FOOTNOTE:

[1] This is the same word as "scrimmage," and is derived from the

Anglo-French _eskrimir_, modern _escrimer_, properly to fight behind

cover, now to fence. The origin of this is the Old High German

_scirman_, to fight behind a shield, _scirm_. Modern German _Schirm_.

BATTLE ABBEY ROLL. This is popularly supposed to have been a list of

William the Conqueror's companions preserved at Battle Abbey, on the

site of his great victory over Harold. It is known to us only from 16th

century versions of it published by Leland, Holinshed and Duchesne, all

more or less imperfect and corrupt. Holinshed's is much the fullest, but

of its 629 names several are duplicates. The versions of Leland and

Duchesne, though much shorter, each contain many names found in neither

of the other lists. It was so obvious that several of the names had no

right to figure on the roll, that Camden, as did Dugdale after him, held

them to have been interpolated at various times by the monks, "not

without their own advantage." Modern writers have gone further, Sir

Egerton Brydges denouncing the roll as "a disgusting forgery," and E.A.

Freeman dismissing it as "a transparent fiction." An attempt to

vindicate the roll was made by the last duchess of Cleveland, whose

_Battle Abbey Roll_ (3 vols., 1889) is the best guide to its contents.

It is probable that the character of the roll has been quite

misunderstood. It is not a list of individuals, but only of family

surnames, and it seems to have been intended to show which families had

"come over with the Conqueror," and to have been compiled about the 14th

century. The compiler appears to have been influenced by the French

sound of names, and to have included many families of later settlement,

such as that of Grandson, which did not come to England from Savoy till

two centuries after the Conquest. The roll itself appears to be unheard

of before and after the 16th century, but other lists were current at

least as early as the 15th century, as the duchess of Cleveland has

shown. In 1866 a list of the Conqueror's followers, compiled from

Domesday and other authentic records, was set up in Dives church by M.

Leopold Delisle, and is printed in the duchess' work. Its contents are

naturally sufficient to show that the Battle Roll is worthless.

See Leland, _Collectanea_; Holinshed, _Chronicles of England_;

Duchesne, _Historia Norm. Scriptores_; Brydges, _Censura Literaria_;

Thierry, _Conquete de l'Angleterre_, vol. ii. (1829); Burke, _The Roll

of Battle Abbey_ (annotated, 1848); Planche, _The Conqueror and His

Companions_ (1874); duchess of Cleveland, _The Battle Abbey Roll_

(1889); Round, "The Companions of the Conqueror" (_Monthly Review_,

1901, iii. pp. 91-111). (J. H. R.)

BATTLE CREEK, a city of Calhoun county, Michigan, U.S.A., at the

confluence of the Kalamazoo river with Battle Creek, about 48 m. S. of

Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890) 13,197; (1900) 18,563, of whom 1844 were

foreign-born; (1910, census) 25,267. It is served by the Michigan

Central and the Grand Trunk railways, and by interurban electric lines.

Here are the hospital and laboratories of the American Medical

Missionary College (of Chicago) and the Battle Creek Sanitarium,

established in 1866, which was a pioneer in dietetic reform, and did

much to make Battle Creek important in the manufacture of health foods,

and in the publication of diet-reform literature. Among the principal

buildings, besides the hospital and the sanitarium, are several fine

churches, the central high school, the Post tavern and the Post theatre.

The city is a trading centre for the rich agricultural and fruit-growing

district by which it is surrounded, has good water-power, and is an

important manufacturing centre, its chief manufactured products being

cereal health foods, for which it has a wide reputation, and the

manufacture of which grew out of the dietetic experiments made in the

laboratories of the sanitarium; and threshing machines and other

agricultural implements, paper cartons and boxes, flour, boilers,

engines and pumps. Extensive locomotive and car shops of the Grand Trunk

railway are here. In 1904 the total factory product of Battle Creek was

valued at $12,298,244, an increase of 95% over that for 1900; and of the

total in 1904 $5,191,655 was the value of food preparations, which was

8.5% of the value of food preparations manufactured in the United

States, Battle Creek thus ranking first among American cities in this

industry. The water-works are owned and operated by the municipality,

the water being obtained from Lake Goguac, a summer pleasure resort

about 2 m. from the city. Battle Creek, said to have been named from

hostilities here between some surveyors and Indians, was settled in

1831, incorporated as a village in 1850, and chartered as a city in

1859, the charter of that year being revised in 1900.

