[1] See _Reces de la deputation de l'empire ... du 25 fevr, 1803_,
&c., S II. vol. vii. p. 453 of G.F. de Martens, _Recueil des
Traites_, &c. (Gottingue, 1831).
[2] Text in de Martens' _Recueil_, viii. p. 388.
BAVENO, a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Novara, on the
west shore of Lago Maggiore, 13 m. N.N.W. of Arona by rail. Pop. (1901)
2502. It is much frequented as a resort in spring, summer and autumn,
and has many beautiful villas. To the north-west are the famous red
granite quarries, which have supplied the columns for the cathedral of
Milan, the church of S. Paolo fuori le Mura at Rome, the Galleria
Vittorio Emanuele at Milan, and other important buildings.
BAWBEE (of very doubtful origin, the most plausible conjecture being
that the word is a corruption from the name of the mint master
Sillebawby, by whom they were first issued, c. 1541), the Scottish name
for a halfpenny or other small coin, and hence used of money generally.
A writer in 1573, quoted in Tytler's _History of Scotland_, speaks of "a
coin called a bawbee, ... which is in value English one penny and a
quarter." The word was sometimes written "babie," and has therefore been
identified merely with a "baby coin," but this etymology is less
probable.
BAXTER, ANDREW (1686-1750), Scottish metaphysician, was born in Aberdeen
and educated at King's College. He maintained himself by acting as tutor
to noblemen's sons. From 1741 to 1747 he lived with Lord Blantyre and Mr
Hay of Drummelzier at Utrecht, and made excursions in Flanders, France
and Germany. Returning to Scotland, he lived at Whittingehame, near
Edinburgh, till his death in 1750. At Spa he had met John Wilkes, then
twenty years of age, and formed a lasting friendship with him. His chief
work, _An Inquiry into the Nature of the Human Soul_ (editions 1733,
1737 and 1745; with appendix added in 1750 in answer to an attack in
Maclaurin's Account of Sir I. Newton's Philosophical Discoveries, and
dedication to John Wilkes), examines the properties of matter. The one
essential property of matter is its inactivity, _vis inertiae_ (accepted
later by Monboddo). All movement in matter is, therefore, caused by some
immaterial force, namely, God. But the movements of the body are not
analogous to the movements of matter; they are caused by a special
immaterial force, the soul. The soul, as being immaterial, is immortal,
and its consciousness does not depend upon its connexion with the body.
The argument is supported by an analysis of the phenomena of dreams,
which are ascribed to direct spiritual influences. Lastly Baxter
attempted to prove that matter is finite. His work is an attack on
Toland's _Letters to Serena_ (1704), which argued that motion is
essential to matter, and on Locke and Berkeley. His criticism of
Berkeley (in the second volume) is, however, based on the common
misinterpretation of his theory (see BERKELEY). Sir Leslie Stephen
speaks of him as a curious example of "the effects of an exploded
metaphysics on a feeble though ingenious intellect."
Beside the _Inquiry_, Baxter wrote _Matho sive Cosmotheoria Puerilis_
(an exposition in Latin of the elements of astronomy written for his
pupils--editions in English 1740, 1745 and 1765, with one dialogue
re-written); _Evidence of Reason in Proof of the Immortality of the
Soul_ (published posthumously from MSS. by Dr Duncan in 1779).
See life in _Biographia Britannica_; McCosh's _Scottish Philosophy_,
pp. 42-49.
BAXTER, RICHARD (1615-1691), English puritan divine, called by Dean
Stanley "the chief of English Protestant Schoolmen," was born at Rowton,
in Shropshire, at the house of his maternal grandfather, in November
(probably the 12th) 1615. His ancestors had been gentlefolk, but his
father had reduced himself to hard straits by loose living. About the
time of Richard's birth, however, he changed decisively for the better.
The boy's early education was poor, being mainly in the hands of the
illiterate and dissolute clergy and readers who held the neighbouring
livings at that time. He was better served by John Owen, master of the
free school at Wroxeter, where he studied from about 1629 to 1632, and
made fair progress in Latin. On Owen's advice he did not proceed to
Oxford (a step which he afterwards regretted), but went to Ludlow Castle
to read with Richard Wickstead, the council's chaplain there. Wickstead
neglected his pupil entirely, but Baxter's eager mind found abundant
nourishment in the great library at the castle. He was persuaded--against
his will--to turn his attention to a court life, and he went to London
under the patronage of Sir Henry Herbert, master of the revels, to follow
that course; but he very soon returned home with a fixed
resolve--confirmed by the death of his mother--to study divinity. After
three months' schoolmastering for Owen at Wroxeter he read theology, and
especially the schoolmen, with Francis Garbet, the local clergyman. About
this time (1634) he met Joseph Symonds and Walter Cradock, two famous
Nonconformists, whose piety and fervour influenced him considerably. In
1638 he was nominated to the mastership of the free grammar school,
Dudley, in which place he commenced his ministry, having been ordained
and licensed by John Thornborough, bishop of Worcester. His success as a
preacher was, at this early period, not very great; but he was soon
transferred to Bridgnorth (Shropshire), where, as assistant to a Mr
Madstard, he established a reputation for the vigorous discharge of the
duties of his office.
