, and Slavs: to the last division belong the Morlacchi, the
Tschitsches, Slovens, and Croats. The Italians are the most intelligent
portion of the population, and are craftsmen, large occupiers of land,
merchants, and sailors. They are the descendants of those who were
subjects of Venice from the fourteenth century till the fall of the
Republic. The Slovens were in Istria as early as the eighth century, and
Paulus Diaconus mentions them as being near Cividale. Records exist of
Croats raids in the tenth century, whilst further south there were two
great immigrations--the first, in the seventh century, by the
"Belocroats," called by Porphyrogenitus, Croats, from the banks of the
Elbe, descendants of whom may to-day be found in the islands; and the
second, in the fourteenth century, by the people of Rascia, who now
inhabit much of the interior and are known as "Morlacchi," a name
derived from the Slav "Mauro vlach," the black Wallachs.
According to Lucio, who refers to William of Tyre, all Dalmatians used
the Roman language until 1200. After the Croats came down, the name of
"Dalmatian," strictly speaking, belonged only to the cities of Zara,
Traù, Spalato, and Ragusa, to the western islands of Dalmatia, and to
Lissa and Lagosta--Eastern Dalmatia was a Servian province; Western, a
Croatian. It is known that Slavs came in 1463 to Salvore, in 1526 to the
district of Rovigno, in 1549 to the district of Cittanova, Montona,
Parenzo, and Pola, in 1595 to Fontane, in 1624 and 1634 (the plague
years) to Fillipano, 1647 to near Pola, and 1650 to Peroi, near Fasano.
Those now there came from the Bocche and Montenegro, settled in
1658-1659 by Doge Giovanni Pesaro, after the great plague. The women
still wear the ancient costume. The Slavs are most numerous between
Dragogna and Trieste. Procopius gives an interesting description of them
worth quoting: "The two nations of the Autars and the Slavs know no
monarchical government; but from ancient times live freely in common
fashion. They take all questions of great importance or difficulty to a
common national council. The customs of the two nations are alike in
everything else. These barbarians believe, by an article of faith
transmitted from their ancestors, that, among many, there is one sole
master of all things, whom they look upon as the author of the thunder;
and to him they sacrifice bulls and other victims. They do not know what
the goddess Fortune may be, nor believe that she has any influence on
human affairs. When they feel themselves threatened by death, either by
illness or wounds given in battle, they are told to promise a sacrifice
to God if they escape the danger. Then, if they soon get about again,
they fulfil the vow, firmly persuaded that by it they have recovered
their health. They offer worship to woods, to nymphs, and other genii,
immolating victims to them, and prophesying in the act. They live in
rough huts far away from each other, and often change the situation. The
greater part of them fight on foot, armed with shield and with darts,
but without corslet. Some of them do not wear their ordinary clothes in
battle, but draperies which scarcely reach to the thigh, and so they
present themselves to the enemy. They all speak the same barbarous
tongue, nor differ much in appearance, but are all tall and powerful.
The colour of the flesh and the hair is neither vermilion nor brown, but
reddish. They live a somewhat fatiguing life, somewhat neglected and
uncultivated, like the Massagetae, and, like them, on sordid food. They
are not cunning, nor evildoers, but follow the customs of the Huns in
sacking and rapine. They possess vast lands and occupy the greater part
of the further bank of the Danube." They have retained many
characteristics of an earlier age, though not of the period of
Procopius.