BATTLEDORE AND SHUTTLECOCK, a game played by two persons with small

rackets, called battledores, made of parchment or rows of gut stretched

across wooden frames, and shuttlecocks, made of a base of some light

material, like cork, with trimmed feathers fixed round the top. The

object of the players is to bat the shuttlecock from one to the other as

many times as possible without allowing it to fall to the ground. There

are Greek drawings extant representing a game almost identical with

battledore and shuttlecock, and it has been popular in China, Japan,

India and Siam for at least 2000 years. In Europe it has been played by

children for centuries. A further development is Badminton.

BATTLEMENT (probably from a lost Fr. form _bastillement_, cf. mod. Fr.

_bastille_, from Med. Lat. _bastilia_, towers, which is derived from

Ital. _bastire_, to build, cf. Fr. _batir_; the English word was,

however, early connected with "battle"), a term given to a parapet of a

wall, in which portions have been cut out at intervals to allow the

discharge of arrows or other missiles; these cut-out portions are known

as "crenels"; the solid widths between the "crenels" are called

"merlons." The earliest example in the palace at Medinet-Abu at Thebes

in Egypt is of the inverted form, and is said to have been derived from

Syrian fortresses. Through Assyria they formed the termination of all

the walls surrounding the towns, as shown on bas reliefs from Nimrud and

elsewhere. Traces of them have been found at Mycenae, and they are

suggested on Greek vases. In the battlements of Pompeii, additional

protection was given by small internal buttresses or spur walls against

which the defender might place himself so as to be protected completely

on one side. In the battlements of the middle ages the crenel was about

one-third of the width of the merlon, and the latter was in addition

pierced with a small slit. The same is also found in Italian

battlements, where the merlon is of much greater height and is capped in

a peculiar fashion. The battlements of the Mahommedans had a more

decorative and varied character, and were retained from the 13th century

onwards not so much for defensive purposes as for a crowning feature to

their walls. They may be regarded therefore in the same light as the

cresting found in the Spanish renaissance. The same retention of the

battlement as a purely decorative feature is found throughout the

Decorated and Perpendicular periods, and not only occurs on parapets

but on the transoms of windows and on the tie-beams of roofs and on

screens. A further decorative treatment was given in the elaborate

panelling of the merlons and that portion of the parapet walls rising

above the cornice, by the introduction of quatrefoils and other

conventional forms filled with foliage and shields.

BATTUE (from Fr. _battre_, to beat), the beating of game from cover

under the sportsmen's fire; by analogy the word is used to describe any

slaughter of defenceless crowds.

BATTUS, the legendary founder of the Greek colony of Cyrene in Libya

(about 630 B.C.). The Greeks who accompanied him were, like himself,

natives of Thera, and descended partly from the race of the Minyae.

Various accounts are given both of the founding of Cyrene and of the

origin of the founder's name. According to the Cyrenaeans (Herod, iv.

150-156), Battus, having an impediment in his speech, consulted the

oracle at Delphi, and was told to found a colony in Libya; according to

the Theraeans, Battus was entrusted with this mission by their aged king

Grinus. In another version, there was civil war in Thera; Battus, leader

of one party, was banished, and, on applying to the oracle, was

recommended to take out a colony to "the continent" (Schol. Pindar,

_Pyth._ iv. 10). In any case the foundation is attributed to the direct

instructions of Apollo. The name was connected by some with [Greek:

battarizo], ("stammer"), but Herodotus (iv. 155) says that it was the

Libyan word for "king," that Battus was not called by the name until

after his arrival at Libya, and that the oracle addressed him as

"Battus" by anticipation. This, however, would imply on the part of the

oracle a knowledge of Libya, which was not shared by the rest of Greece

(Herod. _l.c._), and it is noteworthy that the name occurs in Arcadian

and Messenian legends. Herodotus does not know his real name, but Pindar

(_Pyth._ v. 116), no doubt rightly, calls the founder of the colony

Aristoteles, while Justin (xiii. 7) gives his name as Aristaeus who was

worshipped at Cyrene. Four kings named Battus, alternating with four

named Arcesilaus, ruled in Cyrene (q.v.) till the fall of the dynasty

about 450 B.C.