He remained at Bridgnorth nearly two years, during which time he took a
special interest in the controversy relating to Nonconformity and the
Church of England. He soon, on some points, especially matters of
discipline, became alienated from the Church; and after the requirement
of what is called "the _et cetera_ oath," he rejected episcopacy in its
English form. He could not, however, be called more than a moderate
Nonconformist; and such he continued to be throughout his life. Though
commonly denominated a Presbyterian, he had no exclusive attachment to
Presbyterianism, and often manifested a willingness to accept a modified
Episcopalianism. All forms of church government were regarded by him as
subservient to the true purposes of religion.
One of the first measures of the Long Parliament was to effect the
reformation of the clergy; and, with this view, a committee was
appointed to receive complaints against them. Among the complainants
were the inhabitants of Kidderminster, a town which had become famous
for its ignorance and depravity. This state of matters was so clearly
proved that an arrangement was agreed to on the part of the vicar
(Dance), by which he allowed L60 a year, out of his income L200, to a
preacher who should be chosen by certain trustees. Baxter was invited to
deliver a sermon before the people, and was unanimously elected as the
minister of the place. This happened in April 1641, when he was
twenty-six years of age.
His ministry continued, with very considerable interruptions, for about
nineteen years; and during that time he accomplished a work of
reformation in Kidderminster and the neighbourhood which is as notable
as anything of the kind upon record. Civilized behaviour succeeded to
brutality of manners; and, whereas the professors of religion had been
but small exceptions to the mass, the unreligious people became the
exceptions in their turn. He formed the ministers in the country around
him into an association for the better fulfilment of the duties of their
calling, uniting them together irrespective of their differences as
Presbyterians, Episcopalians and Independents. The spirit in which he
acted may be judged of from _The Reformed Pastor_, a book published in
relation to the general ministerial efforts he promoted. It drives home
the sense of clerical responsibility with extraordinary power. The
result of his action is that, to this day his memory is cherished as
that of the true apostle of the district where he laboured.
The interruptions to which his Kidderminster life was subjected arose
from the condition of things occasioned by the civil war. Baxter blamed
both parties, but Worcestershire was a cavalier county, and a man in his
position was, while the war continued, exposed to annoyance and danger
in a place like Kidderminster. He therefore removed to Gloucester, and
afterwards (1643-1645) settled in Coventry, where he preached regularly
both to the garrison and the citizens. After the battle of Naseby he
took the situation of chaplain to Colonel Whalley's regiment, and
continued to hold it till February 1647. During these stormy years he
wrote his _Aphorisms of Justification_, which on its appearance in 1649
excited great controversy.
Baxter's connexion with the Parliamentary army was a very characteristic
one. He joined it that he might, if possible, counteract the growth of
the sectaries in that field, and maintain the cause of constitutional
government in opposition to the republican tendencies of the time. He
regretted that he had not previously accepted an offer of Cromwell to
become chaplain to the Ironsides, being confident in his power of
persuasion under the most difficult circumstances. His success in
converting the soldiery to his views does not seem to have been very
great, but he preserved his own consistency and fidelity in a remarkable
degree. By public disputation and private conference, as well as by
preaching, he enforced his doctrines, both ecclesiastical and political,
and shrank no more from urging what he conceived to be the truth upon
the most powerful officers than he did from instructing the meanest
followers of the camp. Cromwell disliked his loquacity and shunned his
society; but Baxter having to preach before him after he had assumed the
Protectorship, chose for his subject the old topic of the divisions and
distractions of the church, and in subsequent interviews not only
opposed him about liberty of conscience, but spoke in favour of the
monarchy he had subverted. There is a striking proof of Baxter's insight
into character in his account of what happened under these
circumstances. Of Cromwell he says, "I saw that what he learned must be
from himself." It is worthy of notice that this intercourse with
Cromwell occurred when Baxter was summoned to London to assist in
settling "the fundamentals of religion," and made the memorable
declaration, in answer to the objection that what he had proposed as
fundamental "might be subscribed by a Papist or Socinian,"--"So much the
better, and so much the fitter it is to be the matter of concord." In
1647 he was staying at the home of Lady Rouse of Rouse-Lench, and there,
in much physical weakness, wrote a great part of his famous work, _The
Saints' Everlasting Rest_ (1650). On his recovery he returned to his
charge at Kidderminster, where he also became a prominent political
leader, his sensitive conscience leading him into conflict with almost
every one of the contending parties in state and church. His conduct
now, as at all times, did "credit to his conscientiousness rather than
to his wisdom."
