ORGANIZATION
ORGANIZATION
HOW ARMIES ARE FORMED FOR WAR
BY
COLONEL HUBERT FOSTER
ROYAL ENGINEERS
LONDON
HUGH REES, LTD.
119 PALL MALL, S.W.
1911
(ALL RIGHTS RESERVED)
PRINTED AND BOUND BY
HAZELL, WATSON AND VINEY, LD.,
LONDON AND AYLESBURY.
PREFACE
The Author was led to compile this account of Army Organization owing
to his inability to discover any book dealing systematically with that
subject. Military writers do, of course, make frequent allusions to
Organization, but a previous acquaintance with the subject is generally
assumed. One looks in vain for an explicit account, either of the
principles underlying organization, or of the development of its forms
and methods.
It is true that the word Organization figures in the title of more than
one Military treatise, but the subject is handled unsystematically
and empirically, so that the ordinary reader is unable to realize the
significance of the facts. In some cases the term Organization is
interpreted in so wide a sense as to include not only Tactics, Staff
Duties, and Administration, but any matters of moment to an army. Thus,
in the volume of essays recently published, an author of weight states
that “Organization for War means thorough and sound preparation for war
in all its branches,” and goes on to say, “the raising of men, their
physical and moral improvement ... their education and training ... are
the fruits of a sound organization.”
In the present work, Organization is taken in a more literal and
limited sense. The book would otherwise have tended to become a
discussion of every question affecting the efficiency of armies. The
intention of the Author is to give in broad outline a general account
of Organization for War, and of the psychological principles underlying
the exercise of Command, which it is the main purpose of Organization
to facilitate.
At the same time the organization discussed is not restricted to that
of the British Army, but is that of modern armies in general, as well
as of individual armies in particular, that of the British Army being
described in greater detail, in Part II.
In Part IV. will be found a sketch of the History of Organization,
which should interest any one who, like the Author, is not content with
knowing things as they happen to be at present, unless he can trace the
steps by which they came to be so.
The subject is intentionally not treated with minuteness of detail.
To have made the book a cyclopædia of detailed information about
organization would have obscured its purpose. It is hoped that the work
may prove useful to the increasing numbers of those who have taken up
Military work throughout the Empire, and not uninteresting to general
readers, and students of history.
HUBERT FOSTER.
SYDNEY, _June 1910_.
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE v
ABBREVIATIONS xv
INTRODUCTION xvii
PART I
_WAR ORGANIZATION OF THE PRESENT DAY_
CHAPTER I
THE OBJECT OF ORGANIZATION
Command 3
Definition of Organization 4
The Chain of Command 5
Units or Formations of Troops 6
CHAPTER II
THE FIGHTING TROOPS
The Arms of the Service 8
Characteristics of the Arms 8
1. Cavalry 9
2. Artillery 12
3. Engineers 13
4. Infantry 15
CHAPTER III
ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITS OF EACH ARM
1. Infantry 17
2. Cavalry 21
3. Artillery 23
4. Engineers 30
CHAPTER IV
NEW VARIETIES OF FIGHTING TROOPS
1. Mounted Infantry 32
2. Mountain Infantry 33
3. Mountain Artillery 34
4. Machine Guns 34
5. Cavalry Pioneers 35
6. Cyclists and Motor Cars 36
7. Scouts 37
8. Field Orderlies 39
9. Military Police 39
CHAPTER V
FORMATIONS OF ALL ARMS
1. The Division 42
2. The Army Corps 44
3. Cavalry Corps 47
4. The Army as a Unit 48
The Administrative Services for the above 51
CHAPTER VI
THE STAFF
Composition of Head-Quarters 54
The General Staff 57
The Adjutant-General’s Branch 59
The Quarter-Master-General’s Branch 59
Staff of Subordinate Commands 60
Importance of the Staff 60
Number of Officers allotted to the Staff 61
CHAPTER VII
WAR ESTABLISHMENTS
Their Object and Utility 62
States and Returns 65
Reinforcements 66
Evils of Improvised Organizations 68
Importance of Preserving Original Organization 69
The _Ordre de Bataille_ 71
Importance of keeping it Secret 72
Consequent drawbacks of Symmetry in Organization 72
PART II
_BRITISH WAR ORGANIZATION_
CHAPTER VIII
THE EXPEDITIONARY FORCE
Its Composition 78
Composition of Subordinate Commands 80
Strength of the Sub-Commands, and of Whole Force 83
Strength of Units of each Arm 85
Composition of their Head-Quarters 86
CHAPTER IX
THE EXPEDITIONARY FORCE (_continued_)
ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICES
Their Directors 88
Organization of the Lines of Communication 90
The Main Services, having Units with the Fighting Troops 92
1. Service of Inter-communication 92
2. Transport 97
3. Supply 101
4. The Medical Services 106
CHAPTER X
THE EXPEDITIONARY FORCE (_continued_)
SERVICES ON THE LINES OF COMMUNICATION
5. The Veterinary Service 111
6. The Ordnance Service 112
7. The Railway Services 115
8. The Works Service 116
9. The Postal Service 117
10. The Accounts Department 118
11. The Records Branch 119
12. Depôts for Personnel 120
CHAPTER XI
The Territorial Force 121
The Army of India 122
CHAPTER XII
SPECIAL FEATURES OF BRITISH WAR ORGANIZATION
Their Object and Advantages 125
PART III
_ORGANIZATION OF FOREIGN ARMIES_
CHAPTER XIII
WAR ORGANIZATION OF THE FIGHTING TROOPS
Normal War Organization 140
Organization of each Army 141
1. GERMANY 141
2. FRANCE 145
3. RUSSIA 147
4. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 148
5. ITALY 150
6. JAPAN 151
7. SWITZERLAND 152
8. UNITED STATES 154
CHAPTER XIV
COMPOSITION OF NATIONAL ARMIES
Armies of First Line 155
Armies of Second Line 156
Reserves 158
War Strengths of the Various Powers 160
PART IV
_HISTORY OF ORGANIZATION_
INTRODUCTION 165
CHAPTER XV
ORGANIZATION IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
Origin of Organization 167
Earliest Regimental Organization 171
The early Standing Armies of Europe 175
CHAPTER XVI
THE EVOLUTION OF INFANTRY
Early Origins--Pikes--Firearms 177
Infantry under Maurice of Nassau 180
Regiments--Brigades--Battalions 180
Infantry under Gustavus Adolphus 182
French Infantry in Reign of Louis XIV 184
Fusiliers--Grenadiers--Light Infantry 186
CHAPTER XVII
THE EVOLUTION OF CAVALRY
Early Origins 192
Origin of true Cavalry in the “Reiters” 193
Cuirassiers--Carbineers--Dragoons 194
Cavalry under Maurice--under Gustavus--under Cromwell--under
Frederick 195
Light Horse--Hussars--Lancers 197
Cavalry Brigades--Divisions 198
CHAPTER XVIII
THE EVOLUTION OF ARTILLERY AND ENGINEERS
THE ARTILLERY 199
Early Origins--the Artillery Train 200
Battalion Guns--Heavy Guns 201
Improvement in Artillery Organization under Frederick 202
Horse Artillery--Batteries formed--Military Drivers 202
Divisional and Corps Artillery 203
THE ENGINEERS 204
CHAPTER XIX
ORGANIZATION IN THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES
The “New Model” Army 206
The Armies of the Eighteenth Century 210
CHAPTER XX
ORGANIZATION IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
Changes in the Wars following the French Revolution 215
Divisions--Army Corps 215
Details of Napoleon’s Organization 218
Composition and Strength of his Army Corps 219
Prussian Organization in the Nineteenth Century 221
Proportion of Cavalry and Guns to Infantry 223
CHAPTER XXI
THE EVOLUTION OF THE STAFF AND ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICES
1. The Staff 225
The General Staff 228
Napoleon’s Staff 230
Prussian Staff in 1870 231
2. The Supply and Transport Services 232
3. The Medical Organization for War 234
PART V
_MILITARY COMMAND_
CHAPTER XXII
PRINCIPLES OF COMMAND
Mode of Exercising Command 239
Instructions--Orders 242
Limits of Initiative in Staff Officers 246
CHAPTER XXIII
PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ARMIES
The Dynamic Crowd 248
Its Qualities 250
Its Leaders 251
Armies Dynamic Crowds 252
Their Leaders 252
Will Power--Prestige 253
APPENDIX A
ORIGIN OF MILITARY TERMS 257
APPENDIX B
REMARKS ON MILITARY NOMENCLATURE 265
DIAGRAM OF FIELD ARMY 136
ERRATA
Page 34, line 2, _for_ “Mounted” _read_ “Mountain.”
” 104, line 6, _for_ “lb.” _read_ “oz.” in two places.”
” 141, line 6, _for_ “270” _read_ “240.”
” 183, line 10, _for_ “100” _read_ “1000.”
ABBREVIATIONS
A few abbreviations of familiar military terms have been used. These
are:
A.G. Adjutant-General.
Q.M.G. Quarter-Master-General.
C.-in-C. Commander-in-Chief.
A.D.C. Aide de Camp.
N.C.O. Non-Commissioned Officer.
Q.M.S. Quarter-Master-Sergeant.
A.S.C. Army Service Corps.
R.A.M.C. Royal Army Medical Corps.
T. and S. Transport and Supply.
L. of C. Lines of Communication.
INTRODUCTION
The Organization which it is the purport of this work to describe is
that of Armies in War. The vast subject of Organization in Peace opens
out too wide a field. It is necessarily different in every country,
being based on national idiosyncrasies, complicated by political,
economic, and topographical conditions. These factors, however
dominating in peace, have less influence on organization for war.
The general features of War Organization are identical in all modern
armies, as they represent the consensus of expert opinion, based on the
practice of great leaders, and on the lessons learnt from success and
failure in recent wars.
There are, of course, many differences in detail, due to the varying
historical development of each army. These really indicate the degree
to which the conservative sentiments retarding improvement have been
bent to the changes necessitated by progress. The strength of tradition
and inertia in armies is enormous. No human institutions--not the Law,
not even the Church--so cherish ceremonial and reverence tradition and
custom, or remain so long blind to changed conditions. In military
arrangements the very object of their existence often seems obscured
by a haze of unessential conventions. Military methods, once suitable,
soon pass into mere forms, which it is considered sacrilegious to
modify, however useless or even harmful they have become.
Among scores of examples of the extraordinary conservatism of military
organization we may remember that England had no transport organized in
the army she landed in the Crimea. We find in Germany Army Corps of two
Divisions, Divisions of two Brigades, and Brigades of two Regiments,
although two is the worst possible number of parts in a unit, according
to Clausewitz and common sense. The twentieth century saw Cuirassiers
in France, Rifles in most armies, and the “parade step” in Germany. The
protean follies of uniform are only now partially disappearing.
The historical portion of this work shows the curious way in which a
new form of organization, designed for a definite end, often loses
sight of its purpose and reverts to a mere variety of the old type,
which then has to put out a new development for the original end. This
is the history of the numerous attempts to provide for Light Infantry
duties at the front.
The above considerations account for a number of odd survivals in
modern armies, and explain many differences in their organization.
These, however, are always tending to diminish under the pressure
of the hard facts of war, which have little respect for national
prejudices and traditions.
A study of the present British war organization, described in some
detail in Part II., will show that it embodies a large number of the
changes suggested by recent wars, and demanded by the trend of modern
military thought. The British Army is the latest to be reorganized,
and the opportunity has been taken, with no less courage than wisdom,
to adopt in every Branch all changes tending to fit it better for the
fighting of the immediate future, as far as this can be forecast. When
the reorganization is completed it is not too sanguine to believe that
the British will be the best organized army of the day.
PART I
_WAR ORGANIZATION OF THE PRESENT DAY_
CHAPTER I
THE OBJECT OF ORGANIZATION
COMMAND
In the British Field Service Regulations of 1909, Part ii., chap.
ii., par. 1, it is stated that the main object of War Organization
is to provide the Commander-in-Chief of the Forces in the Field
with the means of exerting the required influence over the work and
action of every individual. This, it is pointed out, will ensure the
“combination and unity of effort directed towards a definite object,”
on which mainly depends the successful issue of military operations. In
other words, the primary object of War Organization is to facilitate
_Command_--that is, to ensure that every man in the force acts promptly
in response to the will of the Commander.
A secondary object of War Organization is to facilitate
_Administration_, or the supply of each individual in the Force with
all that he requires to make it possible for him not only to live, but
to move and fight. If a Force be ill-organized the process of supply
will be slow, uncertain, and incomplete, the spirit and health of
the men cannot fail to suffer, and the efficiency of the Force as a
fighting body to be reduced.
Both these objects of Organization--_Command_ and
_Administration_--are, however, really inseparable. The channels
through which they act are identical, and the Authority which commands
is necessarily responsible for the Administration which enables his
Orders to be carried out. Solicitude for the well-being of the soldier
is one of the most certain means for obtaining influence over him,
and may be called the main lever for exercising Command. Some further
consideration of the psychological factors of Command, which are
essentially germane to the study of Organization, will be found in Part
V. of this work.
DEFINITION OF ORGANIZATION
The word “Organization”--literally, providing a body with organs--has
been more elaborately defined, by Herbert Spencer, as “the bringing of
independent bodies into independent relations with each other, so as to
form a single organic whole in which they all work together.” He goes
on to explain this as follows: “In considering the evolution of living
forms we find simple, homogeneous, and non-coherent elements developing
into a complex, heterogeneous, and coherent whole, an organism
controlled by unity of purpose, and comprising a number of functional
parts, which work together in mutual dependence for the common good.”
This definition applies closely to the organization of military
bodies. The elements are represented by the individual soldiers, the
functional parts by the units, while in the Army we see the living
organism.
Just as in nature no mere assemblage of cells, or even of functional
parts, can form a living organism, so no collection of individuals,
however efficient--or of small units, however perfect--can in any
true sense be called an Army. It might have the appearance of a real
military force, but it would only be suited to peace. The means by
which it can be made fit for war is _Organization_, without which it
would be little better than an armed mob--inert, or at best irregular
and spasmodic in its movements. An ill-organized army is not capable of
co-ordinated or of sustained action, owing to the difficulty of either
directing its movements or supplying its wants.
THE CHAIN OF COMMAND
It is obvious that a Commander of a Military Force cannot deal
personally and directly with all those under his command, but only
with a limited number of subordinate commanders. Each of the latter in
his turn conveys his will to his own subordinates, and this gradually
broadening system, called the _Chain of Command_, is carried on, till
every individual of the Force receives his Orders. These Orders are
founded on the original directions of the Commander-in-Chief, with
modifications and details added by each lower authority in the chain,
so as to suit the special circumstances of his own Command.
This principle combines unity of control with decentralization of
command and devolution of responsibility. In no other way can ready
and effective co-operation of all fractions of the force to a common
end be ensured.
UNITS OR FORMATIONS OF TROOPS
The method, generally speaking, of War Organization is to provide the
links in the chain of Command by a systematic arrangement, in suitable
groups, of the various troops composing the Army. The smallest groups,
or _Units_, are combined in larger ones, and these again are built up
into more complex bodies, and so on, until the whole Army is formed in
a small number of large bodies, whose Commanders receive direct orders
from the Supreme Commander.
For want of a general name for these bodies it is usual to speak of
them all as _Formations_. The term _Units_, which is often used,
properly applies only to the elementary groups. The largest Formations
are conveniently styled the _Subordinate Commands_ of the Army.
Each category of Formations forms a step in the pyramid of
organization, in which the lowest layer is formed by the Units, the
top layer by the Subordinate Commands, and the apex by the Supreme
Commander. The Commanders of each Formation, from the largest to the
smallest, form the successive links in the chain of Command.
All Formations should have such a strength and composition as to be
in the best relation and proportion to each other, and to the larger
groups which they help to build up. Every Formation should be formed
of at least three subordinate Units. This gives the Commander of the
whole due importance over his Subordinate Commanders, and ensures his
retaining an adequate Command whenever he wishes to detach one of his
Units. This would not be the case were there only two Units in the
whole, for, if one were detached, the Commander of the whole would be
left exercising Command only over the other Unit, already adequately
commanded. The Superior Commander would then be superfluous, and
harmfully interfering with his subordinate. A Formation with three or
more Units can be readily broken up when desired, without affecting the
principles of Command, and is therefore more flexible and efficient
than one with only two Units. Emphasis is laid on this point by
Clausewitz in his classic work “On War.”
It is the purpose of the next few chapters to describe the Units and
Formations constituted in modern armies. But, in order to explain
the reasons which have dictated their strength and composition, it
is necessary first to describe the various kinds of Troops which go
to make up an Army, and their respective methods of fighting, and
functions in war. Organization exists to facilitate fighting, and
cannot be explained without some discussion of Tactics.
CHAPTER II
THE FIGHTING TROOPS
Military Forces are of two distinct categories: _Fighting Troops_,
which carry out the actual operations; _Administrative Services_, whose
function is to provide the Fighting Troops with all that they require
to keep up their strength and efficiency.
THE ARMS OF THE SERVICE
The Fighting Troops consist mainly, as they have for centuries, of
what are known as “The Three Arms of the Service”--Cavalry, Artillery,
and Infantry. Besides these, however, the introduction of warlike
inventions and the increased complexity of modern war have brought into
being a fourth Arm--Engineers--as well as varieties of fighting troops
for special purposes, which are virtually new Arms, such as Mountain
Artillery, Machine Guns, Cyclists, and Mounted Infantry.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARMS
The continued existence of the Arms of the Service for centuries is
due to a gradual differentiation of their mode of fighting, owing to
changes in weapons, and progress in the Art of War. Each Arm has its
peculiar fighting characteristics and its own sphere of action in war,
which will be discussed in this chapter. In the next will be described
the organization which each Arm has evolved in order to enable it to
carry out its functions in war.
1. CAVALRY
ITS SPECIAL FUNCTIONS
Cavalry has been termed “The Arm of Surprise,” owing to the rapidity
with which it can move. This gives it the power to act with little
warning, and from an unexpected direction, against the enemy, and thus
to take advantage of the fleeting opportunities which occur in war for
sudden attack and surprise. It is _par excellence_ the mobile Arm, and
the one best adapted for taking the offensive.
Its power of making long and rapid marches enables it also to be thrown
far to the front, so as to give to the Army protection from surprise,
and to gain the information as to the movements and dispositions of the
enemy, without which the Commander will be at a loss in forming his
plans.
Cavalry is required too for the effective pursuit of a beaten foe
who would elude the slow-moving Infantry. It is also the best Arm to
cover a retreat, as it can check the pursuit and then effect a rapid
withdrawal before being completely over-powered.
ITS WEAK POINTS
The disadvantage of Cavalry is that it is very dependent on the nature
of the country for its action. It is useless in steep, rocky, or marshy
ground, or among enclosures, and in woods. Cavalry is also costly to
raise, and requires long training for efficiency. It suffers too from
great wastage of horses in war, due to unavoidable fatigue, short
rations, and bad weather, from which causes horses suffer even more
than men.
ITS MODE OF FIGHTING
In the combat, Cavalry acts both by shock and by fire, the latter
action being now more developed than of old. Indeed the main difference
between the horse-soldiers of the different armies of to-day is whether
their training is directed rather to mounted shock-action, or to
fire-action dismounted; in the latter case, their rapidity of movement
is mainly helpful in getting them to the right place at the right time
to use their fire. The ideal Cavalry would be equally capable of shock
and fire action, and could be employed either mounted or dismounted, as
circumstances and the judgment of the leader might dictate. The British
is perhaps the only Cavalry (as General Négrier, Chief of the French
General Staff, once said) which is trained to this ideal. The Cavalry
of Russia, Japan, and the United States tends rather to action by fire
on foot; that of most Continental armies to shock action mounted.
EMPLOYMENT OF CAVALRY IN WAR
The use of Cavalry in modern war lies less in its action on the
battlefield than in the all-important work of reconnoitring the enemy,
and protecting its own army--that is, of providing _Information_ and
_Security_. The tendency of the employment of Cavalry in modern war is
towards an entire separation of these two duties.
For the first duty, _Reconnaissance_, Cavalry must try to find out the
strength and situation of the enemy’s forces, and the direction in
which they are moving. For the second duty, _Protection_, Cavalry must
form a screen along the front of the Army, so as to shelter it from
being observed by the enemy’s Cavalry, and to give early notice of the
direction of any attack.
These two duties of Cavalry cannot be performed by the same body. To
get _information_ Cavalry must be able to break through the enemy’s
screen, which can only be effected by beating his Cavalry, and requires
concentration of force. Reconnoitring Cavalry will often also have
to work round the flanks of the enemy. Both these modes of action
must necessarily leave a large portion of the front of its own army
uncovered.
On the other hand, _protection_ demands a dispersion of the Cavalry
along the whole front of the Army, which is exactly opposed to the
concentration generally required for effective reconnaissance.
Again, reconnoitring Cavalry is only concerned with keeping in touch
with the enemy, while protective Cavalry must remain in touch with its
own army.
The distinction between these functions of Reconnaissance and
Protection has become recognized of late years, owing to the increased
importance of the Strategical direction of the large masses of
troops now in the field, which are not easily diverted when once
set in motion, and are more than ever dependent on their Lines of
Communication. Their Commander needs constant and recent information
about the enemy, by which to direct his movements and secure his flanks
from attack. Hence has arisen the practice of providing two distinct
bodies of Cavalry--the _Independent Cavalry_, for reconnaissance
by independent action at a distance in front of the Army; and the
_Protective Cavalry_, spread over a wide area along the front of the
Army so as to form a screen.
In both cases the Cavalry effect the object by sending out squadrons,
which furnish patrolling parties. The duty of these is not only to
discover the enemy’s movements, but to make such arrangements for
transmitting the information gained that it shall reach Head-Quarters
with rapidity and certainty.
2. ARTILLERY
Artillery is the most powerful and far-reaching of the Arms in its
_fire_ effect, but cannot act by _shock_. It is the only Arm that can
strike the others at such a distance that they cannot retaliate, and
can injure material objects. Its _morale_ is less liable than that of
the other Arms to fail in battle, as Artillery is more dependent on
the mechanical than the human element for its action. The guns, too--to
which the personnel is attached by sentiment and duty--give a definite
point to hold to when other troops are falling back. It is on all these
grounds a valuable auxiliary to the other Arms.