See R.W. Macan's _Herodotus IV.-VI._ (1895), vol. i. pp. 104 seq. and

notes.

BATU, or ROCK ISLANDS (Dutch _Batoe_), a group of three greater and

forty-eight lesser islands in the Dutch East Indies, W. of Sumatra,

between 0 deg. 10' N. to 0 deg. 45' S. and 97 deg. 50'-98 deg. 35' E.,

belonging to the Ayerbangi district of the lowlands of Padang (Sumatra).

They are separated by the strait of Sibirut from the Mentawi group. The

three chief islands, from N. to S., are Pini or Mintao, Masa, and Bala.

The total land area of the group is 445 sq. m. The islands are generally

low, and covered with forest, in which the cocoanut palm is conspicuous.

There is trade in cocoanuts, oil, and other forest produce. The natives,

about 3000 in number, are of Malayan or pre-Malayan stock, akin to those

of the island of Nias to the north-west. Only about twenty of the

smaller islands are inhabited.

BATUM, a seaport of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government of and 90

m. by rail S.W. of the city of Kutais, on the S.E. shore of the Black

Sea, in 41 deg. 39' N. and 41 deg. 38' E. Pop. (1875) 2000; (1900)

28,512, very mixed. The bay is being filled up by the sand carried into

it by several small rivers. The town is protected by strong forts, and

the anchorage has been greatly improved by artificial works. Batum

possesses a cathedral, finished in 1903, and the Alexander Park, with

sub-tropical vegetation. The climate is very warm, lemon and orange

trees, magnolias and palms growing in the open air; but it is at the

same time extremely wet and changeable. The annual rainfall (90 in.) is

higher than anywhere in Caucasia, but it is very unequally distributed

(23 in. in August and September, sometimes 16 in. in a couple of days),

and the place is still most unhealthy. The town is connected by rail

with the main Transcaucasian railway to Tiflis, and is the chief port

for the export of naphtha and paraffin oil, carried hither in great part

through pipes laid down from Baku, but partly also in tank railway-cars;

other exports are wheat, manganese, wool, silkworm-cocoons, liquorice,

maize and timber (total value of exports nearly 5-1/2 millions sterling

annually). The imports, chiefly tin plates and machinery, amount to less

than half that total. Known as Bathys in antiquity, as Vati in the

middle ages, and as Bathumi since the beginning of the 17th century,

Batum belonged to the Turks, who strongly fortified it, down to 1878,

when it was transferred to Russia. In the winter of 1905-1906 Batum was

in the hands of the revolutionists, and a "reign of terror" lasted for

several weeks.

BATWA, a tribe of African pygmies living in the mountainous country

around Wissmann Falls in the Kasai district of the Belgian Congo. They

were discovered in 1880 by Paul Pogge and Hermann von Wissmann, and have

been identified with Sir H.M. Stanley's Vouatouas. They are typical of

the negrito family south of the Congo. They are well made, with limbs

perfectly proportioned, and are seldom more than 4 ft. high. Their

complexion is a yellow-brown, much lighter than their Bantu-Negroid

neighbours. They have short woolly hair and no beard. They are feared

rather than despised by the Baluba and Bakuba tribes, among whom they

live. They are nomads, cultivating nothing, and keeping no animals but a

small type of hunting-dog. Their weapon is a tiny bow, the arrows for

which are usually poisoned. They build themselves temporary huts of a

bee-hive shape. As hunters they are famous, bounding through the jungle

growth "like grasshoppers" and fearlessly attacking elephants and

buffalo with their tiny weapons. Their only occupation apart from

hunting is the preparation of palm-wine which they barter for grain with

the Baluba. They are monogamous and display much family affection. See

further PYGMY; AKKA; WOCHUA; BAMBUTE.

See A. de Quatrefages, _The Pygmies_ (Eng. ed., 1895); Sir H.H.

Johnston, _Uganda Protectorate_ (1902); Hermann von Wissmann, _My

Second Journey through Equatorial Africa_ (London, 1891).

BATYPHONE (Ger. and Fr. _Batyphon_), a contrabass clarinet which was the

outcome of F.W. Wieprecht's endeavour to obtain a contrabass for the

reed instruments. The batyphone was made to a scale twice the size of

the clarinet in C, the divisions of the chromatic scale being arranged

according to acoustic principles. For convenience in stopping holes too

far apart to be covered by the fingers, crank or swivel keys were used.