After the Restoration in 1660 Baxter, who had helped to bring about that
event, settled in London. He preached there till the Act of Uniformity
took effect in 1662, and was employed in seeking for such terms of
comprehension as would have permitted the moderate dissenters with whom
he acted to have remained in the Church of England. In this hope he was
sadly disappointed. There was at that time on the part of the rulers of
the church no wish for such comprehension, and their object in the
negotiations that took place was to excuse the breach of faith which
their rejection of all reasonable methods of concession involved. The
chief good that resulted from the Savoy conference was the production of
Baxter's _Reformed Liturgy_, a work of remarkable excellence, though it
was cast aside without consideration. The same kind of reputation which
Baxter had obtained in the country he secured in the larger and more
important circle of the metropolis. The power of his preaching was
universally felt, and his capacity for business placed him at the head
of his party. He had been made a king's chaplain, and was offered the
bishopric of Hereford, but he could not accept the offer without
virtually assenting to things as they were. This he could not do, and
after his refusal he was not allowed, even before the passing of the Act
of Uniformity, to be a curate in Kidderminster, though he was willing to
serve that office gratuitously. Bishop Morley even prohibited him from
preaching in the diocese of Worcester. Baxter, however, found much
consolation in his marriage on the 24th of September 1662 with Margaret
Charlton, a woman like-minded with himself. She died in 1681.
From the ejectment of 1662 to the indulgence of 1687, Baxter's life was
constantly disturbed by persecution of one kind or another. He retired
to Acton in Middlesex, for the purpose of quiet study, and was dragged
thence to prison for keeping a conventicle. The _mittimus_ was
pronounced illegal and irregular, and Baxter procured a _habeas corpus_
in the court of common pleas. He was taken up for preaching in London
after the licences granted in 1672 were recalled by the king. The
meetinghouse which he had built for himself in Oxendon Street was closed
against him after he had preached there but once. He was, in 1680,
seized in his house, and conveyed away at the risk of his life; and
though he was released that he might die at home, his books and goods
were distrained. He was, in 1684, carried three times to the sessions
house, being scarcely able to stand, and without any apparent cause was
made to enter into a bond for L400 in security for his good behaviour.
But his worst encounter was with the chief justice, Sir George Jeffreys,
in May 1685. He had been committed to the king's bench prison on the
ridiculous charge of libelling the Church in his _Paraphrase on the New
Testament_, and was tried before Jeffreys on this accusation. The trial
is well known as among the most brutal perversions of justice which have
occurred in England, though it must be remembered that no authoritative
report of the trial exists. If the partisan account on which tradition
is based is to be accepted, it would appear that Jeffreys himself acted
like an infuriated madman. (See JEFFREYS, SIR GEORGE.) Baxter was
sentenced to pay 500 marks, to lie in prison till the money was paid,
and to be bound to his good behaviour for seven years. It was even
asserted at the time that Jeffreys proposed he should be whipped at the
cart's tail through London. The old man, for he was now seventy,
remained in prison for eighteen months, when the government, vainly
hoping to win his influence to their side, remitted the fine and
released him.
During the long time of oppression and injury which followed the
ejectment, Baxter was sadly afflicted in body. His whole life was indeed
one continued illness, but in this part of it his pain and languor had
greatly increased. Yet this was the period of his greatest activity as a
writer. He was a most voluminous author, his separate works, it is said,
amounting to 168. They are as learned as they are elaborate, and as
varied in their subjects as they are faithfully composed. Such treatises
as the _Christian Directory_, the _Methodus Theologiae Christianae_, and
the _Catholic Theology_, might each have occupied the principal part of
the life of an ordinary man. His _Breviate of the Life of Mrs Margaret
Baxter_ records the virtues of his wife, and reveals on the part of
Baxter a tenderness of nature which might otherwise have been unknown.
His editors have contented themselves with re-publishing his "Practical
Works," and his ethical, philosophical, historical and political
writings still await a competent editor.
The remainder of Baxter's life, from 1687 onwards, was passed in peace
and honour. He continued to preach and to publish almost to the end. He
was surrounded by attached friends, and reverenced by the religious
world. His saintly behaviour, his great talents, and his wide influence,
added to his extended age, raised him to a position of unequalled
reputation. He helped to bring about the downfall of James II. and
complied with the Toleration Act under William and Mary. He died in
London on the 8th of December 1691, and his funeral was attended by
churchmen as well as dissenters. A similar tribute of general esteem was
paid to him nearly two centuries later, when a statue was erected to his
memory at Kidderminster in July 1875.
Baxter was possessed by an unconquerable belief in the power of
persuasive argument. He thought every one was amenable to
reason--bishops and levellers included. And yet he was as far as
possible from being a quarrelsome man. He was at once a man of fixed
belief and large appreciation, so that his dogmatism and his liberality
sometimes came into collision. His popularity as a preacher was
deservedly pre-eminent; but no more diligent student ever shut himself
up with his books. He was singularly fitted for intellectual debate, but
his devotional tendency was equally strong with his logical aptitude.