DISADVANTAGES OF ARTILLERY
Artillery, however, is incapable of independent action--it must always
be associated with the other Arms, as it is easily avoided or turned,
and, when moving, is helpless against attack. It takes up a great
deal of space in the column of march, as well as on the battlefield,
where it requires advantageous positions to fire from, and cover for
its horses and ammunition, both often difficult to find. Artillery is
also very dependent on the weather and the nature of the country for
its action, as it requires clear air and good light, and an absence of
hills and woods, to allow the object and the effect of its fire to be
observed. It also needs good roads, and is more obstructed by mud, ice,
or snow on the march than are the other Arms.
3. ENGINEERS
Engineers, as a body of officers with men, were only introduced towards
the end of the eighteenth century, but officers of that name had been
employed for centuries on the Staff of Armies, especially at Sieges.
The Engineers are now sometimes styled “The Fourth Arm of the
Service,” not so much because they are Combatant Troops, armed and
trained like Infantry, as because their work on the battlefield is of
interesting tactical importance.
The work with which Engineers with an Army in the Field are charged
presents great scope and variety. It may be catalogued under the
following headings:
(_a_) WORK WITH THE FIGHTING TROOPS
Pioneer Work on the march--_i.e._ making roads and removing obstacles;
water supply; bridging of every sort; collecting, making, and using
boats and rafts for ferrying.
Field Work on the battlefield--_i.e._ clearing the communications
and field of fire; marking ranges; demolitions; obstacles; special
earth-work (ordinary trench-work and gun-pits being made by the troops
who use them).
Searchlights in the field.
Inter-communication Work--_i.e._ use of telegraphs, telephones,
wireless, visual signalling, kites, captive balloons.
Aviation by balloon or airship.
Printing and lithography for Orders and Maps.
(_b_) WORK IN REAR OF THE FIGHTING TROOPS
Engineers are also charged with the following important work on the
Lines of Communication:
Construction, repair, maintenance, and working of railways and
telegraphs; provisional fortification of posts; camping grounds;
formation of workshops and depôts of Engineer Stores; hutting and
housing troops; providing hospitals, offices, and storehouses; water
supply; roads. At sea bases, piers, wharves, and tramways will have
to be provided, and perhaps dredging undertaken, and buoys, beacons,
and lighthouses kept up. Engineers will also have to run any _plant_
needed, such as that for providing ice for hospitals, cold storage,
electric light and power, gas for balloons and lighting.
Engineers are employed in surveying, or mapping the country passed
through by the Army, when this is required in the wilder theatres of
operations, like the Indian Frontier.
Besides their duties with the Field Army, Engineers are as necessary as
ever for the conduct of Sieges, and the defence of Fortresses, in which
services they have constantly been employed for centuries.
4. INFANTRY
Infantry, now the principal Arm, has in modern times recovered the
place which it held in the armies of the Ancient World, but lost in the
Middle Ages when Horsemen were the Men-at-Arms, or the only fighting
men worth considering.
Infantry has for three centuries formed the bulk of every army, being
the easiest to raise and train, and the cheapest to equip and keep
up, as well as the most useful, of all the Arms. On Infantry falls
the brunt of the fighting, and the greatest toil in marching, while
it endures the hardships of a campaign better than the mounted Arms.
It can be used for attack or defence, in close or extended order, on
any ground, and in any weather. Infantry can fight with its _fire_, at
a distance from the enemy, like Artillery, as well as by _shock_, at
close quarters, like Cavalry.
But Infantry is slow in movement, and without Cavalry cannot ascertain
the operations of the enemy, and will therefore be ill-directed in its
own; it is helpless in pursuit, and unable either to complete a victory
or cover a retreat. The action, too, of Infantry fire is limited to
the range of the rifle and the effect of the bullet, so that it finds
in Artillery a useful auxiliary, owing to the greater effect of fire
from guns, and the distance at which they can act. Hence Infantry is
greatly assisted in its fighting by associating it with Cavalry and
Artillery, just as Cavalry is aided by association with Artillery.
It is essential, therefore, that not only every Army, but every Body
of Troops which may have to fight independently, should have a due
proportion of all Arms. This is the reason for organizing Armies in the
_higher Formations_, provided with more than one Arm, as contrasted
with the Units composed of _one_ Arm only. The latter, however, are
the basis of the higher Formations, and their composition and strength
must be considered before describing how they are grouped into larger
bodies. Therefore the Organization of the Units of each Arm will form
the subject of the next chapter.
CHAPTER III
ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITS OF EACH ARM
The formations in which each Arm is independently organized constitute
the _tactical units_ of an Army. Their strength and organization are
intimately connected with the way in which they are used in fighting,
and have varied little since armies first became regularly organized.
The general composition of these Units of each Arm in modern armies
will now be described, beginning with Infantry, the principal Arm.
1. INFANTRY
Infantry, as will be seen in the historical portion of this work,
used to be of various natures, such as Guards, Grenadiers, Fusiliers,
Rifles, and Light Infantry, which still survive, but as names only.
Napoleon said he wanted but one sort of Infantry, and that _good
Infantry_. This aspiration may now be realized. All Infantry, however
designated, is of one kind only, and works in the same manner in war.
The formations of Infantry are the _Company_, the _Battalion_, the
_Regiment_, and the _Brigade_.
THE COMPANY
The Company, with its three officers--Captain, Lieutenant, and
Ensign--and its Sergeants and Corporals, has been for centuries the
foundation stone of the organization of Infantry. Its Chief, the
_Captain_, is the officer with whom the men are most intimately
associated, as he is responsible not only for their drill, discipline,
and training, but also for their food, clothing, pay, and lodging. The
men’s confidence in their Captain is grounded on this responsibility.
It is to him that they learn to look for their well-being, comfort,
and redress of grievances, as well as for praise or blame. The Captain
is thus in daily contact with the men, and learns to know them, and
be known by them. His influence with his men, owing to these personal
relations, is the keystone of command and discipline, and makes him
their natural leader in action.
To avoid repetition, it may be here mentioned that the same remarks
apply to the _Squadron_ and _Battery Commanders_, who, in the Cavalry
and Artillery, hold the same position with regard to their men as the
Captain does in the Infantry.
The Company is usually divided into _Half-Companies_, commanded by a
Lieutenant, and into four _Sections_, each under a Sergeant; but the
German Company has three Sections under a Lieutenant. The tactical
movements of a Company in action are usually carried out by Sections.
THE BATTALION
The Battalion of 1,000 men is universally recognized as the Tactical
Unit of Infantry. Operations are ordered, carried out, and recorded by
Battalions. The Battalion is in modern armies provided with transport
to carry its ammunition and entrenching tools, as well as its baggage
and immediate supply of food, so as to render it independent.
The Battalion is commanded in foreign armies by a Major or
his equivalent, but in the British and Russian Services by a
Lieutenant-Colonel. The Battalion Commander is assisted by a Staff
Officer, styled his _Adjutant_, and by a small Administrative Staff.
The number of Companies in a Battalion is, in the British Service,
eight, with 3 officers and 120 men each, but in other armies four, with
4 or 5 officers and 240 men.
The system of dividing the Battalion into a few large companies was
adopted in Prussia during the eighteenth century so as to economize
in officers, partly to save expense, partly because of the dearth of
men fit for commissions, in the increasing army of that small country.
In the huge armies of to-day this system commends itself for the
same reasons; while England and the United States have kept to small
companies, with their original strength of about 100 men. Owing to the
increasing difficulty of exercising control in battle, small companies
give advantages as to Command. They also provide any necessary
detachments, such as outposts and advanced guards, better than large
companies, which may have to be broken up for these purposes. The fact,
too, cannot be overlooked, that in an army of small companies there are
four Captains more per thousand men, which gives a useful reserve of
officers.
THE INFANTRY REGIMENT
Two, three, or four Battalions form a _Regiment_, designated by a
number or by a permanent name, territorial or personal. In the Regiment
are embodied the honourable traditions which have accrued in history,
and the _esprit de corps_ engendered by them. The officers are on
one Regimental List for promotion, and so serve continuously in the
Regiment. They thereby acquire a camaraderie, professional feeling, and
personal intimacy with each other and with their men, of the greatest
value in war. In foreign armies, with short service of two years, it is
hardly too much to say that the Regimental Officers really constitute
the permanent army, through which there flows continuously a stream of
recruits, receiving a professional impress from their officers.
The Regiment is in foreign armies commanded by a Colonel (with
sometimes a Lieutenant-Colonel), assisted by an Adjutant and a
small Administrative Staff. The British Regiment is merely a peace
organization never found as a whole in war, and the Battalion, with its
Colonel and his Staff, its Colours and band, its traditions, history,
and _esprit de corps_, represents what in foreign armies we find in
the Regiment. The battalions of the foreign Regiment are merely its
tactical units, just as the companies are to the Battalion.
THE INFANTRY BRIGADE
The Brigade is the largest body formed of Infantry only. In the British
Service, where there is no _Regimental_ organization in war, the
Brigade comprises four battalions. In foreign armies it is composed
of two Regiments (comprising six to eight battalions), a faulty
organization for Command purposes, as shown in Chapter I.
Brigades are commanded by a Brigadier-General, with a Staff Officer,
who is styled in England the _Brigade Major_.
2. CAVALRY
Cavalry, like Infantry, was once of many different natures--“Light,”
“Heavy,” Hussars, Dragoons, Lancers, etc. These names still survive
in the armies of Europe, but the regiments so designated now form
practically only one sort of Cavalry, and are all trained for identical
action in war, although they still bear their historic names and
uniforms, and keep up the old rivalry of their corps traditions.
The formations of Cavalry are the _Troop_, the _Squadron_, the
_Regiment_, and the _Brigade_.
THE SQUADRON
The Tactical Unit of Cavalry has since the seventeenth century been
the _Squadron_ of about 150 men. Its strength in different armies now
varies between 130 and 180 men.
The Squadron is divided into four _Troops_, each of which is commanded
by a Lieutenant. The Squadron leader is a Major or a Captain. The
British Squadron has both these officers, and four Lieutenants.
THE CAVALRY REGIMENT
The Regiment is the permanent and administrative Cavalry Unit, and like
the regiment of Infantry, has its special title or number, its own
history and esprit de corps, and its band.
The number of Squadrons in a Regiment varies in different armies, there
being generally four, but five in the Italian and Japanese, and six
in the Austrian and Russian Services. There are three in the British
Cavalry at home, but four in the Yeomanry and also in India. The
Regiment thus forms a body of from 500 to 900 men, and is commanded by
a Colonel, or a Lieutenant-Colonel, with an Adjutant as Staff Officer,
besides a small Administrative Staff.
THE CAVALRY BRIGADE
The Brigade is formed in most armies of two Regiments, but in the
British, American, and Swiss armies of three--a superior form of
organization for Command, as shown in Chapter I., and one probably
better suited for the tactics of Cavalry.
The Brigade is commanded by a Brigadier-General, with a Staff Officer
(or Brigade Major).
3. ARTILLERY
Artillery is of many descriptions, differing in the guns they use,
and their functions in war. Only that brought into the field with an
army, as distinguished from Siege, Fortress, and Coast Artillery, will
be here described. It may be divided into _Field Artillery_, _Heavy
Artillery_, and _Mountain Artillery_.
FIELD ARTILLERY
Field Artillery in the most general sense means the Mounted Branch of
the Arm, which possesses mobility, so as to accompany the other Arms.
Its personnel does not march on foot, so that the guns can move at a
pace beyond the walk, when desired. It comprises _Field Artillery_
proper, or that armed with the Field Gun (or Field Howitzer) and _Horse
Artillery_.
_Field Guns_ form the larger portion of all Artillery in the field.
They fire mainly shrapnel, or shell containing small round bullets
which are very effective against the enemy’s men and horses, but
useless against material objects. In foreign armies they have therefore
a small amount of shell filled with high explosive, in addition to the
shrapnel.
_Field Howitzers_ use high-angle fire, giving a large angle of descent,
so that they can search out the enemy’s trenches. They are provided
with high-explosive shell in addition to shrapnel, so as to destroy
masonry and field works, which the shrapnel of field guns cannot injure.
Both these varieties of Field Artillery have their Officers and
Sergeants mounted, and carry their men seated on the gun limbers, or on
the wagons, so that they can move at a trot.
_Horse Artillery_ is provided for supporting Cavalry in action. It
is armed with a lighter nature of field gun, and has its personnel
mounted, so as to be very mobile. It can keep up with Cavalry both on
the march and in action, and can move at the gallop when required.
HEAVY ARTILLERY
This comprises the heaviest guns and howitzers having sufficient
mobility to accompany an army in the field. It uses shell filled with a
high explosive, as well as a large shrapnel, and is therefore effective
against field works and masonry as well as against men and horses. It
differs from Field Artillery in having less mobility, but longer range
and much greater effect. It generally comes into action at long ranges,
and changes its position as little as possible in action. It will be
very effective against the enemy’s artillery and field works, and its
great range will allow it to bring oblique fire on the vital portions
of his line.
Heavy Artillery is manned by the non-mounted Branch, called _Garrison
Artillery_ in England, and _Foot Artillery_ abroad. It requires
eight-horse teams, and moves only at a walk, the men marching on foot.
MOUNTAIN ARTILLERY
Artillery carried on pack animals is used in hilly, enclosed, or rough
country, where wheels cannot pass. It is the weakest form of Artillery
in shell-power, as it is armed with a light gun, which can be carried
on a pack mule. A heavier gun can be carried, if formed of two parts,
each about 200 lb. weight, or a load for one mule, which can be jointed
together for action. The gun carriages, ammunition, and stores are also
carried on mules, and the personnel marches on foot, and is provided
from the “Foot” (or “Garrison”) Artillery. The slowness of Mountain
compared to Field Artillery is compensated in broken country by its
ability to take cover, and to come into action in places inaccessible
to Field Guns, so that it can support Infantry more closely.
THE BATTERY
The Tactical Unit of Artillery is the _Battery_, of 4, 6, or 8 guns,
with 1 to 3 Ammunition Wagons to each gun. Field guns and wagons have
six-horse teams; Heavy Artillery has eight-horse teams.
In France, Switzerland, Turkey and the United States all Batteries are
of 4 guns.
In other armies all Field and Horse Artillery Batteries are of 6 guns,
except in Austria, where Horse Artillery has 4-gun Batteries, and in
Russia, where Field Batteries have 8 guns.
Heavy Batteries have generally 4 guns, owing to the number of wagons
required to carry a sufficient amount of their heavy ammunition.
Mountain Batteries have 4 guns, except in Russia, where they have 8.
The Battery in all armies has a strength of from 130 to 200 men and
horses. It is divided into _Sections_ of 2 guns with their wagons,
commanded by a Lieutenant, and these into _Sub-Sections_ under a
Sergeant. The _Battery Commander_ is a Captain, except in the Russian
Service, where he is a Lieutenant-Colonel, and in the British Service,
where he is a Major, with a Captain as Second-in-Command to take charge
of the Ammunition Supply in action. To assist the Battery Commander in
action, he has a Staff comprising trumpeters, rangetakers, observers,
signallers, mounted orderlies, scouts, and horse-holders. There is
also a small Administrative Staff, including artificers for repair of
harness and carriages.
THE ARTILLERY BRIGADE
Batteries are grouped into larger Units, called in the British
Service _Brigades_. They are commanded by a Lieutenant-Colonel, with
an Adjutant, and a Staff for purposes of observation and command,
including telephone and signalling detachments, rangetakers, and
orderlies. This Unit is called an _Abteilung_ in Germany, a _Groupe_
in France, a _Division_ in Russia and Austria, and a _Battalion_ in
Japan and the United States. It comprises as a rule three batteries of
Field Guns, or of Howitzers (or two batteries of Horse Artillery), with
an Ammunition Column. Heavy Batteries in the British Service are not
brigaded, but one, with its own Ammunition Column, forms part of the
Artillery of each Division. In foreign armies they are grouped by twos
or fours into _Battalions_.
HIGHER UNITS OF ARTILLERY
In foreign armies the above Units of three batteries are grouped by
pairs into _Artillery Regiments_, commanded by a Colonel with a Staff.
The Divisional Artillery and the Corps Artillery are respectively
formed of one or more Regiments.
Two Artillery Regiments are in some armies grouped into an _Artillery
Brigade_, which forms the Divisional or Corps Artillery, and is
commanded by a General with a Staff.
AMMUNITION COLUMNS
_Ammunition Columns_ form an integral part of the Artillery, but
they carry ammunition for Infantry as well as for the guns. They are
Fighting Units, because the replenishment of ammunition is a function
of the Fighting Troops, and the movements of Ammunition Columns are
tactical operations. The Ammunition Columns belonging to Units of
Artillery provide the first reserve of ammunition. The second reserve
of ammunition is provided by _Divisional Ammunition Columns_, which in
foreign armies form the _Divisional Ammunition Park_. There is in large
armies also an _Army Corps Ammunition Park_ comprising several Columns,
and an _Army Ammunition Park_, behind which are the _Ammunition Depôts_
on the L. of C.
The Ammunition Columns constitute also a reserve to draw on for
officers, men, teams, and matériel, to replace the losses of the
Batteries. In Manchuria, the men of the Ammunition Columns were, within
twelve months, all absorbed by the Batteries.
An Ammunition Column comprises about 150 to 200 men and as many horses,
with from 20 to 30 ammunition wagons.
BRITISH AMMUNITION SUPPLY
In the British Service the organization of the Ammunition Supply is as
follows:
The Field Battery and Horse Artillery ammunition wagons carry 176
rounds per gun, those of a Howitzer Battery 88, and of a Heavy Battery
76 rounds per gun.
The Ammunition Column of each Field Artillery Brigade carries 200
rounds per gun for its Brigade. It carries also rifle ammunition
(100 rounds per rifle) for one Infantry Brigade. The Horse Artillery
Ammunition Column carries a supply of rifle ammunition (100 rounds per
rifle) for the Mounted Troops, in addition to gun ammunition at the
rate of 220 rounds per gun.
The Ammunition Column of a Howitzer Brigade, and that of a Heavy
Battery, which have to carry heavier gun-ammunition, at the rate of 70
and 98 rounds per gun respectively, carry no rifle ammunition.
The Divisional Ammunition Column is divided into 4 Sections, giving
three for the three Field Artillery Brigades (carrying 120 rounds per
gun), and one Section with ammunition for the Howitzer Brigade (92
rounds per gun) and for the Heavy Battery (80 rounds per gun), and
also for a proportion of the guns with the Mounted Troops. Each of the
first three Sections carries a reserve of 100 rounds per rifle for one
Infantry Brigade. The fourth Section, having heavier gun-ammunition to
carry, is not burdened with any rifle ammunition.
* * * * *
The number of rounds of ammunition with the Force in the field is as
follows:
GUN AMMUNITION
Rounds.
Per Field Gun with its two wagons 176
Brigade Ammunition Column 200
Divisional Ammunition Column 120
Total with troops, about 500 rounds per Field Gun, and rather more per
Horse Artillery Gun. Per Howitzer, or Heavy Gun, about half that per
Field Gun. About an equal amount is in Ordnance Store charge on the L.
of C. ready to replace what is expended.
SMALL-ARM AMMUNITION
ROUNDS PER RIFLE
On the man 150
Regimental Reserve 100
Brigade Ammunition Column 100
Divisional Column 100
ROUNDS PER MACHINE GUN
Ammunition for Machine Guns with Infantry is allotted as follows:
With each gun, 3,500 rounds; in Regimental Reserve, 8,000; in Brigade
Ammunition Column, 10,000; in Divisional Ammunition Column, 10,000.
Guns with Cavalry have the same, except twice as much in Regimental
Reserve.
4. ENGINEERS
Engineers are allotted to the larger formations of all Arms in the
field, to carry out the varied work required with the troops at the
front, as described in Chapter II.
In foreign armies they are organized in Companies belonging to the
Engineer Battalion of the Army Corps, and one Company is allotted to
each Division, and one to the Corps Troops. Its strength is that of
the Infantry Company (250 men), under a Captain, with three or four
officers. In order that its tools and stores shall accompany it and be
at hand for work, each Company has transport allotted to it from the
“Train Battalion” of the Army Corps. The Cavalry Division has generally
some Engineers, who are mounted or carried on wagons, so as to keep up
with the Division.
A reserve of tools and equipment for the Companies is carried by a
column of wagons called the _Army Corps Engineer Park_.
In the British Service there are with each Division two _Field
Companies_ of Engineers, each having 156 working sappers, and with the
Cavalry Division four _Field Troops_, each with 40 working sappers,
half of whom are mounted, half carried on the tool carts. Thus, if
a Cavalry Brigade is detached, it can take with it a Field Troop of
Engineers. The drivers and transport are integral portions of the
Engineer Troops and Companies.
_Telegraph Companies_ of Engineers are in all armies allotted to each
Command for inter-communication purposes. Those of the British Service
are described later among the Administrative Services, in Chapter IX.
Another Unit of Engineers is the _Bridging Train_, which supplements
the small bridge equipment carried by the Engineer Field Companies.
In foreign armies these Trains are manned by Engineers, but horsed by
the “Train,” and one is allotted to each Division and Army Corps. In
the British Service the Bridging Trains are “Army Troops,” and are not
allotted to Divisions.
CHAPTER IV
NEW VARIETIES OF FIGHTING TROOPS
It was mentioned in Chapter II. that of late years there have been
added to modern armies a number of new varieties of troops, which it is
not possible to group under the old heads of the Three Arms.
These varieties may be described under the following heads:
1. Mounted Infantry.
2. Mountain Infantry.
3. Mountain Artillery.
4. Machine Guns.
5. Cavalry Pioneers.
6. Cyclists and Motor Cars.
7. Scouts.
8. Field Orderlies.
9. Military Police.
A short description of the functions and organization of these troops
will now be given.
1. MOUNTED INFANTRY
Mounted Infantry is to-day what Dragoons were when first
introduced--that is, Infantry mounted only so as to be quickly moved
to a point where it is to fight on foot. Mounted Infantry is armed only
with the rifle, and is neither trained nor armed for shock action on
horseback.
The introduction of Mounted Infantry was advocated long ago by Jomini
in his “Art of War” (Vol. ii., chap. viii., sect. 45), but up to now
this Arm only exists in the British Service, and there it is only
organized in war, when Mounted Infantry Battalions are formed of men
from Infantry Battalions trained for the purpose in peace.
British Mounted Infantry is organized in Battalions of 3 Companies with
a Machine-Gun Section, Units of identical strength with the _Cavalry_
Regiment, Squadron, and Machine-Gun Section.