The men are tall and muscular, with strongly marked features. Their eyes
are generally either grey or blue, the forehead broad and prominent, the
teeth white and strong, the hair sometimes blonde, but ranging through
all shades to black, and the countenance intelligent and expressive. The
boys herd the flocks barefoot and half naked, so that their skin is
always bronzed, and the men generally have bare breasts. Their sight and
hearing are remarkably keen, and in Dalmatia they can make themselves
heard from one hill to another, a feat which is partly owing to the
quality of the air. Their excellent health enables them to support all
kinds of hardships; they sleep out of doors (covering the head), except
in winter, at which season they stay a good deal by the fire, though
they may be seen in the city with icicles on their hairy chests. They
have neither stoves, chimneys, nor glass in the windows. A case of a
monk has been recorded, who, at the age of 105, made watches and read
with the naked eye, ate and drank, walked and "wept" like a boy of
twenty. The costume is distinctive and, with slight variations, is worn
throughout Dalmatia. In Istria there are considerable differences both
in colour and form. "The Morlacco in full dress has on his head the
_kapa_, a cap of scarlet cloth, with black embroidery on the border and
hanging fringe on one side; in some districts bordering on Bosnia a rich
band of silk or coloured wools is twisted round it. Over the skirt of
rough linen (the _kosulja_), open to show the breast, is the _krozet_, a
waistcoat crossed on the breast with flat buttons of silver, or tin, and
embroidery; it is bound to the sides with a girdle (_pas_) made of red
strings. The trousers (_benevrechi_) are of a coarse blue cloth fitting
to the legs and very tight at the calf, below which they are split up
and fastened by _sponje_, copper or silver hooks. The stockings
(_nazubei_) are of wool of various patterns. The shoes (_opanci_) have a
sole of ox-leather and uppers of strips of dried sheeps' skin (_opute_);
a longer _oputa_ passes several times round the ankle and holds the shoe
firm; it turns up at the toe and looks quite Oriental. Instead of the
_krozet_, or over it, some wear the _jacerma_, a sleeveless red cloth
jacket, covered in front with little discs of tin (_siliki_), or large
balls of silver (_toke_), or by rows of coins. And over the _pas_ they
have the _pasnjaca_, a band of red leather covering part of the abdomen,
with various divisions, in which they used to carry their rich arms,
pistols, knives, &c., now filled with the pipe, pipe-cleaner, _britva_,
a very small scimitar with a bone handle, and a small knife in a sheath.
Finally, there is the _koporan_, a jacket with sleeves of blue cloth,
with embroidery on the elbows and back; but few Morlacchi wear it.
"The women have a large handkerchief (_jacmak_) on their heads,
embroidered on the borders; instead of the _kosulja_, or above it, they
have the _oplece_--that is, the coverer of the shoulders; it is closed
at the neck, embroidered on the breast, and on the ample sleeves also.
Round the neck is the _gerdan_, several strings of glass beads of
different colours; it is bound at the stomach by the _litar_, a long
band of leather a couple of inches wide covered with little tin discs
and very heavy. From the _litar_ hang the _britva_ and a lot of keys, by
chains, which are sometimes costly. The gown (_vustan_) is of blue
cloth, but in summer of linen, reaching to the middle of the calf. The
apron (_prejaca_, or, in Venetian, _travesa_) is always a _chef-d'oeuvre_
of workmanship, which the Morlacca thinks a deal of. The footwear is
composed of three parts: _bicve_, of blue cloth reaching up to the knee,
tightly laced up with little hooks, and finishing at the ankle in a
ring; over them the true stockings (_nazubei_) of rough wool, with
patterns in vivid colours and _opanci_, or _filare_, like the men's. The
girl does not have the _litar_; on her head is no _jacmak_, but a red
cloth cap, sparkling with antique or modern coins of silver, and
occasionally of gold. In some places the girl has on her bosom the
_gendar_, several rows of coins which hang from the neck, sometimes
below the stomach, tinkling at every step; this is her dowry, and
sometimes worth as much as £50. When she is married she puts off the
_gendar_ and sparkling _kapa_. The men used to have a pigtail, of which
they were very proud. The wife used to comb it twice a month, anoint it
with butter, and tie up the end with ribbons and amulets. It was the
only time when a Morlacco addressed his wife affectionately. In barracks
and in prison the hair is cut, so the pigtail is rarely seen now. To
complete the toilet the _torba_ and _torbak_ must be mentioned: the
first of red wool, with embroidery, worn by both men and women on the
back, laced round the shoulders; the second generally of skin, worn only
by the men, and hanging crosswise by a broad band of leather on the left
hip."
I have given this detailed description of the costume (quoted from
Signor Modrich's "Dalmazia"), thinking it would be of interest; but
descriptions of the costumes as they appear to the ordinary traveller
will be found in the sections dealing with the various places on the
coast.