Some of his writings, from their metaphysical subtilty, will always
puzzle the learned; but he could write to the level of the common heart
without loss of dignity or pointedness. His _Reasons for the Christian
Religion_ is still, for its evidential purpose, better than most works
of its kind. His _Poor Man's Family Book_ is a manual that continues to
be worthy of its title. His _Saints' Everlasting Rest_ will always
command the grateful admiration of pious readers. It is also charged
with a robust and manly eloquence and a rare and unsought felicity of
language that make it a masterpiece of style. Perhaps no thinker has
exerted so great an influence upon nonconformity as Baxter has done, and
that not in one direction only, but in every form of development,
doctrinal, ecclesiastical and practical. He is the type of a distinct
class of the Christian ministry--that class which aspires after
scholarly training, prefers a broad to a sectarian theology, and adheres
to rational methods of religious investigation and appeal. The rational
element in him was very strong. He had a settled hatred of fanaticism.
Even Quakerism he could scarcely endure. Religion was with him all and
in all--that by which all besides was measured, and to whose interests
all else was subordinated. Isaac Barrow said that "his practical
writings were never minded, and his controversial ones seldom confuted,"
and John Wilkins, bishop of Chester, asserted that "if he had lived in
the primitive time he had been one of the fathers of the church."
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Our most valuable source is Baxter's autobiography,
called _Reliquiae Baxterianae or Mr Richard Baxter's Narrative of the
most memorable Passages of his Life and Times_ (published by Matthew
Sylvester in 1696). Edmund Calamy abridged this work (1702). The
abridgment forms the first volume of the account of the ejected
ministers, but whoever refers to it should also acquaint himself with
the reply to the accusations which had been brought against Baxter,
and which will be found in the second volume of Calamy's Continuation.
William Orme's _Life and Times of Richard Baxter_ appeared in 2 vols.
in 1830; it also forms the first volume of "Practical Works" (1830,
reprinted 1868). Sir James Stephen's interesting paper on Baxter,
contributed originally to the _Edinburgh Review_, is reprinted in the
second volume of his _Essays_. More recent estimates of Baxter are
those given by John Tulloch in his _English Puritanism and its
Leaders_, and by Dean Stanley in his address at the inauguration of
the statue to Baxter at Kidderminster (see _Macmillan's Magazine_,
xxxii. 385).
There is a good portrait of Baxter in the Williams library, Gordon
Square, London.
BAXTER, ROBERT DUDLEY (1827-1875), English economist and statistician,
was born at Doncaster in 1827. He was educated privately and at Trinity
College, Cambridge. He studied law and entered his father's firm of
Baxter & Co., solicitors, with which he was connected till his death.
Though studiously attentive to business, he was enabled, as a member of
the Statistical and other learned societies, to accomplish much useful
economic work. His principal economic writings were _The Budget and the
Income Tax_ (1860), _Railway Extension and its Results_ (1866), _The
National Income_ (1868), _The Taxation of the United Kingdom_ (1869),
_National Debts of the World_ (1871), _Local Government and Taxation_
(1874), and his purely political writings included _The Volunteer
Movement_ (1860), _The Redistribution of Seats and the Counties_ (1866),
_History of English Parties and Conservatism_ (1870), and _The Political
Progress of the Working Classes_ (1871).
BAXTER, WILLIAM (1650-1723), British antiquarian, critic and grammarian,
nephew of Richard Baxter, the divine, was born at Llanllugan,
Montgomeryshire. When he went to Harrow school, at the age of eighteen,
he was unable to read, and could speak no language except Welsh. His
progress must have been remarkable, since he published his Latin grammar
about ten years afterwards. During the greater part of his life Baxter
was a schoolmaster, and was finally headmaster of the Mercers' school,
where he remained till shortly before his death on the 31st of May 1723.
He was an accomplished linguist, and his learning was undoubtedly very
great. His published works are: _De Analogia_ (1679), an advanced Latin
grammar; _Anacreontis Teii Carmina_, including two odes of Sappho (1695;
reprinted in 1710, "with improvements," which he was accused of having
borrowed from the edition of Joshua Barnes); _Horace_ (1701 and
subsequent editions, regarded as remarkable for its abuse of Bentley);
_Glossarium Antiquitatum Britannicarum_ (1719); and _Glossarium
Antiquitatum Romanarum_ (1826). The last two works were published by the
Rev. Moses Williams, the second (which goes no farther than the letter
A) under the title of _Reliquiae Baxterianae_, including an
autobiographical fragment. Baxter also contributed to a joint
translation of Plutarch's _Moralia_, and left notes on Juvenal and
Persius.
BAY, a homonymous term of which the principal branches are as follows,
(1) The name of the sweet laurel (_Laurus nobilis_) or bay tree (see
LAUREL); this word is derived through the O. Fr. _baie_, from Lat.