Mounted Infantry is employed in two capacities in the British Service:
(_a_) In the _Mounted Brigades_, in which it acts with Cavalry, whose
shock action it supports by its fire.
(_b_) As _Divisional Mounted Troops_, which are used as Advanced Guards
and Outposts for protection; as Patrols for reconnaissance; as Escorts
for Head-Quarters, Batteries, and Trains; for keeping connection, both
with the Cavalry in front and with adjoining Divisions; for internal
communication in their own Division.
2. MOUNTAIN INFANTRY
Infantry Battalions specially trained and equipped for mountain
fighting, like the “Alpine Troops” of France and Italy, are kept up in
foreign countries, where warfare may, as often in the past, be carried
on in difficult mountain regions. Switzerland and Austria have Mounted
Infantry Battalions formed into Brigades, to which Mountain Batteries
are attached. Austria has organized _Mountain Transport Squadrons_ for
these Brigades.
3. MOUNTAIN ARTILLERY
The Arm is described under the head of Artillery, in Chapter III. It
is provided for mountain fighting in India, France, Austria, Russia,
Switzerland, and the United States, and in the “Highlands” Division of
the British Territorial Army. In Austria there are Mountain _howitzers_
as well as _guns_.
4. MACHINE GUNS
Every nation has now introduced Machine Guns as a valuable auxiliary
to Cavalry and Infantry. The intention, not as yet fully carried out,
is to form a Unit of two Machine Guns in every Cavalry Regiment and in
every Battalion (or at least in every Regiment) of Infantry. In the
German and some other armies these guns will be taken away from their
Units and grouped by sixes into “sections,” which will be virtually
independent batteries of machine guns.
In the British Service a Section of two Machine Guns is provided by
every Cavalry Regiment and Infantry Battalion. These guns, which
fire from tripods, are carried in wagons with four horses in Cavalry
Sections, for rapidity of movement, and with two horses in Infantry
Sections. The Section is commanded by one of the Lieutenants, with a
Sergeant, a Corporal, and the necessary drivers. To each gun there are
six men, who are of course mounted in the Cavalry Section.
The Germans have adopted the Battery formation. The _Mounted Section_,
for use with the Cavalry Division, consists of 6 guns on four-horsed
carriages, with 3 ammunition wagons. The strength is 1 Lieutenant, 130
men, 90 horses. The officer and sergeant are mounted, and the men are
carried on the gun carriage. The _Foot Section_ forms an extra Company,
the 13th, of each Infantry Regiment. It has 6 guns on two-horsed
carriages, with 3 ammunition wagons. The strength is 1 Lieutenant, 83
men, 28 draught horses. The officer and 3 N.C.O.’s are mounted; the men
march on foot, and are armed with pistols.
In Japan, there is to be a 6-gun Section to each Infantry Regiment,
with a strength of 1 Officer, 1 W.O., 6 N.C.O.’s, 36 men. Guns and
ammunition are carried on 30 pack horses. There will be an 8-gun
Section to each Cavalry Brigade, with a strength of 3 Officers, 87 men.
In Switzerland a Machine-Gun Battery takes the place of Horse Artillery
with Cavalry. It consists of 8 guns, and is carried on pack mules, with
its personnel mounted.
5. CAVALRY PIONEERS
In the Austrian Service a few men from each Cavalry Squadron have long
been trained to perform Engineers’ duties, such as demolitions and
repair of bridges, railways, and telegraphs, and hasty field works.
This plan has been adopted to a limited extent in the British Cavalry,
where a corporal and four men of each Squadron are trained in Pioneer
duties. The German Cavalry Regiment has a Bridging equipment of 4
Pontoons, to form small bridges, or rafts, and a Demolition equipment
carried in the Pontoon wagons, with men of the Regiment trained to use
both.
6. CYCLISTS AND MOTOR CARS
Cyclist Infantry have been introduced into some armies, to carry Orders
and messages. They will relieve Cavalry of part of their orderly,
scouting, and patrolling work, as they can move as rapidly as mounted
men, as long as the roads are good. Besides these duties it is claimed
that Cyclists can also be used for fighting. Being armed as Infantry,
but more rapid in movement, they could be used like mounted Infantry,
to surprise the enemy with rifle fire from distant and unexpected
places, or to seize and hold important tactical points, such as
bridges, defiles, and hills, before the Infantry can reach them. As
yet, however, it cannot be said that any decision has been arrived at
as to the organization, equipment, and sphere of utility of Cyclists,
or their employment as fighting troops.
In the British Service it is expected that each Unit will furnish a
few Cyclists, and there are bicycles allotted to each Head-Quarters,
to every Unit of fighting troops, and to telegraph companies, for
inter-communication purposes. The Territorial Army has, besides 12
Cyclists per battalion, ten Cyclist Battalions.
The French, who were the first to form Military Cyclists, have a few
companies, each of 4 Officers and 175 men.
The Germans provide 19 Cyclists from each Infantry Regiment, 9 from
each Artillery Regiment, and 6 from each Cavalry Regiment. The latter
will probably be massed as one body in the Cavalry Division, for
transmitting intelligence.
Austria has a Volunteer Cyclist Corps for each Army Corps, and two
Companies of Cyclists are to be attached to each Cavalry Division for
use as fighting troops.
Italy has 24 Cyclists per Infantry Regiment, and two Battalions of
Bersaglieri (or Rifles) are organized as Cyclists.
MOTOR CAR SERVICE IN WAR
Motor Cars will be much used in war for conveyance of Generals and
Staff Officers on the march and in action, as the power of covering the
ground rapidly is of great advantage to Command of Troops, enabling
what is passing at a distance to be seen, and decisions to be made and
communicated without delay.
There will be great scope for Motors in carrying supplies to the troops
from railhead, thus rendering the daily supply far more certain, and
obviating blocking the roads with long trains of wagons. This system is
being organized on the Continent.
7. SCOUTS
Scouts are men whose function is to reconnoitre the ground, or the
enemy, without fighting. They are soldiers selected for intelligence,
activity, self-reliance, and powers of observation. (“Infantry
Training,” 1905, p. 73.)
Scouts are taken from Infantry Battalions, Cavalry Regiments, or
Batteries, and work in the neighbourhood of their own Corps and for its
immediate benefit. They move out generally in pairs, so that one man
may take back information, if signalling is not possible.
In the British Service the numbers of Scouts are:
Infantry: 1 N.C.O. and 6 men per Company, of whom 1 Sergeant and 16
men per Battalion are First-Class Scouts.
Cavalry: 1 Officer, as Scout Leader, 1 Sergeant, 24 men, per
Regiment.
Artillery: One or two “Ground Scouts” in front of the Battery when
it is manœuvring. Two “Look-out Men” close to the Battery in
action.
German Cavalry has 1 N.C.O. and 2 men per Squadron as Ground Scouts,
and 1 Officer per Regiment in charge of them.
In France 12 mounted Ground Scouts, “Eclaireurs de terrain montés
d’infanterie,” are to be attached to each Infantry Regiment.
The Russians in Manchuria used volunteers from Infantry Regiments as
mounted Scouts, with good results.
Corps of Scouts and Guides have been formed from time to time, as in
the American Civil War, and lately in Canada. They cannot, however,
be said to have any actual existence in organized armies, but will
probably be extemporized in war.
8. FIELD ORDERLIES
Wellington organized in the Peninsula a Corps of Guides and a Mounted
Staff Corps, who acted as despatch riders and police. Napoleon had
similar corps, and their usefulness is obvious. But it may be doubted
if the multiplication of small special corps is not objectionable and
wasteful of men and horses. Modern practice tends to allot the carrying
of messages and Orders to orderlies furnished at Head-Quarters of
Commands, either by Cyclists, by the men of the Cavalry escort, or by
the Mounted Police.
The Germans have always had at Head-Quarters a small corps of
_Feldjägers_, or mounted orderlies, for carrying despatches, and have
now formed a body of motor-cycle volunteers for this purpose.
In the British Cavalry Division, four men from every squadron are
trained as despatch riders, and Officers of the “Motor Reserve,” with
their cars, are attached to every Head-Quarters, for carrying Orders
and messages.
There is a _Courier Corps_ in the Russian Service, which provides one
section of 4 Officers and 6 N.C.O.’s for each Army Corps Head-Quarters.
Two sections are allotted to Army Commands.
9. MILITARY POLICE
A body of _Police_ is now a necessity for an Army. They comprise
_Mounted_, as well as _Foot Police_. Their duties are to enforce
sanitary regulations, to preserve order, especially in rear of the
Army, and to carry out sentences of Courts-Martial. They ensure
regularity in allotting billets and enforcing requisitions. They
control sutlers and civilians with the Army, protect civil property,
prevent marauding, and arrest stragglers, deserters, and spies. During
action they will be useful in clearing roads, and maintaining order in
rear of the fighting, and later will keep off the ghouls who infest the
battlefield to plunder the dead and kill the wounded.
Small detachments of Military Police are in the British
Service attached to all Head-Quarters, under the orders of the
Assistant-Provost-Marshal. Foot Police will be attached to General
Head-Quarters and those of the L. of C.; Mounted Police to all other
Head-Quarters; while at Base Head-Quarters there will be both.
CHAPTER V
FORMATIONS OF ALL ARMS
The Larger Formations are formed by combining in one body a number of
the Smaller Formations composed of Units of each Arm, together with the
Administrative Units required for their service. The body thus formed
is then provided with _Head-Quarters_, comprising the Commander and
his Staff, and other necessary personnel. The numbers of Units and of
Lesser Formations grouped together, and their proportion to each other,
are dictated by past experience and a forecast of future fighting
requirements.
The bodies thus formed constitute what are called the _Subordinate
Commands_ of the Army. They are self-contained, and capable of
independent existence and action--_existence_, because they have the
necessary Administrative Services to supply their wants; _action_,
because, having considerable strength, and a proper proportion of all
Arms, they can fight for a certain time without support from other
bodies of troops.
In this chapter will be discussed these _Subordinate Commands_ and
the _Administrative Services_ allotted to them. The succeeding
chapter will describe their _Staff_ and the composition of their
_Head-Quarters_.
1. THE DIVISION
The _Division_ is the basis of the higher organization of Armies in
the Field. It may be mainly composed of Infantry or of Cavalry. In the
former case it is generally termed simply a _Division_, in the latter
a _Cavalry Division_. Its Commander is generally a Major-General,
and is provided with a Staff, to which the Heads of the Divisional
Administrative Services are attached.
Divisions are organized on the following general lines in various
armies:
THE INFANTRY DIVISION
The _Infantry Division_ is formed of two or three Infantry
Brigades--that is, of 12, 16, or 18 Battalions. The “two-Brigade”
organization, the most common abroad, is inferior to that of the
British Army in three Brigades, for the reasons already discussed in
the first chapter. The Division is furnished with other Arms to assist
the action of the Infantry, and has generally the following:
_Cavalry_: 1 Regiment, or sometimes only 2 Squadrons.
_Artillery_: 4 to 12 Batteries, organized in Brigades, and with the
Brigades sometimes grouped in Regiments. One or other of these
formations has an ammunition column. The larger number of guns
is allotted when, as in Germany and England, no Army Corps
Artillery exists.
_Engineers_: A Field Company.
_Administrative Services_: Ammunition Columns; Supply Columns;
Field Ambulances; a Field Post Office.
In some armies the Division has also a light Bridging Train; a Field
Hospital; a mobile Remount Depôt; a Finance Office; Chaplains.
The Divisional _Head-Quarters_ comprise, besides the Commander and
his Staff, a number of Heads of Administrative Services, a Telegraph
Company, or “Communication Unit,” Military Police, and the necessary
Transport.
THE CAVALRY DIVISION
The _Cavalry Division_ is formed of two or three Cavalry Brigades--that
is, of 16 to 24 Squadrons, in foreign armies. It has also one Brigade
of Horse Artillery of 12 guns, with its ammunition column, and
generally some Mounted Engineers and a Telegraph Detachment.
The British Cavalry Division has 4 Brigades or 36 Squadrons; 2
_Brigades_ of Horse Artillery--that is, 4 Batteries, or 24 guns; 4
_Field Troops_ of Engineers; and a _Wireless Telegraph Company_ in
four sections. It is obvious that by this organization a Brigade can
be furnished with all Units it requires for independent action when
detached.
Cavalry Divisions are furnished with the following Administrative
Units: _A Supply Column_; _Field Ambulances_; _Field Post Office_.
2. THE ARMY CORPS
MEANING OF THE TERM
This word is a somewhat misleading translation of the original French
term _Corps d’Armée_, which means one of the bodies of troops forming
an army, whereas the English term (which came through the German _Armee
Korps_) might be supposed to mean a Corps which is an army in itself.
It is now generally shortened to _Corps_.
REASON FOR ORGANIZATION BY ARMY CORPS
If the Army is very large, there must be an intermediate link in the
chain of Command between its Commander and the Divisions, or there
would be too many Subordinate Commanders for the Army Commander to
direct effectively. This link is provided in the larger armies of
the Continent by the _Army Corps_, formed of two or more Infantry
Divisions. A similar grouping of some of the Cavalry Divisions into
_Cavalry Corps_ may be occasionally found in war.
Jomini pointed out (“Art de la Guerre,” Vol. ii., chap, vii.), and
Clausewitz (“On War,” Book V., chap, v.) endorsed his view, that, for
armies up to 100,000 strong, a _Divisional_ organization was best.
This strength represents five or six Divisions, and one or two Cavalry
Divisions, which may therefore be considered as the maximum number
which an army should comprise, if organized in Divisions only.
The advantages of the _Army Corps_ organization of armies are that the
Supreme Command is facilitated by there being fewer Units to direct,
and that a _few_ important Commanders can be better selected than a
number. This organization also provides a large independent force,
under a Senior Commander, available for any special mission. There
were periods in the South African War when the temporary employment of
several Divisions for a special purpose would have been more effective
had they formed a permanent organization like an Army Corps, with its
own Commander and Staff. At the same time it is undoubtedly true that,
except when unavoidable, the addition of another step in the gradation
of Command is undesirable for many reasons. It is wasteful in Staff; it
tends to delay the transmission of Orders; and the large strength of
the Army Corps gives their Commanders so much importance as to lead to
considerable independence in their action, which may weaken the Supreme
Command.
In large armies, however, organization by Army Corps is unavoidable.
We therefore naturally find the forces of the great military powers
of Europe--Germany, France, Russia, Austria, Italy--organized by
_Army Corps_, while the forces of Turkey, Japan, Great Britain, and
the smaller nations of Europe are organized by _Divisions_ only.
Switzerland is about to comply with this principle by transforming her
present Army Corps into Divisions.
COMPOSITION OF AN ARMY CORPS
An Army Corps is generally composed, after the German model, of two
Divisions, in spite of the ruling of Clausewitz that a division of any
Unit into two parts is the worst possible. This is admitted by von
der Golz in his “Nation in Arms,” and also by von Schellendorf in his
“Duties of the General Staff.” Both agree that an Army Corps should
have _three_ Divisions, but think that it would be difficult to alter
a system so deeply rooted in Germany. This criticism applies also to
the bipartite organization of both Cavalry and Infantry Divisions and
Brigades, which exists in most Continental armies. The Austrians have
therefore adopted a Corps of three Divisions, and the Germans and
French think of adding a Reserve Division to the two forming their Army
Corps. To have three Divisions would undoubtedly strengthen the Command
of the _Corps_, and, by reducing the number of Corps, facilitate that
of the _Army_.
Besides the Infantry Divisions, there are other troops in an Army
Corps--namely, Cavalry, Artillery, Engineers, and Administrative
Services.
_Corps Cavalry._--The French have a _Brigade_ of Corps Cavalry, the
Russians a _Division_. This is probably a better arrangement for
providing “protective Cavalry” than to rely only on the few squadrons
of _Divisional_ Cavalry, as in Germany and Austria.
_Corps Artillery._--German and Russian Army Corps have no Corps
Artillery; other armies have two or more Brigades, organized in
Regiments.
Heavy Artillery is likely to be allotted to Army Corps or perhaps to
Armies, in foreign armies, as it is in England to the Division.
_Corps Engineers._--A Company or two, with an Engineer Park of tools
and stores, a Bridging Train, and Telegraph Units, form the Corps
Engineers.
The _Corps Administrative Services_ comprise in most armies an
Ammunition Park, a Supply Park, a Field Bakery, Field Hospitals, and a
Remount and Veterinary Depôt.
3. CAVALRY CORPS
It has been suggested that the duty of strategic reconnaissance, for
which the Cavalry Divisions are organized, might be better performed if
these were grouped under one Command; but such a permanent combination
of Cavalry Divisions into Corps has only been carried out in Russia,
where there is one Cavalry Corps of 2 Divisions (48 squadrons), or
7,000 sabres and 24 guns. The British Cavalry Division, however,
of 4 Brigades (36 squadrons and 24 guns) is virtually a Cavalry
Corps, except that its internal organization is by _Brigades_ and
not by _Divisions_, and so avoids the evil of bipartite division. An
improvised Corps of 2 Divisions has been tried in German manœuvres,
and it is expected that in war one or more of them will be formed.
They will perhaps be kept in the hands of the Supreme Command for
independent action, each Army Commander retaining a Division or two as
“Army Cavalry.”
To group 2 or 3 Divisions into a Cavalry Corps under one Command makes
it easier and quicker to concentrate them and break through the
enemy’s screen, as long as all the Divisions are moving in the same
direction, and engaged in the same task. But if they are covering a
broad front, and acting on separate objectives, it would be a mistake
to group them under one Commander, who must necessarily be acting
at some distance. In this case, the independence of the Divisional
Commanders will conduce to the quick tactical decisions on which
success depends.
It would seem sound not to distribute the whole of a large Cavalry
force equally among the Divisions, nor the latter equally among the
Armies, but to allot according to the capacity of the Commanders, and
the importance of the strategical work they have to accomplish. If this
be so, there may be something to be said for the French Divisions of
unequal strength, some of 2, some of 3 Brigades. But in the opinion
of von Bernhardi, the leading exponent of modern Cavalry views, even
the usual Continental Division of 3 Brigades is “much too weak,”
seeing that the Brigades are of two Regiments. He strongly advocates a
three-Regiment Brigade, which is that of the British Service.
4. THE ARMY AS A UNIT
The Military Forces of the Great Powers have now grown so large that
a further development of organization has become necessary. They are
therefore divided in war into separate _Armies_. _Army_, in this new
sense, does not mean, as it used to, the whole Force, for which,
indeed, some other word than “Army” is urgently needed. An _Army_ is
simply the highest Unit in the organization of a great host in the
field.
This division into separate Armies, each forming a definite Unit, with
its own Commander and Staff, and numbered from right to left, was first
seen in the two great wars carried on by Prussia in 1866 and 1870.
Each Army had its own Lines of Communication, and moved and fought
independently under its Commander, in obedience to general instructions
issued at intervals by Moltke, as Chief of the General Staff, on the
authority of the Commander-in-Chief, the King of Prussia.
This system was followed in Manchuria by the Japanese, who had four,
and later five, Armies in the field under one Supreme Command. It is
now obligatory on all nations putting several hundred thousand men
in the field to organize them in separate Armies. In any future war
between France and Germany each Power will probably form five such
Armies under one Supreme Commander, or “Generalissimo,” as the French
(following Jomini) style him. Each Army will have its own sphere of
action and Lines of Communication.
The modern organization by Armies differs from that adopted by Napoleon
for the invasion of Russia, and in the German campaign which followed
in 1813. It is true that, by forming large detachments to the flanks,
he divided his enormous forces into what were practically separate
Armies; but the main body in the centre was not only by far the most
important, but was under Napoleon’s own command. In fact he commanded
one of the Armies himself, while at the same time directing the
whole Force. It is now recognized that this arrangement was far from
successful, even under Napoleon, and would be impossible for a lesser
man. The Supreme Commander must not himself command one of his Armies.
If he were to attempt this, the other Armies would become merely large
detachments; plans would tend to be based on the movements of the
main body; and the operations of the Armies would lose in scope and
independence.
The size of Armies must obviously be limited to the number which one
man can command. This, according to Clausewitz, should not exceed
120,000 to 150,000. The total strength depends mainly on the number of
Subordinate Commands. Napoleon was of opinion that five were enough for
one man to command. Clausewitz laid down eight as the maximum.
In the great hosts of modern nations _Armies_ are not organized in
peace, and their composition in war is kept secret, but it is certain
that they will not consist of less than three, or of more than six
_Army Corps_ (or _Divisions_, where Army Corps are not used), and most
probably of four or five, with two or three _Cavalry Divisions_.
We have thus traced the development of the _Higher Commands_, or those
of all Arms, from the _Division_ to the _Army_, and will now consider
the Administrative Services and Staff allotted to them.
THE ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICES
As indicated at the beginning of the second chapter, a number of
Administrative Services are required, to provide the Fighting Troops
with all they need to keep up their strength and efficiency. An army
cannot act without a service of communication for transmission of
Orders; it cannot exist without a supply of food and clothing, fight
without ammunition, or move without transport to carry these stores.
To maintain its discipline there must be Police, and a department of
Military Justice. For reasons of _morale_, the sick and wounded must be
collected and tended, and it is also desirable that its letters should
pass with regularity to and from home, and that spiritual ministration
should be provided.
These points, with the exception of the Medical Services, were as a
rule little considered until the close of the eighteenth century,
when Carnot devoted much attention to them while organizing the
revolutionary armies in France. Napoleon and Wellington improved them
considerably, but they were still very inadequate in England till after
the Crimean War.
In modern armies a good system of administration is universally felt to
be of the greatest importance. Services are therefore organized to meet
the administrative requirements of an army in the field, which may be
classed under the following heads:
Inter-communication throughout the Force.
Supply of food, ammunition, and other stores.
Transport by rail and road.
Medical and Veterinary aid.
Replacing loss in men or horses.
The above bear directly on the fighting; but there are also certain
semi-civil services, which cannot well be dispensed with in war. These
deal with the following matters:
Guidance as to Law--military, martial, and international.
Finance, Accounts, the provision and issue of Cash.
Clerical work, in connection with Statistics, Records, invaliding
sick and wounded, etc.
Postal Service.
Spiritual ministration.
ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICES IN FOREIGN ARMIES
It is not possible to investigate here the various methods adopted in
each foreign army to meet these requirements. The system is generally
that the _Medical Services_ are managed by their own Heads, the
_Communication_, or _Telegraph_, _Units_ are provided by the Engineers,
and the other Administrative Services are regulated by officials called
“Intendants,” who are attached to Divisional and Army Corps Commands,
and have entire responsibility for _Supply_, _Remounts_, _Stores_, and
_Finance_. As to _Transport_, each Army Corps has a “Train Battalion,”
a combatant Unit which provides the Infantry, Cavalry, Engineer, and
Medical Units (but not those of Artillery) with the wagons, teams, and
drivers they require, and furnishes the Transport Columns for carrying
supplies.
The personnel of the Medical Services is similarly furnished by the
“Army Corps Medical organization,” and the Principal Medical Officers
on the Staff of Divisions and Corps administer the Medical Services.
A Director of Medical Services, an Intendant-General, and a
Judge-Advocate-General are attached to “General,” as well as to “Army,”
Head-Quarters.
As regards the other Services, the _Veterinary_ and _Postal Services_,
and the _Chaplains_, do not generally form part of any higher Staffs
than those of Divisions.
It will be seen that the system is so designed that in the main the
business of Administration in detail falls on the Divisional and Army
Corps Commands, while the Army Command is left free to concentrate its
attention on the enemy.
The principles on which the Administration of an Army in the Field
is organized for war as carried on at the present day, can be best
understood by a study of the British Administrative Services. The
general lines of their organization will be found described in Chapters
IX. and X.
CHAPTER VI
THE STAFF
HEAD-QUARTERS
Each of the various formations of Troops just described is completed
by appointing its Commander and providing him with a _Staff_--that
is, a body of Staff Officers to assist him in the duties of Command.
The Commander and his Staff form what is known as the _Head-Quarters_
of every Command. Those of the Commander-in-Chief are termed _General
Head-Quarters_, those of an Army Commander _Army Head-Quarters_, and so
on, down to _Brigade Head-Quarters_.
COMPOSITION OF HEAD-QUARTERS
Head-Quarters consist essentially of the _Commander_ with his _Personal
Staff_, and of the Staff Officers constituting the _Staff_ proper,
which it is the object of this chapter to describe in detail.
The Personal Staff needs little remark. It comprises the officers
acting as _Aides de Camp_ to the Commander, and in important
Head-Quarters there is also a _Military Secretary_. These officers
act as confidential secretaries to their Chief, carry his Orders,
manage his household, and arrange for its movements. Their relations
with their Chief are more personal than official, and they are not
considered to be Staff Officers.
Besides the Staff, there are generally attached to Head-Quarters a
number of other Officers, such as those of Administrative Services, and
in some armies Officers of Artillery or Engineers. But these cannot
be properly called Staff Officers, as they have only a limited sphere
of action in the Command, while they perform definite executive and
administrative functions in their own sphere. The action of _Staff
Officers_, on the contrary, ranges over the whole Command, but they
have no personal responsibility or executive functions. In fact they
are useful appendages to each link of the chain of Command, but not
actually links in it themselves.
In addition to _Officers_, there are always connected with
Head-Quarters a number of subordinates, such as interpreters, clerks,
police, printers, lithographers, telegraphists, signallers, cyclists,
motor-car drivers, orderlies, and postal employees, as well as grooms,
servants, cooks, and drivers for the wagons which transport the offices
and baggage of the Head-Quarters.
Head-Quarters are therefore so large as to form virtually a Unit in
themselves. This Unit requires a _Commandant_, or Officer responsible
for its movement, quartering, and discipline, with perhaps a
Quarter-Master-Sergeant to assist him. There would generally be with
each Head-Quarters a small body of Military Police to maintain
discipline, and Medical and Veterinary Officers to take charge of the
health of the officers, men, and horses at Head-Quarters. The safety
of Head-Quarters is so important that they must be provided also with
Infantry to guard them, and Cavalry to form their escort when in rapid
movement.
VARIETIES OF STAFF
The number and description of Staff Officers allotted to a Command
depend on its importance, and on the duties they have to perform.
The duty of the Staff Officer is defined as follows in British Field
Service Regulations: “To assist the Commander in the supervision and
control of the operations and requirements of the Troops, to transmit
his Orders, and to assist the Troops in carrying them out.” In the
British Service these duties are divided among three Branches of the
Staff--the _General Staff_, the _Adjutant-General’s Branch_, and that
of the _Quarter-Master-General_.
The Staff has in foreign armies become differentiated into two
Branches--the _Routine Staff_, which the Germans style _Adjutantur_;
and the _General Staff_, which assists the Commander in all matters
directly affecting the fighting. The Prussian General Staff is nearly a
century old, and forms in general features a model of the General Staff
more recently instituted in other armies. Its development from the
Quarter-Master-General’s Staff is sketched in the historical part of
this work.
A short analysis of the main duties devolving on these different
branches of the Staff will now be given.
THE GENERAL STAFF
The purpose of the Commander is to defeat his enemy, and in
endeavouring to effect this object he has two main pre-occupations:
1. To watch the movements and forecast the plans of the enemy.
2. To make his own plans, and to decide on the movements and
distribution of his forces required to carry them out.
In order that the Commander may devote his whole attention to these
vital matters, he should be as far as possible relieved from details,
and these fall within the province of his General Staff.
We thus see that the main duties of the General Staff should correspond
to those laid down for the General, and may be summed up under the
following heads:
1. _Intelligence_, to enable the Commander to watch the enemy’s
movements, and make his plans.
2. _Operations_, by which his plans are carried out.
Each of these headings comprises an immense amount of detailed work,
which cannot be here dwelt on further than to indicate its general
scope.
1. _Intelligence_ means collecting information about the enemy and
the theatre of war, from every possible source, and arranging
for its transmission to Head-Quarters, to be examined and
collated, and then laid before the Commander. This subject
also includes everything connected with maps and topographical
information, as well as Press Censorship, and provision of
interpreters and guides.
2. _Operations_ include:
(_a_) Working out details of dispositions and movements of
troops, as to their _units_ and _numbers_, with especial
attention to _place_ and _time_, and attention to the security
of the troops in movement and at rest.
(_b_) Embodying the Commander’s plans in clear and concise
“Operation Orders.”
(_c_) Transmitting these Orders with certainty and despatch.
(_d_) Watching, and ensuring, their due execution.
The services of _Inter-communication_ must be carried on under the
control of the General Staff, so as to ensure the rapid transmission of
Information to, and Orders from, Head-Quarters.
But in addition to the above responsibilities which fall on the General
Staff, there are also Staff duties involved in assisting the Commander
to keep his Command in a state of efficiency, which depends on the
following requirements:
First, that its organization, discipline, health, and numbers be kept
up.
Secondly, that its material wants be met.
These duties do not bear directly on the fighting, and so do not fall
to the General Staff, but to the other branches.
THE ADJUTANT-GENERAL’S BRANCH (A.G.)
Duties under the first heading are undertaken by the Staff of the
_Adjutant-General_, which deals with the following matters affecting
the personnel of the Command: discipline, law, and police; pay,
interior economy, and routine Orders; casualties and returns;
appointments, promotions, and rewards; reinforcements, and organization
of improvised units and local levies; the disposal of prisoners;
collecting the wounded and burying the dead. All possible office work
in connection with these matters should be done at the Base, so as not
to burden the Troops in the Field with clerical work carried on under
difficulties.
Since the Adjutant-General’s Branch is responsible for the _health_ of
the Force, the Medical Services are placed under its control in the
British Service. In foreign armies they are administered by their own
Heads at Head-Quarters of Divisions and Army Corps, under the control
of the General Staff.
THE QUARTER-MASTER-GENERAL’S BRANCH (Q.M.G.)
The second heading (supplying the material wants of the Army)
comprises, besides the duties of the Medical Services mentioned above,
those of the Supply, Store, Transport, and other Administrative
Services. The work of the latter is carried out in detail by
the Heads of those Services, who are under the control of the
_Quarter-Master-General’s_ Staff in the British Service. In foreign
armies, where there is no Q.M.G.’s Staff, they are under a Civilian
Official called the _Intendant_, who works under the control of the
General Staff in each Command.
The British Staff Organization, which concentrates these Administrative
Services under the Q.M.G., is no doubt a better arrangement. It
relieves the General Staff of pre-occupation regarding their working,
and minimizes any failure of adjustment between the Field Units and the
Services on the Lines of Communication, by charging a special Branch of
the Staff with their co-ordination.
STAFF OF SUBORDINATE COMMANDS
The above description of Staff work refers in its entirety only to
General, or Army, Head-Quarters, but a similar organization of Staff is
applicable on a smaller scale to Head-Quarters of Subordinate Commands.
In small Head-Quarters the same Staff Officer may have to undertake
more than one set of duties.
IMPORTANCE OF THE STAFF
The importance to the Army of a competent Staff can be judged from
the above account of their duties. The Staff forms the nervous system
of the Command. The better trained the Staff, the more free will
the General be to concentrate his attention on the situation, and
his Subordinate Commanders to carry out his plans with co-operating
intelligence. Good Staff Officers, it has been well said, are eyes,
ears, and hands to their Chief.
NUMBER OF OFFICERS ALLOTTED TO THE STAFF
In organizing the Staff of any Command it is desirable to keep the
number of Officers at a minimum, as not only does every appointment
to the Staff weaken some fighting unit, but a better selection is
possible if there are only a few appointments to fill. There will be
also less difficulty in finding accommodation in the field for a small
Head-Quarters, and less delay or confusion in moving it. It should not
be forgotten, too, that there will not always be enough work for a
large Staff to do, and that, when men are not fully occupied, mischief
and friction are apt to arise.
CHAPTER VII
WAR ESTABLISHMENTS
THEIR OBJECT AND UTILITY
The previous chapters, describing the Units of the various Arms,
and their grouping into the larger Formations, give only the broad
lines of the organization of the Army. The detailed composition or
_Establishment_ of each Unit is shown in a table giving the numbers
of Officers and Non-Commissioned Officers by their ranks, of men
according to their various functions, and of horses--riding, draught,
and pack. These numbers make up what is termed the _Strength_ of the
Unit. Similarly, there are laid down Establishments for the larger
Formations, which are given in tables showing the Head-Quarters, the
numbers of Units of fighting troops and the Administrative Services,
and the total numbers of personnel and animals, according to their
various categories.
It is convenient to add to these Establishments a statement of the
_Transport_ of each Unit or Formation, showing the guns, wagons, and
carts, of all descriptions, with the drivers and animals required.
The Strength given in Establishments represents the total numbers of
men and animals drawing rations daily in the field, and may be termed
the _Ration Strength_. It is often summed up as so many “officers” and
“other ranks” (or so many of “all ranks”) and horses. The _Fighting
Strength_ means the number of men actually available for fighting,
and the number of guns horsed and manned. The Fighting Strength is
generally reckoned as so many _rifles_, or men fighting on foot, so
many _sabres_, or mounted fighting men, and so many _guns_. The number
of men with the guns is not included in the fighting strength, nor
are officers, Staff Sergeants, or Drivers. But all Cavalry officers,
even the Commanders and Staff, might strictly be counted as “sabres,”
as they actually fight with the same arm as the men, which Infantry
officers do not.
It will be observed that in the larger Formations there is a great
discrepancy between the _Total Strength_ and the _Fighting Strength_.
This is due to the numbers of men employed for non-combatant functions,
or in the auxiliary services, and of horses required for transport.
Thus, in a German Army Corps the total strength is 41,000 men, 14,000
horses, and 2,400 vehicles; while the fighting strength is 25,000
rifles, 1,200 sabres, and 126 guns. In the British Cavalry Division the
total strength is nearly 10,000 men and horses, and 550 vehicles; while
the fighting strength is under 6,000 sabres, with 24 machine guns and
24 guns.
Tables of War Establishments furnish a complete statement of the
Organization for war. On them are founded the necessary calculations
for mobilizing the peace army, for its transport by sea or rail to the
theatre of war, and for its supply with food, ammunition, clothing, and
stores.
The _mobilization_ of a Unit for war may be defined as providing it
with the men and animals required to complete its War Establishment,
and with its _War Outfit_, or the matériel of all kinds with which it
has to be furnished for War. This War Outfit is in the British Service
considered under the following heads:
(_a_) The _Personal Kit_ of each soldier--that is, his _clothing_
and small _necessaries_.
(_b_) _War Equipment_, which is _personal_ or _regimental_.
_Personal Equipment_ comprises the Arms and Ammunition carried,
and the Accoutrements worn, by each soldier.
_Regimental Equipment_ comprises guns, reserve of ammunition,
vehicles, harness, saddlery, stationery, butchery and cooking
utensils.
(_c_) _Regimental Supplies_ of food and forage.
(_d_) The _Medical and Veterinary Equipment_ allotted to the Unit.
These Establishments are laid down for the most important, or the
most likely, wars which the nation may have to wage. They represent
the normal requirements, which are those of a campaign in a civilized
country, and in a temperate climate. The tables would be altered in the
case of war under other conditions, such as in hot or cold climates or
seasons, in mountain warfare, in fighting savages, in quelling civil
insurrection, or when a force is designed for special and limited
operations, such as a raid, or the capture of an oversea fortress.
Instances of such improvised organization may be found in most
British campaigns of the past two centuries, and of late years in the
Expeditionary Forces sent by France to Madagascar, by the United States
to Cuba, and by Germany to South-West Africa.
STATES AND RETURNS
War Establishments by no means represent the real strength during a
war. It may happen that the Army engages in the war without its war
establishment being completed. But even if each unit were at its
correct war establishment when entering on the campaign, this will
not long represent its actual strength. Sick and stragglers waste the
ranks daily. After fighting, the missing, wounded, and dead have to
be deducted. From time to time reinforcements are added in irregular
numbers.
Besides the wastage of units, the whole force at the front is apt to
become reduced by detachments being taken to guard communications, to
escort prisoners or convoys, to garrison fortresses, or to undertake
sieges. Napoleon considered that out of every 8 men in an army, only 5
could be counted on as available for the decisive battle of the war.
It is, however, essential for every Commander to be kept informed
of the state of his Command for fighting purposes, which the
Establishments do not show. This information is supplied by every
Commanding Officer of a Unit in a document called a _State_, rendered,
as a rule, daily. The _State_ shows the fighting condition of the
unit, its strength in officers, men, horses, and guns, the amount of
ammunition in hand, as well as any other points affecting its fighting
efficiency. A State may be rendered by telegraph, or even verbally, to
ensure its prompt arrival.
_Returns_ of strength are also made by every Commanding Officer. These
differ from _States_ in being rendered at longer intervals, so that
they can be more deliberately and accurately made out. They are used
for purposes of record and accounting.
REINFORCEMENTS
The importance of keeping up the effective strength of the Army cannot
be exaggerated. Drafts of reinforcements should be prepared at the
outset, and the supply continuously maintained. There is no principle
of organization more clear than the necessity of keeping the existing
units up to strength, and not reinforcing with new units, even if the
numbers added to the Army be the same in both cases. New units are not
so efficient as the weak old ones reinforced by fresh men. They will
soon become mere skeletons like the old units, after which the Army
will consist of a great number of very weak units--a state of things
very detrimental to Command and force of action.
The wastage of war falls mainly on the Infantry, whose losses in battle
and sufferings on the march exceed those of other Arms. Far more
losses are incurred on the march than in the fighting. Marching is the
rule of the soldier’s life in war, fighting the exception. Infantry
wastes away like snow in the sun, as it marches; footsore men fall
out, and fatigue and privations cause illness. The statistics of the
diminution of the two finest of the Prussian Corps in 1870 are most
striking. The Third Corps, which fought so well at Spicheren on the 6th
August, and magnificently at Vionville on the 16th, losing in these
battles 350 men per battalion, dropped 200 per battalion on the road.
The Guards, who entered France with 30,000 Infantry, had only 13,000
rifles after Sedan, a month later, and 8,000 when they reached Paris,
their loss in battle being only 8,350. The battalions therefore had
lost 300 men on the road, apart from fighting, during the first six
weeks of the war.
In a hard campaign it seems likely, therefore, that a loss of at least
100 men per battalion per month must be expected during hard marches,
besides losses in fighting which may amount to more. Some Prussian
Regiments lost from 300 to 500 men per battalion during one day’s
fighting in 1870.
The strength of Head-Quarters of Commands, and of Administrative
Services, remains fairly constant during a campaign, as does the number
of guns. Mounted men waste less than Infantry, as they do not become
footsore, and do not carry the weight of their equipment, which rests
on the horse.
To remedy the wastage of war, the British organization provides for
each Unit proceeding to the theatre of operations a Reserve, extra to
its Establishment, amounting to 10 per cent. of its number of rank and
file. These men are at first retained at the Base, so as to be readily
available, and are called the “First Reinforcements.” It is calculated
that subsequent reinforcements, amounting to some 60 per cent. of the
total strength of the Force, but mainly required for the Infantry,
are likely to be sufficient to replace the wastage of the first year
of a war. For the British Expeditionary Force of 153,000 in the Field
the strength of First Reinforcements is 14,000 and that of subsequent
Reinforcements will probably be about 2,700 officers and 75,000 men.
EVILS OF IMPROVISED ORGANIZATIONS
It might be considered that the larger formations of all Arms need
not be permanently organized, but might be improvised for War. This
was formerly the system in all armies, and persisted in the British
Service until a few years ago; while in the United States there is even
now no higher unit than the Regiment. But improvised bodies of troops
are not so efficient as permanent formations. This could be shown by
many examples from history. The force defeated at Majuba was formed of
Companies of several Regiments, and in 1870 the working of the German
Cavalry Divisions, which were formed only on mobilization, left much to
be desired.
There are several advantages in assembling troops, in permanent
Commands. In the first place, the training together of all Arms, and
of their various units, creates confidence throughout the force. It
can be easily seen how they will learn to know each other’s methods of
action, and to rely on their mutual co-operation. For instance, it has
been found how much better Artillery supports the other troops of its
own Division, whom it has been accustomed to work with.
In the second place, where Staff Officers work constantly together, and
understand each other, their work will be better and more rapidly done.
Also, when troops are accustomed to work with the same Staff, Orders
can be short and concise, and therefore more quickly drafted, and
better understood. All this saves time, and much increases the mobility
on which depends success in manœuvring.
In the third place, it is most desirable that the Chief should know his
Staff and still more his Subordinate Commanders. He will thus be able
to apportion to each officer a task suited to his qualifications. This
tends to efficiency in Command.
The Administration, too, of improvised units always leaves much to be
desired. The Administrative Services of each portion may be permanent
and adequate, but additional ones will be required for the new Unit,
as well as improvised Head-Quarters. MacMahon’s failure at Wörth was
partly due to his having to command a detached Army with only the Staff
of his own Army Corps.
IMPORTANCE OF PRESERVING ORIGINAL ORGANIZATION
The organization of a force regulates the conditions of its command and
administration, and should be altered during the war only if it be
absolutely necessary to do so. Any alteration interrupts the accustomed
channel for Orders, necessitates changes in Commanders and Staff, and
disorganizes the system of Supply. An improvised unit, it has already
been shown, is never so efficient as a permanent one, and to form one
will rob some existing units to provide the new Commander and Staff.
Change in organization, therefore, makes control less effective, and
tends to confusion in administration, and to general diminution of
efficiency in the Force.
At the same time, the original organization must not be regarded as
immutable, if the Commander-in-Chief considers it necessary to alter
it. This is definitely laid down in Field Service Regulations, Part
ii., sect. 8, pars. 6 to 10. A redistribution may become imperative for
reasons of Strategy or Command, but fewer occasions for this necessity
will arise if the original organization has been well thought out, so
as to meet all requirements which can be foreseen. In the South African
War the organization by Army Corps was given up at the beginning, and
has never been revived. But in this connection it may be submitted that
the frequent formation of improvised sub-commands for special purposes
was responsible for loss of force in their leading, which sometimes
entailed failure, as in the case of De Wet’s escape.
It is a rule that units should, if possible, be kept intact when
forming detachments like Advanced Guards, or those for special
operations, which should not be formed out of fragments of several
units, like the force defeated at Majuba Hill in 1881.
THE ORDRE DE BATAILLE
In planning the movements of a force it is desirable to keep the
Sub-Commands in the same relative position throughout. Thus, a corps
originally on the right of another should not get to the left of it,
nor one in rear pass another in front of it. This will avoid useless
marching and delays, and confusion in the trains in rear.
This may be summed up as the principle of maintaining the original
_Ordre de Bataille_. This expression, which originally meant the
“battle array,” or order in which the Army was drawn up for battle,
is sometimes used to denote the strategical array, or the composition
and distribution of the various formations which make up the Army.
The _Ordre de Bataille_ has no longer any reference to their
relative positions on the battle ground, which necessarily change
with the circumstances of each engagement. But this document is
still indispensable for an army. No Orders can be drafted except by
referring to it, and without it the direction and control of an army
would be impossible. A knowledge of the _Ordre de Bataille_ of the
enemy--that is, of the composition and distribution of the Subordinate
Commands of his army--is obviously of the first importance in planning
movements and combinations against him. It can generally be arrived
at from a study of his peace organization and his railway facilities
for concentration, corrected by any information procurable as to the
position of his troops. This information may come from various sources,
such as newspaper reports of the progress of his concentration,
captured documents and letters, deserters, and spies. After an action,
the insignia on the uniforms of dead, wounded, and prisoners, the
lettering of captured guns, wagons, and baggage, give valuable hints as
to the units engaged. It is open to question whether such information
might not be withheld from the enemy.
In the Manchurian War the Japanese carefully avoided helping the enemy
by indicating units on uniforms, and instructed their men, when wounded
or captured, to refrain from stating their Corps. They increased the
strength of their Divisions, altered the number of Divisions composing
each Army, and even formed an additional Army out of time-expired
reserves, without the facts leaking out. This greatly hindered the
Russians from estimating the Japanese strength in the different
sections of the great battles.
Napoleon made a practice of allotting larger numbers to the Army Corps
and Divisions commanded by his best Generals, and this irregularity was
increased by his constantly raising additional battalions and squadrons
to meet special exigencies, and by incorporating foreign contingents
in his armies. The result was, the French _Ordre de Bataille_ was so
irregular as to make any _a priori_ calculation of strength on the part
of his enemies of doubtful value.
The difficulty consequently found by the historian in calculating the
strengths, and following the movements, of the French Armies in the
Napoleonic Wars is a measure of that which his enemy’s Staff must have
met in arriving at a definite idea of the strength and disposition of
the French Forces at any given moment.