The Dalmatians are very fond of music and are constantly singing. They
have a proverb: "He who sings thinks not of evil." Tomaseo thought their
folk-songs richer than those of any other nation, ranging as they do
over all manner of subjects. They are generally heroical or amorous in
character, divided into short verses and sung in two parts; the bass
delivers a kind of recitative, and the baritone joins in, the long final
note with which each finishes dying away in a full chord. It is
extraordinary how serious the men are over it, even when singing over
their wine, in which they sometimes exceed. At Traù one Sunday afternoon
we saw a party of eight or ten sitting round a table in a café as
serious as if at a funeral, with wine before them, and enjoying their
melancholy music. On this occasion the alto part was flat, and the
effect was not as good as it is out of doors. Later we came across more
than one group of four, standing where two streets met, and singing
without looking at each other. In the narrow ancient streets the notes
sounded quite in character with the surroundings and with the quaint
dresses of the singers. Modrich says that they use the _svirala_, a kind
of bagpipe with two canes, one with four and the other with three holes,
and suggests that the long-drawn terminating notes of the songs are in
imitation of its sound; but we neither saw nor heard this instrument,
all the singing being unaccompanied. The principal occupations of the
people are agriculture, cattle-raising, and fishing, or sea-faring. They
are exceedingly religious, devoted to church and priest, and observe the
great festivals with feasting and rejoicing, and with ceremonies many of
which are evidently survivals of heathen observances. The greatest
festival is Christmas. In preparation all clothes are washed and
mended, house and yard cleaned, and better and richer food than they
usually have is provided. On the Eve they work hard; before sunrise
house and yard are decked with bay or olive branches or some other
evergreen, which they think protects from lightning. On this day the
sun, which the ancient Slavs worshipped, woke from sleep, as one may
say, and the days began to lengthen perceptibly.
The father of the sun was Perun, the thunder-god. To this god the oak
was dedicated. In the folk-songs he is replaced by S. Elias, and to this
day a great log of oak is placed on the fire on Christmas Eve, and
kindled for the preparation of the evening meal. It burns all night and
the whole of the following day, and in many places is kept smouldering
for eight days. The customs observed are as follows. The head of the
family bares his head and says: "Blessed be thou, O log; God preserve
thee!" and sprinkles wine upon it crosswise. Then corn is thrown over
it, and he invokes every blessing from heaven for the health of those
belonging to the house, present or absent, for the success of domestic
undertakings, and for the harvest, to which the others present reply
"Amen," fire off guns in sign of joy, and say: "Welcome to the evening
of the log." Then they sit down to table in the kitchen, even if other
rooms are available, which suggests a survival of the practice of eating
by the ancient family altar, the hearth. In the centre of the table are
three candles twisted together in honour of the Trinity, lighted, and
stuck into a great loaf ornamented with ivy. This loaf is afterwards
broken up and given to the sheep and cows when bringing forth, or when
sick. A little of every kind of food is thrown on to the burning log. If
there are three logs (as in some places), the right-hand one must be the
biggest--the Father, the Son to the left, and the Spirit in the middle,
the aspersion being made in this order. Boccaccio, in the "Genealogy of
the Gods," refers to a similar custom in his day in Florence, evidently
the survival, or transmutation, of some heathen rite. After supper the
hymn "Es wurde geboren der Himmels König von der unbefleckten Jungfrau
Maria" is sung, and then the young people usually play Christmas games.
Little houses are made of flour or bran, with a piece of money in one,
which belongs to the person who selects that house. On Christmas Day
they visit neighbours and relations, married daughters come with husband
and children to the midday meal, bringing two loaves--one of finer
quality for the mother, one of the usual kind as big as possible for the
father. During the octave groups of young people (and sometimes of men
also) go singing carols from house to house, and are rewarded with money
and wine in return for wishing the donors a rich wine, olive, and fruit
crop. On New Year's Day the three tapers of Christmas Eve are
re-lighted. Before drinking at the meal the head of the house uses the
following formula: "I wish you a good New Year; may you enjoy it in
health and happiness, neither offend God, nor lose your soul, but have
every tender joy and celestial glory." Then he drinks in undiluted wine
three times, and blesses those present in the name of the Father, Son,
and Spirit, and pours the remainder of the wine on the candles to
extinguish them. If by chance one remains alight it is considered an
augury of long life to the person in front of whom it stands. The holy
water of the Vigil of the Epiphany, called "water of the Three Kings,"
and used by the priests to bless every dwelling, is preserved to
sprinkle the fields and the sick also, and is thought to be specific
against the temptations of the devil at the hour of death. It is said to
remain uncorrupted for as long as twenty-five years. Children go about
on New Year's Day with a branch of rosemary stuck in an apple in which
are kreuzer or ten-kreuzer pieces, wishing good fortune and collecting
gifts. In Trieste and some of the Istrian towns, girls and boys go about
throughout the octave of Epiphany with little lanterns, kneel on the
steps of the houses, sing a song in honour of the three Holy Kings, and
then, knocking, ask for money. The song tells how Christ was born poor,
lived poor, and died on the Cross, and then goes on to wish friendly
donors as many angels to take them to heaven as a sieve has holes; for
the hard-hearted as many devils to take them as nails stuck in the door!