_baca_, berry, the bay bearing a heavy crop of dark purple berries. The
leaves of the bay were woven in garlands to crown poets, and hence the
word is often used figuratively in the sense of fame and reward. (2) A
wide opening or indentation in a coast line. This may be of the same
origin as "bay," in the architectural sense, or from a Latin word which
is seen in the place name Baiae. (3) The name of a colour, of a reddish
brown, principally used of the colour in horses; there are various
shades, light bay, bright bay, &c. This word is derived from the Latin
_badius_, which is given by Varro (in _Nonnius_, pp. 80-82) as one of
the colours of horses. The word is also seen in baize (q.v.). (4) The
deep bark of dogs. This word is also seen in the expression "at bay,"
properly of a hunted animal who at the last turns on the "baying" hounds
and defends itself. The origin of the word is the O. Fr. _bayer,
abayer_, Lat. _badare_, properly to gape, open wide the mouth. (5) An
architectural term (Fr. _travee_, Ital. _compartimento_, Ger.
_Abteilung_) for any division or compartment of an arcade, roof, &c.
Each space from pillar to pillar in a cathedral, church or other
building is called a "bay" or "severy." This word is also to be referred
to _bayer_, to gape.
A "bay-window" or "bow-window" is a window projecting outwards and
forming a recess in the apartment. Bay-windows may be rectangular,
polygonal or semicircular in plan, in the last case being better known
as bow-windows. The bay-window would seem to have been introduced in the
15th century, but the earliest examples of importance are those which
were built during the reign of Edward IV. (1461-1483), when it was
largely employed in the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge and in the
feudal castles of the period. Examples are found in the palace at
Eltham, Cowdray Castle in Sussex, Thornbury Castle in Gloucestershire,
and in the George Inn at Glastonbury; one of the finest of a later date
is that of the Banqueting Hall at Hampton Court, some 50 ft. high. In
the great entrance halls of ancient mansions the floor of the last bay
of the hall was generally raised two or three steps, and this portion
was reserved for the lord of the manor and his guests, and was known as
the dais. The usual position of the bay-window is at one end of this
dais, and occasionally but rarely at both ends. The sills of the windows
are at a lower level than those in the hall, and, raised on one or two
steps, are seats in the recess. The recess of the bay-window was
generally covered with a ribbed vault of elaborate design, and the
window itself subdivided by mullions and transoms. In some of the larger
windows such as those at Cowdray and Hampton Court there are no fewer
than five transoms, and this sub-division gave great scale to the
design. The same feature when employed in an upper storey and supported
by corbels or brackets is known as an oriel window. (See also DAIS and
HALL.)
BAYAMO, an old inland city on the N. slope of the Sierra Maestra in
Santiago province, Cuba. Pop. (1907) 4102. It lies on a plain by the
Bayamo river, in a fertile country, but isolated from sea and from
railway. Its older parts are extraordinarily irregular. The streets are
of all widths, and of all degrees of crookedness, and run in all
directions. Bayamo was the third of the seven cities founded by Diego
Velazquez, and was established in 1513. During much of the 16th century
it was one of the most important agricultural and commercial settlements
of the island. Its inland situation gave it relative security against
the pirates who then infested West Indian seas, and the misfortunes of
Santiago were the fortunes of Bayamo. Down the river Cauto, then open to
the sea for vessels of 200 tons, and through Manzanillo, Bayamo drove a
thriving contraband trade that made it at the opening of the 17th
century the leading town of Cuba. A tremendous flood, in 1616, choking
the Cauto with trees and wrecked vessels, cut it off from direct access
to the sea; but through Manzanillo it continued a great clandestine
traffic with Curacao, Jamaica, and other foreign islands all through the
17th and 18th centuries. Bayamo was then surrounded by fine plantations.
It was a rich and turbulent city. In the war of 1868-78 it was an
insurgent stronghold; near it was fought one of the most desperate
conflicts of the war, and it was nearly destroyed by the opposing
parties. Bayamo was the birthplace and the home of Carlos Manuel de
Cespedes (1819-1874), first president of the "first" Cuban republic,
and was also the birthplace and home of Tomas Estrada Palma
(1835-1908), first president of the present Cuban republic.
BAYARD, PIERRE TERRAIL, SEIGNEUR DE (1473-1524), French soldier, the
descendant of a noble family, nearly every head of which for two
centuries past had fallen in battle, was born at the chateau Bayard,
Dauphine (near Pontcharra, Isere), about 1473. He served as a page to
Charles I., duke of Savoy, until Charles VIII. of France, attracted by
his graceful bearing, placed him among the royal followers under the
seigneur (count) de Ligny (1487). As a youth he was distinguished for
comeliness, affability of manner, and skill in the tilt-yard. In 1494 he
accompanied Charles VIII. into Italy, and was knighted after the battle
of Fornova (1495), where he had captured a standard. Shortly afterwards,
entering Milan alone in ardent pursuit of the enemy, he was taken
prisoner, but was set free without a ransom by Lodovico Sforza. In 1502
he was wounded at the assault of Canossa. Bayard was the hero of a
celebrated combat of thirteen French knights against an equal number of
Germans, and his restless energy and valour were conspicuous throughout
the Italian wars of this period. On one occasion it is said that,
single-handed, he made good the defence of the bridge of the Garigliano
against about 200 Spaniards, an exploit that brought him such renown
that Pope Julius II. sought to entice him into the papal service, but
unsuccessfully. In 1508 he distinguished himself again at the siege of
Genoa by Louis XII., and early in 1509 the king made him captain of a
company of horse and foot. At the siege of Padua he won further
distinction, not only by his valour, but also by his consummate skill.