It is plain that the modern aim of making organization so logical and
methodical that the Staff can more easily plan operations, and write
correct Orders, had little weight with Napoleon. He was himself his own
Chief of the General Staff, and had a memory which no complexity could
confuse. It may be a question whether modern symmetry of organization
may not be really injurious to success, because highly informing to
the enemy. Simplicity and symmetry are obviously useful in saving
difficulties to the Staff; but this advantage may be bought too dearly,
and a complicated and illogical organization might be the best for war,
so as to prevent the enemy acquiring information.
PART II
_BRITISH WAR ORGANIZATION_
CHAPTER VIII
THE EXPEDITIONARY FORCE
FIGHTING TROOPS
The British Troops organized for service in the field consist of the
_Expeditionary Force_, formed by the Regular Army and its Reserves,
and the _Territorial Force_, composed of troops which are virtually
Militia, undergoing only a slight annual training, and engaged in their
civil avocations during the rest of the year. To these may be added
the regular troops in the Mediterranean (Gibraltar, Malta, and Egypt),
and in South Africa, from which a Division may be formed to add to the
Expeditionary Force. The forces of the self-governing Dominions need
not be considered. They are hardly as yet organized as Field Armies,
and are kept up for Local Defence. There is also the _Indian Army_,
composed of regular troops, British and Indian.
The _Expeditionary Force_ corresponds to what in foreign countries is
termed the Army of _First_ Line, and the _Territorial Force_ to the
Army of _Second_ Line; the former being intended for action against our
enemies abroad, and the latter for Home Defence.
THE EXPEDITIONARY FORCE
The _Expeditionary Force_ comprises essentially the following bodies of
Troops:
One _Cavalry Division_, as Independent Cavalry.
Two _Mounted Brigades_, as Army Protective Cavalry.
Six _Infantry Divisions_, to which may eventually be added a
seventh from the Mediterranean and South Africa.
The Force will be provided with a _General Head-Quarters_, and with an
_Army Head-Quarters_ if it is proposed to divide it into two Armies.
There will also be allotted to the Force certain Units under the
immediate command of the Commander-in-Chief, termed “Army Troops.” Some
of these Units will also be allotted to any separate Armies which may
be formed.
Units of Troops will also be provided for duties on the Lines of
Communication. These will consist of the “L. of C. Defence Troops,”
and of the Head-Quarters and Administrative Services on the Lines of
Communication.
The composition of the various Head-Quarters, and the number and nature
of the Units of Army Troops, and of the Units on the L. of C., will
depend on the conditions of the campaign, which will vary according to
the enemy to be encountered, the climate and nature of the theatre of
war, and the character of the Lines of Operations and Communications.
It was explained in the previous chapter that in order to allow of
normal Establishments to be drawn up, the assumption is made that the
war will take place in a civilized country and in a temperate climate.
A _normal_ Line of Communications is also assumed, consisting of a
Seaport or a Base, a railway from it 100 miles long, and two lines of
road 30 miles long from Railhead to the Advanced Bases.
The following pages show the composition of the whole Force and of
the various Subordinate Commands forming it, as well as that of the
various Head-Quarters, the “Army Troops,” and the Troops on the Lines
of Communication. The Establishments of the various Fighting Units are
also given, followed by a table of their strength in round numbers of
officers, men, and horses actually belonging to the Unit.
Some notes on the general principles on which the Establishments have
been drawn up will first be given.
A _Medical Officer_ is attached to each unit, and a _Veterinary
Officer_ to each mounted unit.
Two to five men of the _Medical Corps_ are attached to each unit,
according to its strength.
A _Bâtman_--that is, an officer’s servant or groom--is provided for
each Officer, and a second one if he has more than one horse. Bâtmen
are armed and trained soldiers, taken from the unit, and available for
duty in its ranks.
_Draught Horses_ are allotted as follows: six to each gun or
ammunition-wagon, four to each wagon, and two to each cart. Spare
horses are provided at the rate of 10 per cent. of the total.
One _Driver_ is provided for each pair, and 10 per cent. of _spare
drivers_ are added, but this number is 5 per cent. in the case of
Divisional Ammunition Columns, and T. and S. Parks.
Two _Trumpeters_, _Drummers_, or _Buglers_, are allotted to each
Squadron or Company of Fighting Troops.
The _Regimental Sergeant-Major_ is a Warrant Officer. There is one in
each Cavalry Regiment, Infantry Battalion, and Artillery Brigade.
EXPEDITIONARY FORCE
COMPOSITION OF SUBORDINATE COMMANDS
CAVALRY BRIGADE
Head-Quarters.
3 Cavalry Regiments.
CAVALRY DIVISION
Head-Quarters.
4 Cavalry Brigades.
_Cavalry Divisional Troops_:
_Cavalry Divisional Artillery_:
Head-Quarters.
2 Horse Artillery Brigades.
_Cavalry Divisional Engineers_:
Head-Quarters.
4 Field Troops.
1 Wireless Telegraph Company.
1 Transport and Supply Column.
4 Cavalry Field Ambulances.
INFANTRY BRIGADE
Head-Quarters.
4 Infantry Battalions.
DIVISION
Head-Quarters.
3 Infantry Brigades.
_Divisional Troops_:
_Divisional Mounted Troops_:
2 Mounted-Infantry Companies.
_Divisional Artillery_:
Head-Quarters.
3 Field Artillery Brigades.
1 Field Artillery (Howitzer) Brigade.
1 Heavy Battery and Ammunition Column.
1 Divisional Ammunition Column.
_Divisional Engineers_:
Head-Quarters.
2 Field Companies.
1 Divisional Telegraph Company.
_Administrative Services_:
1 Divisional Transport and Supply Column.
1 Divisional Transport and Supply Park.
3 Field Ambulances.
MOUNTED BRIGADE
Head-Quarters.
2 or 1 Cavalry Regiments.
1 or 2 Mounted-Infantry Battalions.
1 Horse Artillery Battery and Ammunition Column.
1 Transport and Supply Column.
1 Cavalry Field Ambulance.
ARMY TROOPS
2 Mounted Brigades, to act as Army Protective Cavalry.
2 Squadrons, } as Escort for Head-Quarters.
1 Infantry Battalion, }
2 Cable Telegraph Companies, }
2 Air-line Telegraph Companies, } Communication Units.
3 Balloon Companies, }
2 Bridging Trains.
1 Transport and Supply Column.
2 Field Ambulances for the Army Troops.
STRENGTH OF FIELD FORCE AND OF ITS MAIN SUBDIVISIONS
STRENGTH OF SUBORDINATE COMMANDS
The following are, _in round numbers_, the strengths of the
Expeditionary Force and of its component portions:
--------------------+----------+-------+-------+-----+---------
|All Ranks.|Horses.|Machine|Guns.|Vehicles.
| | | Guns. | |
--------------------+----------+-------+-------+-----+---------
Cavalry Brigade | 1,700 | 1,800| 6 | — | 55
Cavalry Division | 9,800 | 10,000| 24 | 24 | 600
Mounted Brigade | 2,300 | 2,350| 6 | 6 | 135
Infantry Brigade | 4,150 | 300| 8 | — | 65
Infantry Division | 19,700 | 7,300| 24 | 76 | 1,200
Six Divisions | 118,000 | 43,700| 144 | 456 | 7,200
Army Troops | 8,400 | 7,000| 14 | 12 | 600
| | | | |
FIELD UNITS | 136,500 | 62,000| 182 | 492 | 8,000
On the L. of C. | 17,000 | 7,000| 4 | — | 1,200
--------------------+----------+-------+-------+-----+---------
TOTAL FIELD FORCE | 153,500 | 69,000| 186 | 492 | 9,200
First Reinforcements| | | | |
at Base | 13,500 | 1,000| — | — | —
--------------------+----------+-------+-------+-----+---------
GRAND TOTAL | 167,000 | 70,000| 186 | 492 | 9,200
--------------------+----------+-------+-------+-----+---------
TOTAL BY ARMS
TOTAL STRENGTH OF EACH ARM AND SERVICE, IN ROUND NUMBERS
Infantry 84,000 all ranks.
Cavalry 9,000 ”
Mounted Infantry 4,000 ”
Artillery 32,000 ”
Engineers 7,500 ”
Army Medical Corps 9,500 ”
Army Service Corps 16,000 ”
Other Services and H.Q. 5,000 ”
-------
Total 167,000
=======
This total includes some 6,000 Officers.
ESTABLISHMENTS OF UNITS
INCLUDING THOSE ATTACHED--VIZ. MEDICAL AND VETERINARY OFFICERS, MEN OF
MEDICAL CORPS AND ARMY SERVICE CORPS FOR 2ND LINE TRANSPORT
KEY: A: Officers.
B: Warrant Officers, Staff Sergeants, Sergeants.
C: Artificers.
D: Trumpeters, Buglers, or Drummers.
E: Rank and File.
F: Total all ranks.
G: Horses or Pack Mules.
-------------------------------------------+--+--+--+--+---+-----+-----
| A| B| C| D| E | F | G
-------------------------------------------+--+--+--+--+---+-----+-----
CAVALRY: Squadron | 6|10| 8| 2|138| 164| 175
Machine-Gun Section | 1| 1| —| —| 23| 25| 33
Regiment |25|38|28| 6|456| 553| 590
| | | | | | |
ARTILLERY: Horse Artillery Battery | 5| 9| 9| 2|183| 208| 234
Field Battery | 5| 9| 9| 2|178| 203| 180
Howitzer Battery | 5| 9| 9| 2|166| 191| 158
Heavy Battery | 5| 8| 8| 2|148| 171| 118
Heavy Battery with Ammunition Column | 6| 9|12| 2|201| 230| 177
Field Artillery Brigade |25|38|42| 9|850| 964| 959
Field Artillery Brigade Ammunition Column| 5|10|14| 2|285| 316| 389
Divisional Ammunition Column |20|15|44| 2|748| 829|1,048
Divisional Ammunition Column, one Section| 4| 3|11| —|181| 199| 253
| | | | | | |
ENGINEERS: Field Troop | 3| 4| 2| 1| 74| 84| 81
Field Company | 6| 8| 1| 2|198| 215| 73
Bridging Train | 7| 9| 5| 2|211| 234| 331
Communication Units —see | | | | | | |
Administrative Services, | | | | | | |
in next Chapter. | | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
INFANTRY: Company | 3| 5| —| 2|110| 120| 2
Machine-Gun Section | —| 1| —| —| 15| 16| 5
Battalion |29|51| —|16|928|1,024| 71
| | | | | | |
MOUNTED INFANTRY: Company and Battalion | | | | | | |
identical with Cavalry Squadron | | | | | | |
and Regiment. | | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICES: See details | | | | | | |
under head of each in following | | | | | | |
Chapters, IX and X. | | | | | | |
-------------------------------------------+--+--+--+--+---+-----+-----
STRENGTH OF UNITS OF FIGHTING TROOPS
The following figures are in round numbers, and show officers,
men, and horses belonging to the unit. They do _not_ include those
attached--namely: Medical and Veterinary Officers, Armourer Sergeants,
men of the Medical Corps, and the 2nd Line Transport provided by the
Army Service Corps.
----------------------------------------+---------+-----+--------+
|Officers.| Men.| Horses.|
----------------------------------------+---------+-----+--------+
CAVALRY: Squadron | 6 | 155 | 170 |
Regiment | 23 | 510 | 560 |
ARTILLERY: H.A. Battery | 5 | 195 | 220 |
Field Battery | 5 | 195 | 170 |
Howitzer Battery | 5 | 180 | 150 |
Heavy Battery | 5 | 160 | 110 |
H.A. Brigade | 17 | 650 | 770[A] |
Field Brigade | 23 | 910 | 900[A] |
Field Brigade Ammunition | | | |
Column | 5 | 300 | 270 |
Divisional Ammunition Column | 18 | 780 | 990 |
ENGINEERS: Field Troop | 3 | 80 | 80 |
Field Company | 6 | 150 | 70 |
Bridging Train | 5 | 230 | 330 |
INFANTRY: Company | 3 | 120 | 2 |
Battalion | 28 | 980 | 50 |
MOUNTED INFANTRY: Company | 6 | 155 | 170 |
Battalion | 23 | 510 | 560 |
----------------------------------------+---------+-----+--------+
[A] With Ammunition Column.
COMPOSITION OF HEAD-QUARTERS
The following tables give the number of officers in the several
Head-Quarters comprised in the Force.
GENERAL HEAD-QUARTERS
Commander-in-Chief and Personal Staff 6
General Staff 11
A.G. and Q.M.G.’s Staffs 8
Heads of Administrative Services 15
Other officers 15
Other ranks nearly 200
ARMY HEAD-QUARTERS
Similarly composed, but with fewer officers.
HEAD-QUARTERS OF THE LINES OF COMMUNICATION
General and A.D.C. 2
General Staff 2
Other Staff 7
Other officers (Administrative Services) 26
Other ranks about 100
HEAD-QUARTERS OF THE BASE
Commandant and Staff 5
Other officers (Administrative Services) 18
Other ranks about 40
HEAD-QUARTERS OF A DIVISION (INFANTRY OR CAVALRY)
Major-General and A.D.C.’s 3
General Staff 3
A.G. and Q.M.G.’s Staffs 2
Other officers 7
Other ranks about 70
HEAD-QUARTERS OF A BRIGADE OF CAVALRY OR INFANTRY, OF MOUNTED
BRIGADES, AND OF DIVISIONAL ARTILLERY
Brigadier-General and A.D.C. 2
Brigade Major 1
Staff Captain (none in Infantry Brigades) 1
Brigade Signalling Officer 1
(none in Divisional Artillery)
Other ranks 30 to 40
” ” in Divisional Artillery 20
The above does _not_ include officers of the “Army Motor Reserve,” who
are attached to all these Head-Quarters, except those of Cavalry and
Infantry Brigades and Divisional Artillery.
CHAPTER IX
THE EXPEDITIONARY FORCE (_continued_)
ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICES
A description will now be given of the organization of the British
Administrative Services designed for the Expeditionary Force of six
Divisions with a Cavalry Division and two Mounted Brigades.
At the head of each Administrative Service is a _Director_, who is the
adviser of the C.-in-C. on technical matters connected with the Service
he administers. He is responsible for providing for the requirements
which his Service is designed to meet, subject to the instructions
of that branch of the Staff to which the C.-in-C. has delegated his
authority in this respect.
A representative of each Director is allotted to the Staff of the L. of
C. and of the Subordinate Commands, to whom he holds the same position
as his Director does to the Staff of the C.-in-C. The Services are thus
kept in close touch with the Staff, so as to conform readily to the
movements and requirements of the Troops.
The following is a list of the Directors, and shows the nature of the
duty of the Administrative Service which each directs.
Director of Army Signals: Service of inter-communication.
Director of Army Medical Services: Care of the sick and wounded;
sanitation.
Director of Army Transport: Provision of transport.
Director of Army Supplies: Provision of food, forage, fuel, and light.
Director of Army Ordnance Services: Provision of ammunition, equipment,
clothing, and stores.
Director of Army Veterinary Service: Care of animals.
Director of Army Remounts: Providing fresh horses.
Director of Army Railways: Working of railways.
Director of Army Works: Engineer works on the L. of C.
Director of Army Postal Services.
The Service of Army Signals is controlled by the General Staff, and
the Medical Services by the Adjutant-General’s Branch, for the reasons
previously explained, in describing the organization of the Staff,
in Chapter VI. All the other Directors, and their representatives
with Subordinate Commands, work under the supervision of the
Quarter-Master-General’s Branch of the Staff.
Besides the above Directors, and the Administrative Services they
control, the following Officials and Departments form part of the
General Head-Quarters of the Army in the Field.
A _Deputy Judge-Advocate-General_, for legal advice, and a _Principal
Chaplain_ are attached to Head-Quarters of the C.-in-C., and are placed
under the Adjutant-General.
An _Accounts Department_, under the Financial Adviser attached to
Head-Quarters, and a _Record Office_, to deal with correspondence, will
be established at the Base.
Of the officers enumerated above, the first four Directors, those of
Army Signals, Medical Services, Transport, and Supplies, accompany
General Head-Quarters in the field. The remainder are usually attached
to the Head-Quarters of the Lines of Communication, where the Services
they administer are mainly employed.
ORGANIZATION OF THE LINES OF COMMUNICATION
It is desirable, therefore, that a sketch of the organization of the
Administrative Services should be prefaced by one of that of the Lines
of Communication (L. of C.), on which they mainly act. The normal L. of
C. for which these Services are calculated is a Railway 100 miles long
reaching from a Sea Base to Railhead, and thence by two roads 30 miles
long to two Advanced Bases.
The _defence_ of the L. of C. is now entirely separated from its
_administration_, and is entrusted to an Officer styled the _Commander
of L. of C. Defences_, who is also responsible for its military
government when in hostile territory. To this officer are allotted
certain “L. of C. Defence Troops” (two battalions for the normal L. of
C. laid down). The L. of C. is divided into sections for defence, each
under a subordinate “L. of C. Defence Commander.”
The _administration_ of the L. of C. is vested in an Officer styled
the _Inspector-General of Communications_, who has command over all
the Administrative Services on the L. of C., controls their working,
and regulates the traffic on the L. of C. He has a Staff, to which
are attached the Heads of the Administrative Services, or their
representatives. The L. of C. consists essentially of one or more
_Advanced Bases_ close in rear of the Army, a _Railhead_ (beyond which
railway service is not organized), various intermediate _Sections_,
or _Posts_, as required, and, most important of all, the _Base_, at
the end farthest from the front, and nearest home. The sections may be
conterminous with the sections of defence. For each of these portions
of the L. of C. there is an Administrative Commandant in charge of its
interior economy, and responsible for forwarding the traffic on the L.
of C. through his section.
Each of the Administrative Services will now be discussed in detail;
those which are in part with the Fighting Troops at the front being
described in this chapter, those which are entirely on the L. of C. in
the next.
1. SERVICE OF INTER-COMMUNICATION
It is only in the armies of England and the United States that a
complete system of inter-communication between all parts of the Army
has been organized. Such a system has not been fully developed in
foreign armies, but its necessity is more than ever pressing, owing
to the wide dispersion of forces in war, and the need for rapid
transmission of _Information_ as to the enemy’s movements from the
Front to Head-Quarters, and of _Orders_ from the several Head-Quarters
to the Troops.
The means of communication in war are:
_Electric_: _i.e._ Telegraph, telephone, wireless.
_Visual_: _i.e._ Flag, lamp, or heliograph.
_Manual_: _i.e._ Orderlies (mounted, bicycle, or foot); a system of
relay posts served by despatch riders; motor cars or motor
cycles.
_Balloons, aeroplanes, and kites_.
Balloons were first used by the French at the Battle of Fleurus in
1794, and are being experimented on by many nations at present. There
will be six balloons, of which three can be worked at one time, with
the British Army of six Divisions, and probably two balloons to each
German Army Corps.
The whole system of inter-communication in the British Expeditionary
Force is under the _Director of Army Signals_, who is at General
Head-Quarters, in close connection with the General Staff.
Communication Units are provided for General Head-Quarters and
Divisions, and also on the L. of C., as follows:
Cavalry Division: 1 Wireless Telegraph Company.
Infantry Division: 1 Telegraph Company.
General Head-Quarters: 2 Cable Telegraph Companies; 2 Air-line
Companies; 3 Balloon Companies.
Lines of Communication: 2 Telegraph Companies.
The following are the details of the communication provided by these
units, and of their composition:
WIRELESS TELEGRAPH COMPANY
The _Wireless Telegraph Company_ provides communication between General
Head-Quarters and the Cavalry Division, up to 80 miles, and also
inter-communication in the Cavalry Division, between Head-Quarters and
the Brigades, up to 20 miles.
The Company is composed as follows: A Head-Quarters Section, for
communication with General Head-Quarters, and with detached Brigades;
three Sections for three detached Brigades (the fourth Brigade being
with Divisional Head-Quarters). Each of these Sections carries its
wireless equipment in a wagon, but is also provided with 3 pack horses
to carry it. The Head-Quarters Section has equipment for 5 large
stations--one for communication with the three Sections, two detached
to General Head-Quarters, and two for communicating with the latter.
These duplicate stations allow of one pair being ready for work while
the other pair are moving into new positions as the Head-Quarters
advance.
The strength of the Company is 136, with 114 horses--namely: 5
Officers, 6 Sergeants, 4 Artificers, 1 Trumpeter, 120 rank and file, of
whom 60 are available for the telegraph work.
There are 16 wagons, 46 riding horses, and 4 bicycles.
DIVISIONAL TELEGRAPH COMPANY
The Divisional Telegraph Company provides for internal communication
in the Division. It comprises 3 Detachments, each providing a line of
cable 10 miles long, with 3 telegraph offices for communication with
the 3 Brigades.
The strength of the Company is 61, with 41 horses--namely: 2 Officers,
3 Sergeants, 1 Artificer, 55 rank and file, of whom 35 are available
for the telegraph work.
There are 6 wagons, 21 riding horses, and 1 bicycle.
ARMY TROOPS TELEGRAPH COMPANIES
There are 2 “Cable Companies” and 2 “Air-line Companies” at General
Head-Quarters. The former provide temporary communication between
General Head-Quarters and Divisions or Army Detachments; the
latter, communication of a more permanent character between General
Head-Quarters and the Advanced Base.
The “Cable Company” comprises a Head-Quarters, and four Sections, or
9 detachments, each providing 10 miles of cable line, and 3 telegraph
offices.
The strength of the Company is 176, with 125 horses--namely: 6
Officers, 7 Sergeants, 4 Artificers, 2 Trumpeters, 157 rank and file,
of whom 100 are available for the telegraph work.
There are 19 wagons, 61 riding horses, and 1 bicycle.
The “Air-line Company” comprises a Head-Quarters and three Sections,
each of 2 detachments, providing 20 miles of air-line, 8 miles of
cable, and 6 offices.
The strength of the Company is 225, with 158 horses--namely: 6
Officers, 12 Sergeants, 5 Artificers, 2 Trumpeters, 200 rank and file,
of whom 120 are available for the telegraph work.
There are 22 wagons, 52 riding horses, and 1 bicycle.
BALLOON COMPANIES, FOR RECONNAISSANCE
Three Balloon Companies are allotted as Army Troops, each to work one
balloon and one set of kites, with telephones to connect the observer
up in the captive balloon or kite with the ground.