In some neighbourhoods children are taken into the vineyards on
Innocents' Day, when they strike the vines with switches and sing:
"Bear, bear fruit, pretty vine, else will I cut thy head off."
Great preparations are made for Easter, when young lambs and turkeys are
slain, which the folk-songs tell us used to be offered to the sun-god.
Roasted lamb, cooked eggs, cheese, and bread and salt are carried early
to the church to be blessed by the priest. When the bearers return, the
table is blessed by the head of the family, and God thanked for the
well-completed Lenten fast, after which they sit cheerfully down to
their meal, burning all fragments left, since the food has been blessed,
and taking care not to let anything fall to the ground. In Lent, and
during other fasts, they eat neither flesh nor eggs, nor any kind of
milk food. They have a saying that it is less culpable to kill a person
in _vendetta_ than to eat rich food in Lent. S. John the Baptist's Day
is one of their principal feasts. On the Eve the shepherds light fires
on all the hills. On the morning they swim for the first time in the
year, or wash from head to foot, and also wash all their animals. The
girls and boys make garlands of flowers and broom, set them on their
heads, and dance "with devotional joy." This is no doubt part of the
ancient heathen festival of midsummer. Another festival which has
nothing to do with the Church is the "Fasching" or "Pust," on Monday
during Carnival. Groups of masked male dancers go through the villages
with horns on their heads, or with bells at their girdles weighing
several pounds, in one hand a strong stick, in the other a bag of ashes.
They dance, jest, fight with other bands, and throw ashes over the women
and children who run away. One of them generally carries a clothed
figure like a man--the "Pust"--which next day, or on Ash Wednesday, is
burnt or buried. This is a relic of the heathen custom of destroying
Morana or Mora, the goddess of night, of darkness, winter, and death,
who, the country-folk say, sits on men at night and drinks their blood,
and of Mrak (twilight), her helper, who brings little children to her by
twilight. The priest, who used to be an oracle to his flock, was asked
first to every festivity, and consulted in every difficulty. "The priest
says so" put an end to all questioning. With their religious feeling,
superstition goes hand in hand. They believe in vampires, nightmares,
witches, and "Vilen." The vampire is an evil spirit which appears by
night to frighten men, in the guise of a lately dead man or woman "who
had not lived piously." It is a human skin filled with blood, covered
with a shroud, and shows itself at crossways and on bridges, in caves
and graveyards, but also rattles window-shutters and throws down tiles
from the roof. It is not safe to call to it; if it reaches out to any
one three times that is taken as a sign that it is a good spirit from
purgatory asking for help. For protection a thorn-stick is carried, with
which the vampire is thrust through. The "Alp" (the nightmare) is an
evil old maid who sits on the back or breast of sleepers, holds their
hands and feet, and stops their mouth so that they cannot cry for help;
therefore they never sleep on the back, but on the right side, and keep
near the bed an open bottle-gourd, of which the "Alp" or "Mora" is
afraid. It generally wears a white dress and black bodice, with a white
veil over loose hair. Witches only appear in bad weather, and hold their
assemblies under walnut-trees or on certain hills. Excessive hail is
supposed to be their work. They can be killed by firing with three
grains of corn and the Paschal wax-candle at the lightning before the
thunder sounds. If this can be done, the witch dies. "Vilen" are maidens
with horses' hoofs. They are found in caves and collect in woods, at the
sources of streams or springs. The name comes from the Slav "bijela,"
the white; they are not regarded as evil spirits. In the neighbourhood
of Spalato they think that new-born children, if strong and handsome,
are likely to be taken away by "Vilen," and therefore watch the infants
most carefully till they are baptized. These maidens busy themselves
with rope-making, spinning, and gold and silver embroidery, and have the
power of changing stones and coal to gold and silver. In summer, when
hail falls on the vineyards, peasants may still be seen to turn to the
black clouds and throw up salt and shredded garlic. It is said that the
devil can be seen if one stand at the church door in such weather with a
priest, treading with the right foot upon the priest's right. He is like
a great dragon spreading his claws and reaching to the upper clouds from
the earth; but the priests never allow the trial, for fear the man
should die of fright at the sight. This reminds one of the Chinese and
Japanese storm-dragon.