He continued to serve in the Italian wars up to the siege of Brescia in
1512. Here his intrepidity in first mounting the rampart cost him a
severe wound, which obliged his soldiers to carry him into a
neighbouring house, the residence of a nobleman, whose wife and
daughters he protected from threatened insult. Before his wound was
healed, he hurried to join Gaston de Foix, under whom he served in the
terrible battle of Ravenna (1512). In 1513, when Henry VIII. of England
routed the French at the battle of the Spurs (Guinegate, where Bayard's
father had received a lifelong injury in a battle of 1479), Bayard in
trying to rally his countrymen found his escape cut off. Unwilling to
surrender, he rode suddenly up to an English officer who was resting
unarmed, and summoned him to yield; the knight complying, Bayard in turn
gave himself up to his prisoner. He was taken into the English camp, but
his gallantry impressed Henry as it had impressed Lodovico, and the king
released him without ransom, merely exacting his parole not to serve for
six weeks. On the accession of Francis I. in 1515 Bayard was made
lieutenant-general of Dauphine; and after the victory of Marignan, to
which his valour largely contributed, he had the honour of conferring
knighthood on his youthful sovereign. When war again broke out between
Francis I. and Charles V., Bayard, with 1000 men, held Mezieres, which
had been declared untenable, against an army of 35,000, and after six
weeks compelled the imperial generals to raise the siege. This stubborn
resistance saved central France from invasion, as the king had not then
sufficient forces to withstand the imperialists. All France rang with
the achievement, and Francis gained time to collect the royal army which
drove out the invaders (1521). The parlement thanked Bayard as the
saviour of his country; the king made him a knight of the order of St
Michael, and commander in his own name of 100 _gens d'armes_, an honour
till then reserved for princes of the blood. After allaying a revolt at
Genoa, and striving with the greatest assiduity to check a pestilence in
Dauphine, Bayard was sent, in 1523, into Italy with Admiral Bonnivet,
who, being defeated at Robecco and wounded in a combat during his
retreat, implored Bayard to assume the command and save the army. He
repulsed the foremost pursuers, but in guarding the rear at the passage
of the Sesia was mortally wounded by an arquebus ball (April 30th,
1524). He died in the midst of the enemy, attended by Pescara, the
Spanish commander, and by his old comrade the constable de Bourbon. His
body was restored to his friends and interred at Grenoble. Chivalry,
free of fantastic extravagance, is perfectly mirrored in the character
of Bayard. As a soldier he was one of the most skilful commanders of the
age. He was particularly noted for the exactitude and completeness of
his information of the enemy's movements; this he obtained both by
careful reconnaissance and by a well-arranged system of espionage. In
the midst of mercenary armies Bayard remained absolutely disinterested,
and to his contemporaries and his successors he was, with his romantic
heroism, piety and magnanimity, the fearless and faultless knight, _le
chevalier sans peur et sans reproche_. His gaiety and kindness won him,
even more frequently, another name bestowed by his contemporaries, _le
bon chevalier_.
Contemporary lives of Bayard are the following:--"_Le loyal
serviteur_" (? Jacques de Maille); _La tres joyeuse, plaisante, et
recreative histoire ... des faiz, gestes, triumphes et prouesses du
bon chevalier sans paour et sans reproche, le gentil seigneur de
Bayart_ (original edition printed at Paris, 1527; the modern editions
are very numerous, those of M.J. Roman and of L. Larchey appeared in
1878 and 1882); Symphorien Champier, _Les Gestes, ensemble la vie du
preulx chevalier Bayard_ (Lyons, 1525); Aymar du Rivail, _Histoire des
Allobroges_ (edition of de Terrebasse, 1844); see _Bayard_ in
_Repertoire des sources historiques_, by Ulysse Chevalier, and in
particular A. de Terrebasse, _Hist. de Pierre Terrail, seigneur de
Bayart_ (1st ed., Paris, 1828; 5th ed., Vienna, 1870).
BAYARD, THOMAS FRANCIS (1828-1898), American diplomatist, was born in
Wilmington, Delaware, on the 29th of October 1828. His great-grandfather,
Richard Bassett (1745-1815), governor of Delaware; his grandfather, James
Asheton Bayard (1767-1815), a prominent Federalist, and one of the United
States commissioners who negotiated the treaty of Ghent with Great
Britain after the War of 1812; his uncle, Richard Henry Bayard
(1796-1868); and his father, James Asheton Bayard (1799-1880), a
well-known constitutional lawyer, all represented Delaware in the United
States Senate. Intending to go into business, he did not receive a
college education; but in 1848 he began the study of law in the office of
his father, and was admitted to the bar in 1851. Except from 1855 to
1857, when he was a partner of William Shippen in Philadelphia, he
practised chiefly in Wilmington. He was a United States senator from
Delaware from 1869 to 1885, and in 1881 was (October 10th to 13th)
president _pro tempore_ of the Senate. His abilities made him a leader of
the Democrats in the Senate, and his views on financial and legal
questions gave him a high reputation for statesmanship. He was a member
of the electoral commission of 1877. In the Democratic national
conventions of 1872, 1876, 1880 and 1884 he received votes for nomination
as the party candidate for the presidency. He was secretary of state,
1885-1889, during the first administration of President Cleveland, and
pursued a conservative policy in foreign affairs, the most important
matter with which he was called upon to deal being the Bering Sea
controversy. As ambassador to Great Britain, 1893-1897, his tall
dignified person, unfailing courtesy, and polished, if somewhat
deliberate, eloquence made him a man of mark in all the best circles. He
was considered indeed by many Americans to have become too partial to
English ways; and, for the expression of some criticisms regarded as
unfavourable to his own countrymen, the House of Representatives went so
far as to pass, on the 7th of November 1895, a vote of censure on him.