The strength of a Company is 67, with 52 horses--namely: 3 Officers,
3 Sergeants, 1 Artificer, 1 Bugler, 59 rank and file, of whom 30 are
available for the ballooning work.
There are 3 wagons for equipment, 6 reservoir wagons for gas, 8 riding
horses, and 1 bicycle.
_Note._--In the strength of all the above Engineer Units are included 2
men of the Medical Corps attached.
The above network of telegraphic inter-communication, extending between
all Head-Quarters, is supplemented within the Units of the Field Force
by a system of _Signalling_.
Each Division has a Divisional Signalling Officer, with a small
detachment of Signallers--4 men in the Cavalry Division, and a Sergeant
and 6 men in the Infantry Division.
Each Brigade has a Brigade Signalling Officer and 4 Signallers.
Each Cavalry Regiment and Mounted Infantry Battalion has a Signalling
Sergeant, with 27 Signallers (9 per squadron).
Each Infantry Regiment has a Signalling Officer and Sergeant, with 32
Signallers (4 per company).
Each Divisional Artillery Head-Quarters has 4 Signallers.
Every Artillery Brigade has 2 Signallers.
Every Battery has 5 Signallers.
A system of _Telephones_ is, in addition, provided for each Infantry
Brigade. There is a Telephone Detachment to work under the Brigade
Signalling Officer. It consists of a N.C.O. and 5 privates, with a
cart and a pack mule to carry the equipment, for which 2 drivers are
allotted.
2. TRANSPORT
_Road Transport_ alone will be here considered. This is the most
important of the Administrative Services, as on it depend the mobility
of the Force, and the working of the Supply, Medical, and Stores
Services. Transport is required with the Units at the front, to carry
the baggage and stores of the troops, and their ammunition and food
for daily consumption, and to enable field ambulances to accompany the
army. Transport is also required on the Lines of Communication, to
bring up ammunition and food from the base to the front, and to remove
the wounded to the base.
It is agreed that Transport must be organized on a military basis when
accompanying troops at the front, where civil transport is hardly
dependable; but to provide the vast amount required in rear of the army
on the L. of C. would demand more military Transport than could be kept
up in peace, and _Auxiliary Transport_ has to be collected from civil
services for this purpose.
It is obvious that without a carefully worked out system of
organization for its Transport, an army in the field will be helpless
from want of ammunition and food, and slow and uncertain in its
movements; the sick and wounded will lack attention; and the troops
cannot fail to undergo hardships and privations, which will have a bad
effect on their _morale_ and fighting power.
Owing to the enormous amount of food required for an army, the
main function of the Transport is to carry _supplies_, so that the
connection between Transport and Supply is a very intimate one. It
has been found desirable, therefore, to amalgamate the administrative
units which effect these two services. Those who are responsible
for providing food should also be responsible for moving it. The
administrative units of the combined services of Transport and Supply
are provided by the Army Service Corps, as shown in detail in the next
section of this chapter. The Officers of this Corps are trained both
for Transport and Supply duties. Their identical training and their
organization together in one unit tends to produce co-operation in both
services of Transport and Supply, and should minimize any chance of
failure in war. The fact that all officers are interchangeable between
these services also gives an elasticity to the system which is wanting
when they are separate.
REGIMENTAL TRANSPORT
The Transport with the Units in the field is called _Regimental
Transport_, in distinction from the Transport on the Lines of
Communication, and consists of two categories:
(_a_) Transport of Fighting Units, including all Head-Quarters.
This Transport is divided into _First Line_,
and _Second Line_, Transport.
(_b_) Transport of Administrative Units--_i.e._ Ambulances, Supply
Columns, and Supply Parks.
(_a_) _First Line Transport_ forms an integral part of each fighting
unit; the unit provides its own drivers and superintendence for
its transport, which accompanies it at all times. The First Line
Transport carries on wheels (or by pack) all that the unit requires
for fighting--namely: guns, ammunition, entrenching tools--besides
signalling, medical, veterinary, and other technical equipment.
_Second Line Transport_ for all units is provided by the A.S.C.,
to carry the baggage, supplies, stores, and water which the unit
requires to have with it when at rest. This transport is not required
for fighting, and, when near the enemy, does not accompany its unit,
but is all massed in rear of the fighting troops, but able to rejoin
its various units in a few hours. The water carts alone may at times
accompany the troops.
The stores carried include cooking utensils and butchers’ implements,
artificers’ tools and material, office books and stationery; also, when
specially required, blankets, tents, and fuel.
The supplies carried are indicated later in the description of the
_Supply Service_ which follows.
Transport for each Head-Quarters is all furnished by the Army Service
Corps (A.S.C.).
(_b_) Transport of Administrative Units.--This is provided also by the
A.S.C., and is described in the two following sections of this chapter,
under the heading of the Supply Services and Medical Services.
TRANSPORT ON THE LINES OF COMMUNICATION
The Transport on the Lines of Communication is controlled by the
representative of the Director of Transport at Head-Quarters of the
L. of C. It is carried on by _Auxiliary Transport Companies_, composed
generally of non-military wagons, teams, and drivers, under the control
of a small personnel of Army Service Corps. Mechanical Road Transport
is likely in the future to be very largely employed on the L. of C. to
work from railhead to the Units of field troops at the front.
In the British Army organization the details of the L. of C. Transport
are as follows:
Twelve Auxiliary Transport Companies of 50 wagons, and six of 100
wagons, are formed. Each has an A.S.C. personnel of 3 Officers and 54
other ranks, with 10 riding horses. Every 50 wagons require 115 drivers
and 210 horses, including 5 per cent. spare.
In case the local transport is formed of carts, the Auxiliary Company
has an A.S.C. personnel of 1 Officer and 28 other ranks. Every 50 carts
require 58 drivers, and 105 horses, including spare.
There are four units called _Transport Depôts_, each with a personnel
of 3 Officers and 93 other ranks, organized in four Sections; each
Section can form a small depôt on the L. of C., providing a reserve
of horsed transport to replace wastage, and a repairing section for
mechanical transport.
Transport for local work at the Base, and at posts on the L. of C.,
is improvised from civil sources, as it requires no great degree of
mobility, and, working locally, and at a distance from the enemy, can
be easily kept under supervision.
3. SUPPLY
Experience teaches that supplies of food can only be furnished to
troops during war in three ways:
(_a_) The men may be fed by the occupants of the houses where they
are billeted. This is only possible in towns, or in the
country when the troops are much scattered, and when the
Army is moving continuously, and the troops do not remain
more than a day or two in one place.
(_b_) Food may be obtained from the country by purchase, or by
requisition, which must always be carried out in a regular
manner by responsible officers, or waste, confusion, and
individual looting and terrorism will ensue.
(_c_) Food may be drawn from the L. of C. and issued by the Supply
Service.
A combination of all three methods is generally practicable. The food
available in the country should be used as far as possible, so as to
avoid straining the resources of the Supply Service, and the capacity
of the Lines of Communication.
Under the average conditions of country and climate for which the
British normal regulations are designed, it may be expected that fuel,
water, hay and straw, and cattle, will be obtainable in the country.
Thus only bread and groceries, and corn for horses, have normally to be
conveyed to the troops by the Supply Service.
Both purchase and requisition demand good organization, and trained
supply officers accompanying the troops. The Supply Service is
organized in the way about to be described, partly so as to provide
officers, men, and wagons to collect supplies in the country and bring
them to the troops, partly to transport from the Base what is required
to supplement the amount collected.
The Supplies for an Army in the Field may be considered under two heads:
(I.) _Mobile Supplies with the Troops._
(II.) _Supply Depôts on the Lines of Communication._
(I.) MOBILE SUPPLIES WITH THE TROOPS
The former are divided into three lines of supply:
(_a_) Regimental Supplies, controlled by the Unit itself.
(_b_) Column Supplies.
(_c_) Park Supplies.
The last two are controlled by the Supply Service.
(_a_) _Regimental Supplies_ are those carried in Regimental wagons, in
addition to what is in the personal charge of each man--namely, the
remains of the current day’s ration issued overnight, and an emergency
ration of preserved food. In the wagon with each unit are one day’s
ration of food and of oats for the unit, for issue that evening,
besides a second grocery ration and some compressed forage.
(_b_) _Column Supplies_ are carried in Supply Columns, of which one is
allotted to each Division and Mounted Brigade, and to the Army Troops.
Each Column carries one day’s ration and forage for its Division, and
one emergency ration. One day’s meat on the hoof will usually be driven
with the Column.
The Supply Column replenishes the regimental supplies daily, and is
kept filled up by collecting local supplies, or by drawing on the L. of
C. depôts, or, as a last resource, on the Park Supplies.
(_c_) _Park Supplies_ are carried in the Transport and Supply Park
allotted to each Division, which usually marches a day’s march in
rear of the troops. It carries three days’ rations for its Division,
and is divided into three sections, _i.e._ 1 per Brigade. There is in
the Field Park also a Bakery Detachment, capable of baking for 22,500
men; this is, as a rule, stationed at the Advanced Base. One to three
days’ meat supply on the hoof will generally be driven with the Park.
The Parks are kept filled up by a more extended exploitation of local
resources than the Supply Columns can effect, and obtain the balance
required from the L. of C. depôts.
This organization thus supplies the following rations per man, and corn
per horse, with the troops in the field, apart from any Supplies which
may be moving up along the L. of C.
COMPOSITION OF FIELD RATION
Meat: 1¼ lb. fresh, or 1 lb. preserved.
Bread: 1¼ lb., or 1 lb. biscuit.
Groceries: Tea, sugar, salt, pepper.
Jam.
Lime-juice and rum, when authorized.
Vegetables: 8 oz. fresh, or 2 oz. dried, or 4 oz. preserved fruit.
The weight of a ration may be taken at 3 lb. net or 4 lb. gross, and
that of the emergency ration is 6½ lb. net or 9½ lb. gross.
The preserved meat and biscuit are carried in 80-lb. wood cases,
containing 60 rations of meat and 50 of biscuit. The cases furnish
kindling for fires.
12 lb. corn per horse, or 15 lb. for heavy draught horses.
DISTRIBUTION OF SUPPLIES
On the man or horse: 1 day’s ration and 1 day’s oats, less amount
consumed overnight; 1 emergency ration.
In Regimental Transport: 1 day’s ration, less vegetables, and 1 day’s
groceries extra; 1 day’s corn.
In T. and S. Columns: 1 day’s rations and corn.
In T. and S. Park: 3 days’ rations and corn.
Compressed forage: 1 bale (82 lb.) in each wagon in the Force.
Total carried with the Force per man and horse:
6 days’ meat and biscuit and corn, less that consumed overnight;
6 days’ groceries;
5 days’ jam, lime-juice, and rum;
4 days’ vegetables;
2 emergency rations;
or sufficient for from 7 to 8 days, without receiving supplies from the
L. of C.
(II.) SUPPLY DEPÔTS ON THE LINES OF COMMUNICATION
_Advanced Supply Depôts_, established at the Advanced Base, to
replenish the Mobile Supplies with the Troops.
_Intermediate Supply Depôts_, formed at Railhead, and sometimes at
other points on the Lines of Communication, as a reserve.
The _Base Depôt_.--This is the main source of supply for the Army. In
it are accumulated ample reserves of all supplies, procured partly from
home, partly by contract from abroad, but as far as possible by direct
purchase in the theatre of war.
INTERIOR ORGANIZATION OF TRANSPORT AND SUPPLY UNITS
The Supply Columns and Supply Parks are formed by Companies of the
“Army Service Corps,” which comprise both Transport and Supply
personnel, with the necessary horses, wagons, and stores.
The Company of Army Service Corps varies in strength according to its
functions, but comprises on an average the following:
For Transport duties: 3 Officers, 63 other ranks, 108 horses, 25 wagons.
For Supply duties: 1 Officer, 13 other ranks.
The various _Supply Columns_ are formed of a number of A.S.C.
Companies on the following scale: one Company per Brigade, and one per
Head-Quarters; so that the Supply Column of a _Division_ comprises 4
A.S.C. Companies, that of the _Cavalry Division_ 5 A.S.C. Companies,
and that of a _Mounted Brigade_ 1 A.S.C. Company. The _Army Troops_
Supply Column is formed by 1 A.S.C. Company.
The _Divisional Supply Park_ is formed in 3 sections, or one per
Brigade, each being formed by 1 A.S.C. Company.
The _Field Bakery Detachment_ is formed by 1 A.S.C. Company, and is
divided into 8 sections, each of which can erect and work 10 ovens.
The _Supply Depôts_ on the Lines of Communication have a personnel
provided from 40 _Depôt Units of Supply_ and 8 _Bakery Sections_; one
unit and one section are calculated to suffice for a depôt to feed
4,000 men and 1,000 animals. Their personnel comprises clerks, issuers,
butchers, and bakers. Civil labour and transport will be obtained to
supplement the military personnel, as required.
4. THE MEDICAL SERVICES
The Medical Service is of immense importance to the operations. No
General can afford to neglect his sick and wounded. He can hardly
fight, if he knows he cannot attend to them on the battlefield, and
remove them afterwards to hospitals in rear. There must be at the front
sufficient surgeons, as well as medical appliances and stores, to cope
with this work. The transport of the sick to the rear must be carried
out without delay or confusion, and on the Lines of Communication, and
at the Base, there must be properly equipped hospitals to receive the
sick and wounded.
The method of dealing with casualties in action is as follows:
In the front, with the fighting men, are the regimental surgeons and
the stretcher bearers of the Infantry, for work on the battlefield.
Behind the fighting line are stretcher bearers and ambulance wagons
of the Field Ambulance, collecting the wounded, and taking them to
the dressing stations. In rear are the Clearing Hospitals, into which
the sick and wounded are collected, and whence they are despatched
in Ambulance Trains along the railway to Stationary Hospitals on the
Lines of Communication, or to the Base Hospitals. The invalids are then
removed, either to convalescent depôts on the L. of C., or by hospital
ship to the home country, where civil organization can be depended on
to help the Military Hospitals to deal with them.
The Medical Services are manned and administered by the “Royal Army
Medical Corps.” Their transport is provided by the Army Service Corps.
The organization comprises the following:
(_a_) WITH THE TROOPS AT THE FRONT
1. Medical Establishments with Units.
2. Field Ambulances with Subordinate Commands.
(_b_) ON THE LINES OF COMMUNICATION
Six Clearing Hospitals, at Advanced Base.
Six Ambulance Railway Trains, each available for 100 patients lying
down.
Twelve Stationary Hospitals of 200 beds each, on the Lines of
Communication.
Twelve General Hospitals of 520 beds each, at the Base.
Convalescent Depôts, as required.
Six Hospital Ships, each to carry 220 patients.
Three Base Depôts, and three Advanced Base Depôts, containing a reserve
of Medical Stores.
It will be observed that for a Division and a Brigade of Mounted Troops
there are provided 1 Clearing Hospital, 1 Ambulance Train, 2 Stationary
and 2 General Hospitals, and 1 Hospital Ship.
DETAILS OF MEDICAL ORGANIZATION
1. Each Unit has attached to it a Medical Officer, and itself supplies
two trained Orderlies, and a cart (or pack horse for mounted troops),
to carry medical equipment. There are also two trained stretcher
bearers from the ranks of each Infantry Company (or four men from each
Squadron), trained in “first-aid” duties.
2. _Field Ambulances_ are allotted to each Division, and _Cavalry Field
Ambulances_ to the Cavalry Division, and to the Mounted Brigades. They
are provided on the scale of one for each Brigade. There are also two
_Field Ambulances_ for the “Army Troops.”
Each description of Ambulance comprises a _Bearer Division_ of
stretcher bearers, and a _Tent Division_, which forms a “Dressing
Station”--that is, a small mobile field hospital in which only
absolutely necessary dressing is applied.
The _Field Ambulance_ is divided into three equal Sections, and the
_Cavalry Field Ambulance_ into two Sections. Each Section has 3
ambulance wagons, a water cart, and 2 wagons and a cart for carrying
its stores, baggage, and supplies. Each Section is thus self-contained,
and can be sent off without reorganization, whenever required to
accompany a detached portion of the Brigade.
The strength of a _Field Ambulance_ is:
10 Officers, 120 stretcher bearers, 60 hospital staff, all belonging
to the Royal Army Medical Corps (R.A.M.C.), and 60 men and 90 horses
provided by the A.S.C. for its transport, which consists of 10
four-horsed ambulance wagons, 3 water carts, and 9 other wagons for
medical supplies, baggage, and stores. Its _Bearer Division_ provides
18 squads of stretcher bearers, each squad being of 6 men; and its
_Tent Division_ can accommodate 150 patients.
A _Cavalry Field Ambulance_ comprises:
6 Officers, 38 stretcher bearers, 30 hospital staff, of the R.A.M.C.,
and 44 men and 70 horses of the A.S.C. It has 4 two-horsed, and 6
four-horsed, ambulance wagons, 2 water carts, 4 other wagons. Its _Tent
Division_ can accommodate 50 patients.
The establishment of a _Clearing_, or a _Stationary_, _Hospital_ to
accommodate 200 patients is 8 Officers and 80 other ranks; that of a
_General Hospital_, 21 Officers and 140 other ranks. Nursing sisters
are allotted to the non-mobile Hospitals on the L. of C. at the rate of
17 to 200 patients, but not to the mobile Clearing Hospitals.
Each Ambulance Train is provided with 2 Officers, 18 other ranks, and
2 sisters, and can carry 100 patients.
THE SANITARY SERVICE
The Sanitary Service is one of the Medical Services. Its object is to
preserve the health of the troops, by looking after purity of water
supply, and sanitation of camps.
The personnel of the Sanitary Service is provided by the R.A.M.C.
It comprises a _Sanitary Squad_ with each Unit, and on the Lines of
Communication a _Sanitary Section_ at the Base and Railhead, a Squad at
each Post or Rest Camp, and 2 Squads at each Advanced Base.
The _Section_ comprises an Officer and 25 men of the R.A.M.C., the
_Squad_ a Sergeant and 5 men.
In addition, a N.C.O. of each Cavalry Regiment, or Artillery Brigade,
or Battalion, and 1 or 2 men of each Squadron, Battery, or Company, are
trained for carrying out Sanitary duties with their Unit.
CHAPTER X
THE EXPEDITIONARY FORCE (_continued_)
SERVICES ON THE LINES OF COMMUNICATION
5. THE VETERINARY SERVICE
The efficiency of the Veterinary Service is of great importance to
prevent waste of horseflesh.
This Service is under its Director, who has a Veterinary Officer to
assist him. A Veterinary Officer is allotted to each Division and to
the L. of C. Each of the above officers has one clerk. A Veterinary
Officer is attached to each mounted unit to treat its horses. He is
assisted by the Farriers in his work, and is provided with a pack horse
to carry his veterinary equipment.
Hospitals for sick horses unavoidably left behind are formed at the
Advanced Bases, and at the Base, where there is also a depôt of
Veterinary Stores. The necessary personnel for these hospitals is
provided by six _Veterinary Sections_, each of 2 Officers and 32 other
ranks, with 83 horsekeepers. A Section can take charge of 250 sick
horses. Horses when cured are transferred to the Remount Depôt.
Veterinary Officers are also allotted for duty at places where horses
are landed, and with the Remount Depôts. They are also charged with the
duty of inspecting cattle before slaughtering.
THE REMOUNT SERVICE
The total number of horses in the Field Force is nearly 70,000, and it
is estimated that twice as many more will be required to keep up this
strength for twelve months of war.
The _Remount Service_ is formed to supply the “remounts,” or fresh
horses continuously required to replace those expended in war. The Head
of this Service is the Deputy Director of Remounts.
_Remount Depôts_ are formed at the Base and the Advanced Bases, where
all animals procured for the use of the Army are taken charge of,
trained, and distributed to the Units. The _Base Remount Depôt_ can
receive 1,000 animals. It is managed by a personnel of 11 Officers
and 337 other ranks. The strength of an _Advanced Remount Depôt_ is
4 Officers and 112 other ranks, and each is adapted to receive 300
animals.
6. THE ORDNANCE SERVICES
Stores of all sorts, except medical and veterinary, are supplied to the
Army by the Ordnance Services. The supply of ammunition is the most
pressing service, but troops require a variety of other stores--tools
and explosives, boots, clothing, equipment, and arms. Workshops are
required for repairs of all sorts, especially to vehicles and harness.
The Ordnance Services are controlled by the Director of Ordnance Stores
and his Deputy, under the Inspector-General of Communications, each
with two Ordnance Officers as assistants. The organization consists of
_Ordnance Depôt_ units--10 at the Base, 7 at Railhead, and 2 at each
Advanced Base--which form Ordnance Depôts at those places. Each unit
consists of 2 Officers and 69 clerks, storemen, and artificers, with as
much civil labour as may be required.
ARRANGEMENTS FOR AMMUNITION SUPPLY
The main duty of the Ordnance Services is forwarding ammunition to the
front, where it is taken over by the Fighting Units, at places called
the _Refilling Points_, which are generally about a day’s march in rear
of the fighting line. One Auxiliary Transport Company of 100 wagons
is allotted per Division for carrying ammunition to these points. To
ensure an adequate supply at the front demands careful organization and
good administration of the Ordnance Services, as ammunition is expended
at uncertain dates, and in amounts which cannot be forecast.
The amount provided for the Field Force is as follows:
GUN AMMUNITION
1,000 rounds per Field or Horse Artillery gun; 500 per Howitzer and
Heavy gun. About half of this is carried by the Fighting Troops; the
rest is in Ordnance charge on the L. of C.
SMALL-ARM AMMUNITION
For each Rifle:
Carried by the soldier:
Infantry 150 rounds.
Cavalry and Mounted Infantry 100 ”
Artillery and Engineers 50 ”
In Regimental Reserve 100 rounds.
In the Field Artillery Brigade
Ammunition Column 100 ”
In Divisional Ammunition Col. 100 ”
Total, per rifle:
Infantry 450 ”
Cavalry and Mounted Infantry 400 ”
For Machine Guns:
With each gun 3,500 rounds.
In Regimental Reserve, per gun:
Cavalry and Mounted Infantry 16,000 ”
Infantry 8,000 ”
With the Brigade Ammunition
Column, per gun 10,000 ”
With Divisional Ammunition
Column, per gun 10,000 ”
For each Pistol:
On the man 12 rounds.