The peasants practise astrology to find lucky times to commence
undertakings. Falling stars are considered to be the opening of heaven,
and anything asked for at that moment will be granted. Thunders are the
rumbling which S. Elias makes with his car. Amulets are worn,
especially near the Turkish border. It is considered lucky to spill wine
on oneself. To meet a snake, a viper in the house, or a centipede
crawling over the walls is also lucky. On the other hand, misfortune
attends crackling wood, the birth of black lambs, the entering a house
left foot first, sitting at table seven or thirteen in number, giving
drink with the left hand, spilling oil or salt, and leaving two rods or
knife and spoon crosswise. A crowing hen means domestic misfortune--she
must be killed to avoid it; and the baying of a dog or hooting of an owl
at night imports the death of a neighbour. Their customs are
patriarchal. The father has full authority over his sons, and their
wives are merely fresh daughters of the house. Every boy is held to be
worth more than the women, from the age of eight, and girls and women
who meet a man are expected to salute him. In some places, in the middle
of the last century, this salutation was accompanied with a kiss. The
oldest man in the house (_stareshina_) was the only one who could leave
anything by will. He said prayers morning and evening, blessed the
table, welcomed the guests, sat with them at table, and hurried the
service of his family. He arranged the work of each member of the
household, carried on all commercial transactions, and disposed of the
results as he pleased. If he found the duties too heavy for him he
transferred the responsibility to some other male member. The
_stopanjica_ (the mistress) was the directress of the house, and the
other women worked under her orders. These people are exceedingly
honest, and in some of the villages no locks are to be found either on
door or chest.
They have a ceremony by which two persons swear friendship before the
altar, and are then called half-brothers or half-sisters. At one time
the usage was also practised between persons of different sex. They are
also tenacious in prosecuting a _vendetta_, and, till about seventy
years ago, there was but one way in which a blood feud could be
extinguished. It was called the _Karvarina_, or price of blood, and its
acceptance was preceded by several very curious ceremonies. The
relations dipped the murdered man's shirt in his blood, and kept it till
he was avenged, or the price of blood was arranged. The family of the
murderer asked for a truce of several weeks, and sent a solemn embassy
of twelve young women with their babies. Arrived at the house, the
babies were put down, and the women wept, asking for peace and pity in
the name of S. John the Baptist, and the putting away of anger for pity
of the little ones. After a time the people of the house picked up the
children and promised to bring to the font twelve of their children yet
unborn to be attendants at the marriage of as many girls, and gave the
mothers a piece of silver, a veil, and a cloth in sign of peace. Then
the relations of the slain chose twenty-four judges, who were entreated
by the other side to serve, and could not refuse, nor might they receive
payment. To the preliminaries of the judgment on the appointed day the
"dance of blood" succeeded. The criminal, with joined hands, and with
the fatal sword at his neck, extricated himself from the slow,
melancholy dance, and cried three times: "Pardon!" The nearest relation
ordered the principal judge to drive him ignominiously away. The judge
obeyed, and struck him to the earth with his foot, but as soon as his
forehead touched the ground he turned and cried again: "In the Name of
God, pardon me!" The dancing stopped, and the dancers burst into tears.
The embittered relative of the murdered man went to him, raised him,
embraced him, and kissed him on the forehead, and, turning to the rest,
cried out: "This man has been my enemy hitherto, but shall be my
friend--my brother--henceforward, to me and to you all also, and to any
who were blood-relations of our dear friend who was killed," and then
broke a silver coin in two, giving him one half. Then the oldest of the
judges read the sentence imposing the price of blood, from 50 to 140
zecchins of gold. Part of the money went to the Church, a third to the
expenses of the judgment, and the rest to the family, who generally
applied it to some pious use.