The value of Mr Bayard's diplomacy was, however, fully recognized in the
United Kingdom, where he worthily upheld the traditions of a famous line
of American ministers. He was the first representative of the United
States in Great Britain to hold the diplomatic rank of an ambassador. He
died in Dedham, Massachusetts, on the 28th of September 1898.
See Edward Spencer, _Public Life and Services of T.F. Bayard_ (New
York, 1880).
BAYAZID, or BAJAZET, a border fortress of Asiatic Turkey, chief town of
a sanjak of the Erzerum vilayet, situated close to the frontiers of
Russia and Persia, and looking across a marshy plain to the great cone
of Ararat, at a general altitude of 6000 ft. It occupies a site of great
antiquity, as the cuneiform inscriptions on the neighbouring rocks
testify; it stands on the site of the old Armenian town of Pakovan. It
is picturesquely situated in an amphitheatre of sharp, rocky hills. The
great trade route from Trebizond by Erzerum into N.W. Persia crosses the
frontier at Kizil Dize a few miles to the south and does not enter the
town. A knoll above the town is occupied by the half-ruined fort or
palace of former governors, built for Mahmud Pasha by a Persian
architect and considered one of the most beautiful buildings in Turkey.
It contains two churches and a monastery, the Kasa Kilissa, famous for
its antiquity and architectural grandeur. The cuneiform inscriptions are
on the rock pinnacles above the town, with some rock chambers,
indicating a town or fortress of the Vannic period. The population has
lately decreased and now numbers about 4000. A Russian consul resides
here and the town is a military station. It was captured during the
Russian campaigns of 1828 and 1854, also in 1878, but was then
recaptured by the Turks, who subjected the Russian garrison to a long
siege; the place was ultimately relieved, but a massacre of Christians
then took place in the streets. Bayazid was restored to Turkey by the
treaty of Berlin.
BAYBAY, a town of the province of Leyte, island of Leyte, Philippine
Islands, on the W. coast. Pop. (1903) 22,990. The town proper is
situated at the mouth of the Pagbanganan river, 45 m. S.S.W. of
Tacloban, the provincial capital. A superior grade of hemp is exported.
Other products are rice, corn, copra, cacao, sugar, cattle and horses.
The Cebu dialect of the Visayan language is spoken.
BAY CITY, a city and the county seat of Bay county, Michigan, U.S.A., on
the Saginaw river, about 2 m. from its entrance into Saginaw Bay and
about 108 m. N.N.W. of Detroit. Pop. (1890) 27,839; (1900) 27,628, of
whom 8483 were foreign-born, including 2413 English-Canadians, 1743
Germans, 1822 Poles--the city has a Polish weekly newspaper--and 1075
French-Canadians; (1910, census) 45,166. Bay City is served by the
Michigan Central, the Pere Marquette, the Grand Trunk and the Detroit &
Mackinac railways, and by lake steamers. The city extends for several
miles along both sides of the river, and is in a good farming district,
with which it is connected by stone roads. Among the public buildings
are the Federal building, the city hall and the public library. The city
has lumber and fishing interests (perch, whitefish, sturgeon, pickerel,
bass, &c. being caught in Saginaw Bay), large machine shops and
foundries (value of products in 1905, $1,743,155, or 31% of the total of
the city's factory products), and various manufactures, including ships
(wooden and steel), wooden ware, wood-pipe, veneer, railroad machinery,
cement, alkali and chicory. A salt basin underlies the city, and, next
to the lumber industry, the salt industry was the first to be developed,
but its importance has dwindled, the product value in 1905 being $20,098
out of $5,620,866 for all factory products. Near the city are valuable
coal mines, and there is one within the city limits. At Essexville (pop.
in 1910, 1477), N.E., at Banks, N.W., and at Salzbury, S.W. of Bay City,
are beet-sugar factories--sugar beets are extensively grown in the
vicinity. Alcohol is made from the refuse molasses obtained from these
beet-sugar factories. The municipality owns and operates the water-works
and electric-lighting plant. The settlements of Lower Saginaw and
Portsmouth were made in 1837, and were later united to form Bay City,
which was incorporated as a village in 1859, and chartered as a city in
1865. In 1905 West Bay City (pop. 1900, 13,119) and Bay City were
consolidated.