In Regimental Reserve 12 ”
In Brigade Ammunition Column 12 ”
With regard to the amount of ammunition required in the field, it
should be noted that the quantity of Gun Ammunition that may be
expended with quick-firing guns is very great. In Manchuria, both
Russian and Japanese Batteries have been known to fire 500 rounds per
gun in one day. The amount of Gun Ammunition carried in the French
Army is 2,000 rounds per gun--_i.e._ 500 rounds with Batteries and
Ammunition Columns, and 500 in the Army Ammunition Park, the Army Park,
and in depôts on the L. of C., respectively.
As to Rifle Ammunition, the Japanese found that the 270 rounds carried
by each man ran out, and they consider that each man should have 350
rounds available with his Regiment, and 150 more in Ammunition Columns.
This makes a total of 500 with the Fighting Troops, which the British
allowance of 450 nearly approximates.
7. THE RAILWAY SERVICES
The efficiency of the service of the railways which generally form the
Lines of Communication is of the utmost importance to the Army, as on
it depends the issue of supplies and ammunition to the troops at the
front, and consequently their ability to move and fight.
The control of the Railway Services is laid on the Director
of Railways, who is responsible to the Inspector-General
of Communications, and works under the supervision of the
Quarter-Master-General’s Branch of the Staff.
The work of the Railway Services comprises the _maintenance_ and
_working_, as well as the _repair_ (and sometimes the _construction_),
of railways in the theatre of operations. The personnel of the Railway
Services consists of two entirely separate bodies. One is termed the
_Technical Railway Personnel_, and the other the _Railway Control
Establishments_.
The _Technical Personnel_ is provided in a friendly country by the
civil railway companies, but in a hostile country by the Royal
Engineers, when it is organized in a _Central Railway Establishment_,
two _Railway Districts_, and three _Railway Companies_ of Engineers.
There is allotted also, from the two Lines of Communication Telegraph
Companies, a _Railway Telegraph Section_ for the exclusive use of the
Railway Service.
The “Central Railway Establishment” and the two “Railway Districts” are
organized in branches for the following purposes: Management, Traffic,
Engineering, Locomotive, Accounts, Stores. The total strength of these
Units is 51 Officers and 854 other ranks.
The total strength of three “Railway Companies” is 12 Officers and 732
other ranks.
The _Railway Control Establishments_ are the medium of communication
between the troops and the Technical Personnel. Officers of this body
are posted at the chief stations to facilitate the traffic, arranging
all details with the troops, providing meals at certain stations, and
supervising the movement of men, animals, and stores.
The personnel of the “Railway Control Establishment” is 7 Officers and
10 clerks and checkers, distributed to each important station.
The Director of Railways and his personnel have no responsibility for
the technical security of the railway; for this the “Commander of the
Line of Communication Defences” is responsible.
8. THE WORKS SERVICE
The Director of Works carries out all Engineer services (apart from
Railways and Telegraphs) required on the Lines of Communication.
One Company of Engineers, without transport, is allotted for these
services, and is supplemented by civil artisans and unskilled
labourers, who are either brought from home, or hired locally.
The _works_ on the Lines of Communication are described in Chapter
II. Many are required at the Base in connection with the heavy work
involved in landing troops, supplies, and stores, and sending them up
to the front. For these purposes existing works may have to be adapted,
or new ones constructed. All have to be maintained, and any plant
required kept running. Works at the Base have to be of a semi-permanent
character, in view of possible lengthy operations.
In addition, the Engineer Company provides workshops, and depôts of
stores and material, which are established at the Base, the Advanced
Bases, and at Railhead, for the use of the Engineers at the front.
9. THE POSTAL SERVICE
A military organization is needed with an Army in the field, so as to
ensure regular postal communication to and from home. This is a modern
innovation in war, but one of importance to the comfort and spirits of
the troops, and is a service demanded by their friends at home and by
the nation in general.
This service is controlled by the Director of Postal Services, who is
attached to Head-Quarters of the Inspector-General of Communications.
A chief Post Office is established at the Base, where all incoming or
outgoing mail is dealt with. It has a personnel of 85 of all ranks,
furnished by the “Army Post Office Corps.”
Smaller Post Offices are established at the Advanced Bases, and others,
each of four men, are allotted to posts on the Lines of Communication,
and to Head-Quarters of Brigades and Divisions in the field.
10. THE ACCOUNTS DEPARTMENT
The Accounts Department is responsible for Finance, Accounts, Audit,
and the disbursement of cash for the Army in the field. It is under the
Financial Adviser at Head-Quarters with three Assistant Advisers.
The personnel of the Department consists of Accountants, Cashiers, and
Field Paymasters.
The Accountants are in the Accounts Offices at the Base, which
are manned by three _Accounts Units_, each with a personnel of 43
Accountants and Cashiers, with their servants, and 138 Writers.
Each “Base Accounts Unit” is organized to deal with the accounts of
two Divisions, a Cavalry Division, and a Mounted Brigade. It is under
a Chief Accountant, whose duties include dealing with Contracts, Store
and Supply Accounts, the Accounts of the Troops, and Audit.
The Cashier Staff is usually at the Base, where the bills incurred by
the various Services are paid, and any necessary issues of cash on
imprest made.
The Field Paymasters are stationed at convenient places nearer the
troops; they provide Commanding Officers with cash for paying the men,
and pay bills incurred locally, if urgent.
At the Base is the Military Chest, holding the cash reserve of the
Army. That it should be ample during the Campaign is of vital moment.
Credit notes are a poor substitute for cash in an enemy’s, or even
an ally’s, country. As von der Golz says, “a full exchequer may
be worth an Army Corps, and a clever financier at the side of the
Commander-in-Chief equal to a first-rate General.” Cash is required
not mainly for the pay of the troops, but to purchase in the country
what the Army needs, and to pay for the large amount of civilian labour
which will be required on the L. of C. Cash is also needed to buy
information, or reward inhabitants for services. The immense importance
of having, without fail, ready money for these purposes--so essential
for the operations of the Army--cannot be over-estimated.
11. THE RECORDS BRANCH
The Records Branch supplies, on mobilization, one Section of clerks for
each Division, and for each Cavalry or Mounted Brigade, to carry on the
clerical work at Head-Quarters of Commands in the field. Artillery and
Engineers supply their own clerks for their Head-Quarters.
A Record Office is established at the Base, to carry on all office
work in connection with the personnel from which it is desirable the
units in the field should be entirely freed, such as the soldiers’
attestations and medical history sheets, and their accounts. From this
office, too, are sent to England reports, returns, war diaries, and
lists of casualties. It also conducts the clerical work in connection
with invaliding.
The Base Record Office consists of six Sections, or one for a Division
and a Cavalry or Mounted Brigade. A Section comprises 3 Officers, 4
Staff Sergeants, and the Orderly Room Clerk of each Unit belonging
to the Division or Brigade allotted to the Section. There are two
divisions in each Section--one for Infantry Battalions, one for all
other Units.
12. DEPÔTS FOR PERSONNEL
Base Depôts are formed to receive the personnel left by each Unit
at the Base, which comprises its Band Sergeant, Master Tailor, and
Storemen. The latter take charge of such part of the men’s equipment as
is kept back at the Base, as not being required in the field, and must
yet be available when needed.
The men of each Unit who form its “First Reinforcements” are also
placed in the Base Depôt. These are calculated at the rate of 10 per
cent. of the rank and file of each Unit in the Field, with an Officer
for every party exceeding 40 men.
* * * * *
The above completes the picture of the Organization of the British
Field Army for service abroad.
A brief account of the Territorial Force will now be given, followed by
one of the Indian Army, as organized for service in the field.
CHAPTER XI
THE TERRITORIAL FORCE--THE INDIAN ARMY
THE TERRITORIAL FORCE
A British “Second Line Army” is provided by the Territorial Force.
It consists of 14 Divisions, 14 Mounted Brigades, and certain “Army
Troops.” These are organized on the same lines as the regular Units,
but differ in the following points:
1. The Cavalry and Mounted Infantry Units are both provided by the
“Yeomanry,” and consist of Regiments of 4 Squadrons instead of 3 as in
the regular Cavalry. The Divisional Cavalry is formed of a Regiment of
Yeomanry, instead of 2 Companies of Mounted Infantry as in the regular
Division.
2. The Artillery is in Batteries of four guns, instead of six as in the
regular Artillery.
3. The Divisional Supply Column is formed of 4 A.S.C. Companies,
that is 1 per Brigade and 1 for the Divisional Troops. There are no
Divisional Supply Parks.
4. There are no Divisional Ammunition Columns.
5. Cyclist Battalions will form part of the Army Troops.
THE ARMY OF INDIA
The Field Force which can be mobilized in India for war consists of 9
Divisions and 8 Cavalry Brigades. It is composed of British and Indian
Troops in combination. This fact necessitates an organization somewhat
different in detail from that in England, especially as to number of
Officers and men and constitution of Administrative Services. But, on
the whole, the organization of the Army of India is on the same lines
as that of the Home Army.
The main differences are as follows:
The _Infantry Brigade_, which has 4 Battalions as in the Home Army,
is organized for independent action, having its own Administrative
Services--namely: two Ambulances, a Supply Column, and a Field Post
Office.
The _Cavalry Brigade_, like that of the Home Army, is of 3 Regiments,
but the Regiment has 4 Squadrons. The Brigade is also organized for
independent action, having a Horse Artillery Battery and Ammunition
Column, and the necessary Administrative Services, like the Infantry
Brigade.
The _Division_ is of three Brigades, with two Field Companies of
Engineers, like the British Division, but it has an extra Battalion
of Pioneers and a whole Cavalry Regiment. It is weaker in Artillery,
having only one Brigade of Field Artillery, but it has 2 Mountain
Batteries. The Indian Division has the same Administrative Services as
a British Division in England, with a Survey Party in addition.
The Staff and the Field and Horse Artillery are _British_. The Infantry
Battalions, Cavalry Regiments, and Mountain Batteries are either
_British_ or _Indian_. The Engineer Companies and Administrative
Services are _Indian_. In all _Indian_ Units the higher ranks are
filled by British Officers.
The following gives the Establishment of Brigades and Divisions:
INDIAN ARMY ORGANIZATION
CAVALRY BRIGADE
Battery Horse Artillery.
Cavalry Regiments, 1 British and 2 Indian.
Ammunition Column.
Field Hospital, 1 Section British, 2 Sections Indian.
Field Post Office.
Brigade Supply Column.
Total Strength: British: 70 Officers, 650 men.
” ” Indian: 40 Officers, 1,100 men,
1,950 horses.
INFANTRY BRIGADE (BRITISH OR INDIAN)
Infantry Battalions, 4.
Field Hospitals, 2.
Field Post Office.
Brigade Supply Column.
Total Strength: British Brigade: 132 Officers, 3,300 men,
122 horses, with 700 Indian followers.
” ” Indian Brigade: 88 Officers, 3,000 men,
600 followers, 122 horses, with 70
British Officers.
Infantry Brigades are sometimes organized with 1 or 2
British and 3 or 2 Indian Battalions.
INFANTRY DIVISION
Infantry Brigades, 1 British and 2 Indian.
Cavalry Regiment, 1 Indian.
Pioneer Battalion, 1 Indian.
Field Artillery Brigade, 1 British.
Mountain Batteries, 2 British or Indian.
Engineer Field Companies, 2 Indian.
Field Hospitals, 1 Indian and 2 Sections British.
Divisional Ammunition Column.
Field Post Office.
Supply Column for Divisional Troops.
Divisional Supply Column.
Survey Party.
Total Strength: British: 370 Officers, 4,100 men.
” ” Indian: 230 Officers, 8,200 men,
2,600 followers, 1,950 horses.
CHAPTER XII
SPECIAL FEATURES OF BRITISH WAR ORGANIZATION
The most recent developments of Organization are well illustrated
in that of the British Army, which has been lately reorganized in
accordance with the trend of modern views as to the conduct of War.
Ruskin once wrote that no modern man could ever realize the amount of
_thought_ built into a Gothic cathedral, where the size and detail
of each part have been designed with reference to the proportion it
bears to the whole, as well as to the number and dimensions of its
fellow members. It would be equally impossible to sum up in a short
chapter the _thought_ built into the organization of the British Army.
To appreciate its details demands a thorough knowledge of the working
of each Arm and of each Administrative Service. Each is planned to be
of such strength and composition as to enable it to perform all that
is required of it, and to ensure that all shall work in harmonious
co-operation under the strain and friction of War.
Among the points which are especially worth noticing are the following,
which bear out the principles of Organization dwelt on in previous
chapters.
ORGANIZATION BY DIVISIONS
It was shown in Chapter V. that small armies should be formed of
Divisions and not of Army Corps. This principle has been adopted.
The strength of the British Expeditionary Force is practically that of
three Cavalry Divisions and three Army Corps of the German Army. The
former comprises 75 Battalions, the equivalent of nearly 23 Regiments
of Mounted Troops, and 492 guns; the latter, 75 Battalions, 24 Cavalry
Regiments, and 468 guns. But the British Force is organized so as to be
more flexible, and to facilitate and strengthen the Supreme Command.
It is _more flexible_ from the greater number of Subordinate Commands.
It _facilitates Command_ by having two links fewer in the chain of
Command--the Army Corps and the Regiment. It _strengthens Command_ by
not having any Subordinate Commander of the importance of the German
Army Corps Commander to reckon with--a point emphasized by Clausewitz.
FACILITY OF SUBDIVISION
The British organization is so planned that the Force can be readily
divided, when required, into two Armies, each of which can be provided
with its proportion of Strategic and Protective Cavalry, and of Army
Troops, without disorganizing and rearranging those Formations.
This principle has been carried throughout the Force. Thus, the
_Cavalry Division_ can supply any detached _Brigade_ with the
_Divisional Troops_ required--namely, a Battery of Horse Artillery, a
Field Troop of Engineers, a Section of the Wireless Telegraph Company,
a Field Ambulance, and a Company of A.S.C. to form the Brigade T. and
S. Column, there being one of each of these _Divisional Units_ for each
Brigade to be detached.
Similarly, the _Cavalry Brigade_ can detach one of its _Regiments_
provided with Sections from the Field Troop of Engineers, the Field
Ambulance, and the A.S.C. Company, so as to be self-contained.
In exactly the same manner, the _Division_ of Infantry can at any time
detach a _Brigade_ provided with its due proportion of all Arms and
Administrative Services, without confusion and delay.
The _Infantry Brigade_, also, can detach _Battalions_ equally
self-contained; and the _Artillery Brigade_ can allot a Section of its
Ammunition Column to any _Battery_ which it may be desirable to detach.
STAFF
The following principles have been adopted:
Separation of the General Staff from the Branches of the Staff charged
with Routine and Administrative work, and making the latter Branches
subordinate to the General Staff for their general direction, while
independent in their working. This matter has been discussed in Chapter
VI.
Reduction of the numbers attached to General Head-Quarters, by
relegating most of the Directors of the Administrative Services to
the L. of C. This is very desirable in the case of the Services which
work on the L. of C., in order that the Directors may be in intimate
touch with their work. As a rule, only the Directors of Army Signals,
Supplies, Transport, and Medical Services will accompany General
Head-Quarters at the front.
CAVALRY ORGANIZATION
The view has been accepted that the same body of Cavalry cannot perform
the two often incompatible duties of obtaining Information, and
providing Security for the Army. This subject has been fully discussed
in Chapter II.
The Force is therefore provided with a large _Cavalry Division_ to form
the Independent Cavalry responsible for Strategic Reconnaissance, and a
smaller body, the _Mounted Brigades_, for the duty of Protection.
The Independent Cavalry is no longer hampered by having to cover the
front of the Army with a protective screen. Its strength of 4 Brigades,
or 12 Regiments, with 4 Batteries of Horse Artillery, makes it
equivalent to two Continental Cavalry Divisions, but, being permanently
organized under one Command, it will have greater flexibility, and be
more prompt and efficient in action, than the two separate Divisions.
As to this, von Bernhardi says “one strong Division under a single
Command is of far more use than two weak ones.” This endorses the
British organization.
The allotment of Mounted Infantry to replace Divisional Cavalry,
and to form the bulk of the protective Mounted Brigades, sets free
nearly all our Cavalry Regiments for their true offensive function,
for which they can be expressly trained. Our Cavalry Regiments run no
risk of being broken up to provide Divisional Cavalry or Escorts to
Head-Quarters on mobilization, as is unavoidable for many Continental
Cavalry Regiments, in which case, not only is their real Cavalry
training wasted, but their Head-Quarters are superfluous. Von Bernhardi
recommends a Cyclist Battalion being attached to each Army Corps to eke
out the Cavalry, a suggestion we have anticipated by the use of Mounted
Infantry.
The organization of Cavalry Regiments and Brigades in _three_ units
tends to facilitate command and tactical action. Our Yeomanry and
Cavalry in India have the 4-Squadron organization, and opinions differ
as to the value of the 3-Squadron Regiment, but the 3-Regiment Brigade
is undoubtedly a more flexible and efficient instrument for rapid and
decided action than the weak foreign Brigade of 2 Regiments which von
Bernhardi condemns.
The provision of _Mounted Brigades_, under the Army Commander, is
an innovation. Their functions are in foreign armies carried out by
the _Divisional Cavalry_; but the screen formed by such Squadrons,
acting independently under their Divisional Commander, can hardly be
as continuous and effective as that provided by the British Mounted
Brigades acting directly under the orders of the Army Commander.
The fire action of the Mounted Troops has been developed, as mentioned
in Chapter II. In this point the British Cavalry, armed with the
Infantry rifle, is undoubtedly in advance of any other. The use also
of Mounted Infantry, peculiar to the British Service, provides more
efficient fire action for both Army and Divisional Protective Cavalry
than in any other army. This will increase the power of the _protective
screen_ to drive in that of the enemy, and assist the Advanced Guards
to push on, or at least to hold their ground till the main body can
deploy and come into action.
MACHINE GUNS
Two Machine Guns form an integral part of Battalions and Cavalry
Regiments. This provides a greater number of these guns than in
Continental armies at present (see page 34).
FIELD ARTILLERY
The proportion of guns to Infantry has in all armies been steadily
rising during late years. It is now higher in the British than even in
the German organization, and far higher than in other armies.
The modern tendency to provide different natures for different purposes
has been followed, in allotting a _Howitzer Brigade_ and a _Heavy
Battery_ to each Division.
In action a number of assistants are allotted to each Artillery
Commander, to enable him to use indirect fire with facility, and to
combine the fire of all his guns to the greatest effect.
AMMUNITION SUPPLY
The organization of the supply of ammunition in action has been
systematized in detail. Ammunition Columns are organized so as to be
divided readily to accompany detached Batteries, and to facilitate the
supply of ammunition to Infantry, Cavalry, and Mounted Brigades.
ENGINEERS
Modern war demands more and more the co-operation of Engineers with
other Arms. This has been recognized in Japan, where a Battalion is
attached to a Division. The British Division has now 2 Field Companies,
or double the number in Continental armies. Each is provided with some
Bridging Equipment for forming small bridges without waiting for the
“Bridging Trains” to come up. There are two of these Bridging Trains,
which form part of the Army Troops, and are ready to be sent to the
front whenever it is foreseen that large bridges will be required on
the forward march of any part of the Army. When there is no need of
them, the Bridging Trains will march in rear, so as not to block the
roads.
ORGANIZATION OF THE DIVISION
One of the most important improvements in the British organization is
that a Division is formed of _three_ Infantry Brigades, instead of the
_two_ nearly universal in foreign armies. This change has often been
recommended by foreign military experts, notably by von der Golz in his
“Nation in Arms.” It is economical in Divisional Staff, and increases
the importance and efficiency of the Divisional Command. It provides
12 Battalions for a Division, as in Germany, but without the insertion
of an extra link--the _Regiment_--in the chain of Command. The almost
universal organization of Infantry in foreign armies in Army Corps of 2
Divisions, Divisions of 2 Brigades, and Brigades of 2 Regiments, must
be considered, for reasons already stated, a faulty one. The British
Divisional organization, both in Infantry and Cavalry, is undoubtedly
superior.
INTER-COMMUNICATION
The personnel and equipment necessary for inter-communication are now
provided by a number of “Communication Units.” These ensure ready and
effective communication between the Commander-in-Chief and his Cavalry
and his Infantry Divisions, between the Divisions themselves, as well
as internally in each. This is now more important than ever, owing
to the wider dispersion of the troops, and the absolute necessity of
obtaining early intelligence about the enemy, and transmitting orders
without delay. All means of Communication, whether by telegraph,
_wireless_, telephone, day and night signalling, or despatch riders,
should be under _one_ organization. Each Command--Army, Division,
Brigade--is now provided with means of communication forming integral
portions of the Command, and trained Regimental Signallers carry on the
system from Brigade Head-Quarters to the troops actually at the front.
In no other army is the Telegraph system so completely organized, while
Signalling is but little developed outside England.
LINES OF COMMUNICATION
In the British Service alone has the important principle been
adopted of separating the duties on the Lines of Communication into
two independent branches, that of their _Protection_, and that of
their _Administration_, thus leaving the Officer charged with their
administration to concentrate his attention on this vital matter.
This Officer, the Inspector-General of L. of C., has now to assist
him an adequate Staff, whose composition is organized beforehand, and
no longer left to be improvised in war. The organization of the L.
of C. has been remodelled, and the necessary Staffs allotted to the
Base, Railhead, Advanced Depôts, and smaller posts. This will prevent
confusion at the outset, and facilitate working on the L. of C.
The organization of the Administrative Services on the L. of C. has
been elaborated in great detail, to ensure their efficient action.
This applies especially to the _Medical Services_, whose organization
is now as complete and well thought out as in any army in the world,
and to the _Transport_ and _Supply_ Services, which, as explained in
Chapter VII., are closely united, and likely, therefore, to work better
together than in foreign armies, where Transport is a Combatant Unit,
and Supply a Civil Department.
The great importance of _Railways_ on the L. of C. has been fully
realized. British war experience has of late been considerable, and
the personnel required for working railways in war has been carefully
thought out, and organized in great detail. The number of Railway
Units has been increased, and, in their completion to war strength on
mobilization, full advantage has been taken of the unrivalled resources
of England in highly trained railway personnel.
FINANCE AND CLERICAL WORK
The financial difficulties met by an Army in the Field have been
faced, and the C.-in-C. relieved from responsibility for them. An
establishment of personnel to deal with _Accounts_ and _Audit_
accompanies the Army in the Field, and is stationed at the Base, so as
to systematize the Finance and Accounts, and facilitate the custody and
issue of cash for necessary administrative purposes.