BAYEUX, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in
the department of Calvados, 18 m. N.W. of Caen on the Western railway.
Pop. (1906) 6930. Bayeux is situated on the Aure, 5 m. from the English
Channel. Its majestic cathedral was built in the 13th century on the
site of a Romanesque church, to which the lateral arcades of the nave
and the two western towers with their high stone spires belonged. A
third and still loftier tower, the upper part of which, in the florid
Gothic style, is modern, surmounts the crossing. The chancel, surrounded
with radiating chapels, is a fine example of early Gothic. Underneath it
there is a crypt of the 11th century restored in the 15th century. The
oak stalls in the choir are fine examples of late 16th-century carving.
The former bishop's palace, parts of which are of great age though the
main building is of the 18th century, serves as law-court and hotel de
ville. Bayeux possesses many quaint, timbered houses and stone mansions
in its quiet streets. The museum contains the celebrated Bayeux tapestry
(see below). The town is the seat of a bishop and of a sub-prefect; it
has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, an ecclesiastical
seminary, a communal college and a chamber of arts and manufactures.
Dyeing, leather-dressing, lace-making and the manufacture of porcelain
for household and laboratory purposes are carried on.
Till the 4th century Bayeux bore the name of _Augustodurum_, but
afterwards, when it became the capital of the two tribes of the
Baiocasses and Viducasses, took the name of Civitas Baiocassium. Its
bishopric dates from the latter half of the 4th century. Before the
Norman invasion it was governed by counts. Taken in 890 by the
Scandinavian chief, Rollo, it was soon after peopled by the Normans and
became a residence of the dukes of Normandy, one of whom, Richard I.,
built about 960 a castle which survived till the 18th century. During
the quarrels between the sons of William the Conqueror it was pillaged
and sacked by Henry I. in 1106, and in later times it underwent siege
and capture on several occasions during the Hundred Years' War and the
religious wars of the 16th century. Till 1790 it was the capital of the
Bessin, a district of lower Normandy.
BAYEUX TAPESTRY, THE. This venerable relic consists of a band of linen,
231 ft. long and 20 in. wide, now light brown with age, on which have
been worked with a needle, in worsteds of eight colours, scenes
representing the conquest of England by the Normans. Of these scenes
there are seventy-two, beginning with Harold's visit to Bosham on his
way to Normandy, and ending with the flight of the English from the
battle of Hastings, though the actual end of the strip has perished.
Along the top and the bottom run decorative borders with figures of
animals, scenes from fables of Aesop and of Phaedrus, from husbandry and
the chase, and occasionally from the story of the Conquest itself (see
EMBROIDERY; Plate I. fig. 7). Formerly known as the _Toile de St Jean_,
it was used on certain feast days to decorate the nave of Bayeux
cathedral. Narrowly escaping the perils of the Revolution, it was
exhibited in Paris, by Napoleon's desire, in 1803-1804, and has since
been in civil custody at Bayeux, where it is now exhibited under glass.
In the Franco-German War (1871) it was hastily taken down and concealed.
"The noblest monument in the world relating to our old English history,"
as William Stukeley described it in 1746, it has been repeatedly
described, discussed and reproduced, both in France and in England since
1730. The best coloured reproduction is that by C.A. Stothard in 1818,
published in the sixth volume of _Vetusta Monumenta_; but in 1871-1872
the "tapestry" was photographed for the English education authorities by
E. Dossetter.
Local tradition assigned the work to the Conqueror's wife. F. Pluquet,
in his _Essai historique sur la ville de Bayeux_ (Caen, 1829), was the
first to reject this belief, and to connect it with the Conqueror's
half-brother Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and this view, which is now
accepted, is confirmed by the fact that three of the bishop's followers
mentioned in Domesday Book are among the very few named figures on the
tapestry. That Odo had it executed for his cathedral seems tolerably
certain, but whether it was worked by English fingers or not has been
disputed, though some of the words upon it have been held to favour that
view. Freeman emphatically pronounced it to be "a contemporary work,"
and historically "a primary authority ... in fact the highest authority
on the Norman side." As some of its evidence is unique, the question of
its authority is important, and Freeman's conclusions have been
practically confirmed by recent discussion. In 1902 M. Marignan
questioned, on archaeological grounds, the date assigned to the
tapestry, as the Abbe de la Rue had questioned it ninety years before;
but his arguments were refuted by Gaston Paris and M. Lanore, and the
authority of the tapestry was vindicated. The famous relic appears to be
the solitary survivor of a class, for Abbot Baudri described in Latin
verse a similar work executed for Adela, daughter of the Conqueror, and
in earlier days the widow of Brihtnoth had wrought a similar record of
her husband's exploits and death at the hard-fought battle of Maldon
(991).
[Illustration: PLATE I.
1. SIEGE OF DINANT. Note the wooden castle on a mound, and the knight
handing over the keys on his lance tip.