A clerical establishment has been established in the _Base Records
Office_, which should greatly relieve the fighting units from all
possible clerical and office work which can be done at the Base.
POSTAL SERVICE
A complete _Postal Service_ for the Army in the Field has now been for
the first time provided in the War Organization.
REINFORCEMENTS
The question of Reinforcements has been met by mobilizing with each
Unit what are termed its _First Reinforcements_, at the rate of 10 per
cent. of the rank and file. These accompany their Units to the theatre
of operations, but are at first left at the Base in depôts which are
organized on mobilization to receive them. From these depôts they can,
when needed, be sent to reinforce their own Units at the front, without
delay or confusion.
Reinforcements of “Second Line” Troops are provided from the “Imperial
Service Section” of the Territorial Force, who can be sent abroad as
Units for defence of Lines of Communication, escorting prisoners,
guarding conquered territory, and all duties for which Second Line
Troops are used in foreign armies.
Arrangements for Reinforcements in _horses_ have been made, by
registering private horses at home, and organizing the collection of
horses purchased abroad, as well as by the organization of Remount
Depôts on the L. of C.
[Illustration: FIELD ARMY _FOR SERVICE ABROAD_.]
PART III
_ORGANIZATION OF FOREIGN ARMIES_
CHAPTER XIII
WAR ORGANIZATION OF THE FIGHTING TROOPS
The organization of foreign armies differs considerably from that of
the British Army. They are, however, all formed on the German model,
with the exception of the Army of the United States. Their organization
is therefore to some extent identical, and may be understood from the
following table, showing the normal Continental organization, which has
been copied also by Japan. The organization of the United States has
followed original lines.
Notes are given of the main points in which some foreign armies differ
from the normal organization.
Then follow tables showing the war organization of each of the chief
armies of the world (1909). That of the German Army, the typical
Continental Army, is given in greater detail than the others.
NORMAL WAR ORGANIZATION OF FOREIGN ARMIES
INFANTRY
Company: 250 men.
Battalion: 4 Companies, or 1,000 men.
Regiment: 3 Battalions (all Russian, and some German, Austrian, and
French Regiments have 4).
Brigade: 2 Regiments.
Division: 2 Brigades.
Army Corps: 2 Divisions (3 in France and Austria).
CAVALRY
Squadron: 4 Troops, or 150 men.
Regiment: 4 Squadrons (Russia and Austria 6; Italy and Japan 5;
Switzerland and the United States 3, like England).
Brigade: 2 Regiments.
Division: 2 or 3 Brigades.
FIELD ARTILLERY
Battery: 6 guns (4 in France, Switzerland, and the United States, 8
in Russia).
“Group” (our Brigade): 3 Batteries.
Regiment: 2 “Groups.”
Brigade: 2 Regiments.
RANK OF THE OFFICERS COMMANDING THE ABOVE FORMATIONS
Companies, Squadrons, Batteries CAPTAIN.
(The Infantry Captain is a mounted Officer,
except in Japan.)
Infantry Battalions, and Artillery “Groups” MAJOR.
Regiments, of all Arms COLONEL.
Brigades, of all Arms MAJOR-GENERAL.
Divisions and Army Corps LIEUT.-GENERAL.
In Russia the Lieutenant-Colonel replaces the Major, as that rank does
not exist.
The following tables give the war organization of the formations of
fighting troops in the principal armies of the world.
GERMANY
INFANTRY
Battalion 4 Companies of 270, or 1,080 men.
Regiment 3 Battalions and 1 Company of 6 machine guns.
Fighting strength: 3,000 bayonets, 6 machine guns.
Total strength: 3,300 men, 190 horses, 60 vehicles.
Brigade 2 Regiments.
Division 2 Brigades (a few Divisions have 3).
1 Cavalry Regiment.
1 Artillery Brigade of 2 Regiments.
1 Company of Pioneers (_i.e._ Engineers).
1 Light Bridge Train.
4 Heavy Ammunition Columns.
2 Infantry Ammunition Columns.
1 Bearer Company and 4 Field Hospitals.
3 Supply Columns and 3 Supply Parks.
1 Horse Depôt.
Fighting strength: 12,000 rifles, 600 sabres, 72 guns, 24 machine guns.
Total strength: 17,000 men, 4,000 horses, 600 vehicles.
Army Corps 2 Divisions (a few Corps have 3).
1 Rifle Battalion.
1 Company of Pioneers and 1 Telegraph Company.
12 Ammunition Columns (4 being for Infantry).
6 Supply Columns and 6 Supply Parks.
2 Field Bakery Columns.
12 Field Hospitals.
2 Horse Depôts.
Fighting strength: 25,000 rifles, 1,200 sabres, 126 guns, 48 machine
guns.
Total strength: 41,000 men, 14,000 horses, 2,400 vehicles.
CAVALRY
Squadron 180 men, or 150 sabres.
Regiment 4 Squadrons, or 750 all ranks, 750 horses.
Brigade 2 Regiments (some 3).
Division 3 Brigades.
1 Horse Artillery Abteilung (2 Batteries) and 1 Light
Ammunition Column.
1 Machine-Gun Section of 6 guns.
1 Mounted Detachment, of 1 Officer, 33 men.
Fighting strength: 3,600 sabres, 12 guns, 6 machine guns.
Total strength: 5,000 men, 5,300 horses, 200 vehicles.
ARTILLERY
FIELD ARTILLERY
Battery 6 guns and 6 ammunition wagons.
Abteilung (British Brigade):
3 Batteries (only 2 in Horse Artillery).
Regiment 2 Abteilungen of Artillery and 2 Light Ammunition Columns.
Brigade 2 Regiments, or 2,300 men, 2,000 horses, 70 guns and
ammunition wagons, 90 vehicles.
(In one Division of each Army Corps 1 Abteilung is detached for duty
with the Reserve Army.)
HEAVY ARTILLERY
Battery 4 Heavy Field Howitzers, or Field Mortars.
Battalion 4 Howitzer (or 2 Mortar) Batteries and 1 Light Ammunition
Column.
One Battalion of Heavy Field Howitzers will probably be allotted to
each Army Corps. Their function is to support the Field Artillery.
The Heavy Field Howitzer Battery has 4 guns and 8 wagons.
The Field Mortar Battery has 4 mortars, each with 3 carriages--one for
travelling, one for firing, and one carrying firing platform. It has no
ammunition wagons.
The function of Field Mortars is to attack Barrier Forts, or strongly
defended positions. These Batteries will probably be allotted to
Armies, not Army Corps.
AMMUNITION COLUMNS
Field Battery wagons: 130 rounds shrapnel per gun.
Light Ammunition Columns, Field Artillery: 58 shrapnel, 44 high
explosive, per gun.
Heavy Ammunition Columns, Field Artillery, 8 per Army Corps, or 1 per
Artillery Regiment: 115 shrapnel, 26 high explosive, per gun.
Total with Troops, per Field Gun: 373 rounds, of which 80 per cent. are
shrapnel, 20 high explosive.
FRANCE
INFANTRY
Battalion 4 Companies.
Regiment 3 Battalions.
Brigade 2 Regiments (some 3).
Division 2 Brigades (some 3).
1 Squadron of Cavalry.
3 Brigades of Field Artillery, 36 guns.
1 Company of Engineers.
Fighting strength: 12,000 to 18,000 rifles, 150 sabres, 36 guns.
Army Corps 2 Divisions, and probably a third
from the Reserve Army. Battalions
of Rifles in some Corps.
1 Cavalry Brigade.
4 Brigades of Field Artillery, 48
guns.
1 Battalion of Heavy Artillery.
1 Company of Engineers.
Fighting strength: 36,000 to 42,000 rifles, 1,500 sabres, 126 guns.
CAVALRY
Regiment 4 Squadrons.
Brigade 2 Regiments.
Division 3 Brigades (some 2).
2 Batteries of Horse Artillery.
ARTILLERY
FIELD ARTILLERY
Battery 4 guns, 8 wagons.
“Groupe” (British Brigade):
3 Batteries.
Regiment 2 Brigades.
HEAVY ARTILLERY
Battery 2 guns.
Battalion 3 Batteries (6 guns--6 in.).
RUSSIA
INFANTRY
Regiment 4 Battalions and 8 machine guns.
Brigade 2 Regiments.
Division 2 Brigades of Infantry.
1 Brigade of Artillery.
Army Corps 2 Infantry Divisions.
1 Cavalry Division.
1 Engineer Battalion and Park.
Fighting strength: 28,000 rifles, 3,600 sabres, 124 guns.
Total strength: 40,000 men, 16,000 horses.
CAVALRY
Regiment 6 Squadrons.
Brigade 2 Regiments.
Division 2 Brigades, and 1 Horse Artillery Brigade.
Fighting strength: 3,600 sabres, 12 guns.
Corps 2 Cavalry Divisions.
ARTILLERY
Battery Field, 8 guns.
Horse and Howitzer, 6 guns.
Division 2 or 3 Batteries and an Ammunition Column.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
INFANTRY
Regiment 3 (or 4) Battalions.
Brigade 2 Regiments.
Division 2 Brigades of Infantry.
1 Rifle Battalion.
3 Squadrons.
1 Artillery Regiment of 2 Divisions, each of 2 Batteries.
1 Company of Engineers.
Strength: 16,000 rifles, 730 sabres, 24 guns.
Army Corps 3 Divisions of Infantry.
1 Troop of Cavalry.
2 Regiments of Field Artillery.
1 Regiment of Howitzers.
1 Division of Heavy Artillery.
1 Company of Engineers.
Strength: 32,000 rifles, 1,500 sabres, 144 guns.
Total strength: 46,000 men, 13,000 horses, 4,000 vehicles.
CAVALRY
Squadron 2 Troops.
Regiment 6 Squadrons, 4 machine guns.
Brigade 2 Regiments (12 Squadrons).
Division 2 Brigades.
1 Machine-Gun Unit (4 guns).
1 “Division” of Horse Artillery (3 Batteries, 12 guns).
Fighting strength: 3,600 sabres, 12 guns.
ARTILLERY
Battery Horse, 4 guns.
Field, 6 guns, 6 wagons.
Howitzer, 6 guns, 12 wagons.
Division (British Brigade):
Horse, 3 Batteries.
Field or Howitzer, 2 Batteries.
Regiment 2 Divisions (24 guns) and 4 Ammunition Parks.
HEAVY ARTILLERY
Battery 4 guns, or howitzers, 16 wagons.
Division 4 Batteries.
MOUNTAIN ARTILLERY
Battery 4 guns, or howitzers (mountain).
Regiment 4 Batteries and an Ammunition Park.
ITALY
INFANTRY
Battalion 4 Companies (3 in Rifle and “Alpine” Battalions).
Regiment 3 Battalions.
Brigade 2 Regiments.
Division 2 Brigades.
1 Squadron of Cavalry.
1 Brigade of Artillery.
1 Company of Engineers.
Fighting strength: 12,000 rifles, 150 sabres, 24 guns.
Army Corps 2 Divisions.
1 Battalion of Rifles.
1 Squadron of Cavalry.
1 Brigade of Artillery.
Fighting strength: 25,000 rifles, 450 sabres, 72 guns.
CAVALRY
Regiment 5 Squadrons.
Brigade 2 Regiments.
Division 2 Brigades.
1 Brigade of Horse Artillery.
ARTILLERY
Battery Field or Horse, 6 guns.
Heavy, 4 guns.
Mountain, 4 guns.
Brigade Field, 4 Batteries and an Ammunition Column.
Horse, 2 Batteries and an Ammunition Column.
JAPAN
INFANTRY
Regiment 3 Battalions, 6 machine guns.
Brigade 2 Regiments.
Division 2 Brigades.
1 Cavalry Regiment of 3 Squadrons.
1 Artillery Regiment.
1 Engineer Battalion of 3 Companies.
1 Bridge Train.
CAVALRY
Regiment 5 Squadrons.
Brigade 2 Regiments of 5 Squadrons each.
1 Machine-Gun Unit of 8 guns.
1 Horse Artillery Battery.
FIELD ARTILLERY
Battery 6 guns, 6 ammunition wagons.
Battalion 3 Batteries.
Regiment 2 Battalions.
Brigade 2 Regiments.
SWITZERLAND
Future war organization by Divisions, which will, in 1912, replace the
present organization in 4 Army Corps.
INFANTRY
Regiment 3 Battalions.
Brigade 2 Regiments.
1 Battalion of Rifles.
1 Squadron of Mounted “Guides.”
Mountain Brigade:
5 Battalions.
1 Machine-Gun Unit.
2 Mountain Batteries.
1 Engineer Company.
1 Signalling Unit.
Division 3 Infantry Brigades.
1 Mountain Brigade.
2 Squadrons of Mounted “Guides.”
1 Brigade of Field Artillery.
1 Battalion of Engineers.
1 Light Bridge Train.
1 Telegraph Company.
Of the 18 Infantry Brigades, 4 will be “Mountain Brigades.”
CAVALRY
Regiment (Cavalry and “Guides”) 3 Squadrons.
Brigade 2 Regiments.
1 Machine-Gun Unit of 8 guns.
ARTILLERY
Battery 4 guns.
Regiment 6 Batteries.
1 Ammunition Column.
Brigade 2 Regiments.
UNITED STATES
The organization of the army of the United States is on different lines
from that of other armies.
No higher formation than the Regiment exists in peace, but it is
understood that the following is the organization contemplated in war.
INFANTRY
Company 3 Officers, 128 men (in 2 Platoons).
Battalion 4 Companies, under a Major.
Regiment 3 Battalions, or 1,600 men, under a Colonel.
Brigade 3 Regiments, or 4,800 men.
Division 3 Brigades.
Army Corps 3 Divisions.
CAVALRY
Troop 3 Officers, 100 men (in 4 Platoons).
Squadron 4 Troops, 400 men, under a Major.
Regiment 3 Squadrons, or 1,200 men, under a Colonel.
ARTILLERY
Battery 4 guns, 4 Officers, 160 men.
Battalion 3 Batteries, under a Major.
Regiment 2 Battalions, under a Colonel.
CHAPTER XIV
COMPOSITION OF NATIONAL ARMIES
It may be of interest to glance at the strength of the Forces which the
chief military nations will put into the field at the outbreak of war.
The strength depends essentially on the number of organized Formations
of Troops. It would be quite erroneous to estimate it by the total
number of individual soldiers which the nation is estimated to possess.
Large numbers of untrained men, without organization to embody them in,
add little to actual military strength.
ARMIES OF FIRST LINE
The Army which will take the field at the outbreak of war is the
Regular Army, which is organized, kept up, and trained, year by year,
in peace. The War Army will be this Peace Army _mobilized_, or brought
up to war strength and completed in every essential, by calling up
reserve officers and men to fill its ranks.
The Force thus produced is the “Army of First Line,” and its strength
is measured by the number of the main Sub-Commands (Army Corps or
Divisions) which the peace organization indicates that it is intended
to form on mobilization. The men in its ranks are from 20 to 30 years
of age. The Army will, on mobilization, form large _depôts_ for all its
units, on which to draw for reinforcements.
ARMIES OF SECOND LINE (RESERVE OR TERRITORIAL ARMIES)
Most nations will also mobilize an “Army of Second Line,” mainly
composed of Reserve Divisions of Infantry. Some of these Divisions may
be inserted in the Army Corps of the First-Line Force, as in France and
Austria; others may be added independently to some of the Armies, as
in the German Army in 1866 and 1870; in some cases they may be formed
into a separate Reserve Army, either for support of the Armies in the
Field, or for special operations in a separate theatre. The main work,
however, of the “Second-Line” Force will be to defend the Lines of
Communication, and provide troops for Sieges, for Garrisons, and for
Coast Defence. It will also have to guard the railways at home, keep
order in the cities, guard frontiers, and take charge of prisoners.
Germany provides an Army of Third Line, called the Landwehr or Home
Defence Army, for the latter purposes.
Until late years no country but Prussia had an Army of Reserve, or a
“Territorial Army.” Its formation to replace loose levies, or “National
Guards,” has been a great step in organization for war. The latter,
being practically improvised bodies, were deficient in discipline and
cohesion, even if inspired by patriotism and courage. Territorial
Forces, on the contrary, are to some extent organized, at least with
“cadres”--that is, in skeleton--the officers for them being allotted
beforehand; their personnel, too, will consist to some extent of men
who have had more or less training; their arms and equipment can be
provided in peace. The process, therefore, of mobilizing a Territorial
Force will be far less hasty and confused than in the case of new
levies. At the same time, “Second-Line Armies” are never so well
organized as those of First Line. They comprise an undue proportion
of Infantry to the other Arms, and will be weak in Cavalry, guns, and
Engineers; their Administrative Services will be mainly improvised;
they will be officered by old regular officers, or non-professional
younger ones; the men will have been some years away from the ranks,
and their training will be rusty. The formation, too, of Reserve Units
will generally have to be postponed until the heavy work of mobilizing
and concentrating the First-Line Army is completed. In German opinion
the Reserve Army is not fit to be placed in first line at the beginning
of a war.
The British Territorial Force differs from all others in being
completely organized with a correct proportion of all Arms and
Services, and provided in peace with Subordinate Commanders and their
Staff, besides being trained annually.
RESERVES
In addition to the above Reserve Forces, all foreign nations possess
a last resource in the shape of a great number of men, many of whom,
however, have received no training at all. Being totally unorganized,
they could only be used as reserve men to fill the depôts of the
organized Forces, and should not rightly be counted in to swell the
numbers of available troops.
It may be of interest to glance at the actual forces which Germany
could produce for war, as her army may be taken as the best developed
example of the modern national armies of Europe.
_A._ Army of First Line: 23 Army Corps and 14 Cavalry Divisions,
with their Depôts.
_B._ Reserve Army, of Second Line: 48 Infantry Divisions, formed by
Cadres taken from the Standing Army in peace, and filled by men
who have passed through the Army into the Reserve.
_C._ Landwehr Army, of Third Line: 30 to 40 Brigades of
Infantry--that is, 1 per Division, or perhaps only 1 per Army
Corps, of the Standing Army.
Cadres for _B_ and _C_ are formed as follows:
Each _Infantry Regiment_ of the Army in peace forms on mobilization:
(_a_) A Depôt for itself, to supply drafts.
(_b_) A Reserve Regiment for B.
(_c_) 1 or 2 Companies of a “Landwehr” Regiment for C.
Each _Cavalry Regiment_ forms its own depôt with its 5th Squadron, and
provides 2 reserve Squadrons for _B_ and _C_.
_Artillery_ and _Pioneers_ form a few units for _B_ and _C_.
The _Train_ does the same, but can only supply rudimentary units.
TABLE OF WAR STRENGTHS OF THE VARIOUS POWERS
TOTAL WAR STRENGTH
The following table shows the strength of the Armies of First and
Second Line which could be put into the field by the various military
nations at the beginning of a war. The strength is shown in Army Corps
and Divisions, and the Armies are placed in two Categories:
_A._ The larger ones, organized by Army Corps.
_B._ Those organized by Divisions.
The strength shown does not include Troops raised in the Colonies,
nor those garrisoning outlying possessions, such as the Russian Army
Corps in the Caucasus and Siberia, or the British garrisons of Coaling
Stations.
The British 7th Division, made up of the Mediterranean and Cape
garrisons, and the French Army Corps in Algeria, are, however, included.
The numbers of Cavalry and Reserve Divisions are conjectural, as in
most cases they are only formed for war.
A. ARMIES ORGANIZED BY ARMY CORPS
-----------------+-------------------------------+--------------------
| Army of First Line. |Army of Second Line.
Nation. +-----------+-------------------+--------------------
|Army Corps.| Cavalry Divisions.| Reserve Divisions.
-----------------+-----------+-------------------+--------------------
Russia | 31 | 30 | 52
Germany | 23 | 14 | 48
France | 21 | 8 | 38
Austria-Hungary | 16 | 8 | 16
Italy | 12 | 4 | 12
-----------------+-----------+-------------------+--------------------
B. ARMIES ORGANIZED BY DIVISIONS
-----------------+-------------------------------+--------------------
| Army of First Line. |Army of Second Line.
Nation. +-----------+-------------------+--------------------
| Divisions.| Cavalry Divisions.| Reserve Divisions.
-----------------+-----------+-------------------+--------------------
Turkey | 21 | 6 | 24
Japan | 19 | 4 Brigades | ?
Great Britain | 7 | 1 | 14
India | 9 | 3 | —
Spain | 14 | — | —
Bulgaria | 9 | — | —
Switzerland | 6 | 4 Brigades | —
Other Nations of | | |
Europe | 3 to 6 | — | —
-----------------+-----------+-------------------+--------------------
PART IV
_HISTORY OF ORGANIZATION_
INTRODUCTION
This interesting subject can only be treated very cursorily, but it
is hoped to present a general view of the developments which have
taken place in the organization of armies in the field, since the
introduction of firearms.
The method adopted for describing this process of evolution is as
follows:
The beginnings of organization, and the earliest organized
forces--those of the Reiters and Landsknechts in the fifteenth
century--are briefly described.
An account follows of the subsequent development of organization in
each Arm of the Service separately, noting especially the armies which
stand out as the best organized of their time--namely, the Dutch Army
of Maurice of Nassau, and the Swedish of Gustavus Adolphus.
A description is given of the “New Model” Army raised by the Parliament
in their struggle with Charles I., which is a typical example of
seventeenth-century organization. The New Model is of especial interest
to Englishmen, not only from the unmatched quality and unbroken
success which make it one of the most remarkable armies in history,
but because its organization still survives to a great extent in the
British Army of to-day.
After describing the organization of armies during the eighteenth
century, the great changes introduced in the wars of the French
Revolution are discussed, and it is shown how modern forms of
organization have resulted from them.
A chapter is devoted to the development of the Staff, and more
especially that of the General Staff, and some remarks are then given
on the evolution of the Services of Transport and Supply, and of
Medical Organization for War.
Throughout these chapters notice is taken of the period at which our
military terms were introduced, and the way in which they obtained
their special signification--a subject of some interest in connection
with organization. These facts are embodied for reference in a list of
military terms, showing their origin and derivation, given in Appendix
A.
In this connection it did not seem out of place to make some remarks
on the inconsistencies and ambiguities of our present Military
Terminology, with the view of pointing out the desirability of
reforming it. These remarks are given in Appendix B.