The instrument was constructed of maple-wood, had a clarinet mouthpiece

of suitable size connected by means of a cylindrical brass crook with

the upper part of the tube, and a brass bell. The pitch was two octaves

below the clarinet in C, the compass being the same, and thus

corresponding to the modern bass tuba. The tone was pleasant and full,

but not powerful enough for the contrabass register in a military band.

The batyphone had besides one serious disadvantage: it could be played

with facility only in its nearly related keys, G and F major. The

batyphone was invented and patented in 1839 by F.W. Wieprecht, director

general of all the Prussian military bands, and E. Skorra, the court

instrument manufacturer of Berlin. In practice the instrument was found

to be of little use, and was superseded by the bass tuba. A similar

attempt was made in 1843 by Adolphe Sax, and met with a similar fate.

A batyphone bearing the name of its inventors formed part of the Snoeck

collection which was acquired for Berlin's collection of ancient musical

instruments at the Technische Hochschule fur Musik. The description of

the batyphone given above is mainly derived from a MS. treatise on

instrumentation by Wieprecht, in 1909 in the possession of Herr Otto

Lessmann (Berlin), and reproduced by Capt. C.R. Day, in _Descriptive

Catalogue of the Musical Instruments of the Royal Military Exhibition,

London, 1890_ (London, 1891), p. 124. (K. S.)

BAUAN (or BAUN), a town of the province of Batangas, Luzon, Philippine

Islands, at the head of Batangas Bay, about 54 m. S. of Manila. Pop.

(1903) 39,094. A railway to connect the town with Manila was under

construction in 1908. Bauan has a fine church and is known as a market

for "sinamay" or hemp cloth, the hemp and cotton being imported and dyed

and woven by the women in their homes. Palm-fibre mats and hats, fans,

bamboo baskets and cotton fish-nets are woven here. There is excellent

fishing in the bay. Hogs and horses are raised for the Manila market.

The surrounding country is fertile and grows cacao, indigo, oranges,

sugar-cane, corn and rice. The language is Tagalog.

BAUBLE (probably a blend of two different words, an old French _baubel_,

a child's plaything, and an old English _babyll_, something swinging to

and fro), a word applied to a stick with a weight attached, used in

weighing, to a child's toy, and especially to the mock symbol of office

carried by a court jester, a baton terminating in a figure of Folly with

cap and bells, and sometimes having a bladder fastened to the other end;

hence a term for any triviality or childish folly.

BAUCHI, a province in the highlands of the British protectorate of

Northern Nigeria. It lies approximately between 11 deg. 15' and 9 deg.

15' N. and 11 deg. 15' and 8 deg. 30' E. Bauchi is bounded N. by the

provinces of Kano, Katagum and Bornu; E. by Bornu, S. by Yola and Muri,

and W. by the provinces of Zaria and Nassarawa. The province has an area

of about 21,000 sq. m. The altitude rises from 1000 ft. above the sea in

its north-eastern corner to 4000 ft. and 6000 ft. in the south-west. The

province is traversed diagonally from N.E. to S.W. by a belt of mountain

ranges alternating with fertile plateaus. Towards the south the country

is very rugged and a series of extinct volcanic craters occur.

Amongst the more important plateaus are the Assab or Kibyen country,

having a general level of upwards of 4000 ft., and the Sura country,

also reaching to elevations of from 3000 to 5000 ft. Both these

extensive plateaus are situated in the south-west portion of the

province. Their soil is fertile, they possess an abundance of pure

water, the air is keen and bracing, and the climate is described as

resembling in many respects that of the Transvaal. They form the

principal watershed not only of the province of Bauchi, but of the

protectorate of Northern Nigeria. The Gongola, flowing east and south to

the Benue, rises in the Sura district, and from the Kibyen plateau

streams flow north to Lake Chad, west to the Kaduna, and south to the

Benue. The soil is generally fertile between the hills, and in the

volcanic districts the slopes are cultivated half-way up the extinct

craters. The climate in the western parts is temperate and healthy. In

the winter months of November and December the thermometer frequently

falls to freezing-point, and in the hottest months the maximum on the

Kibyen plateau has been found to be rarely over 85 deg.

The population of Bauchi is estimated at about 1,000,000 and is of a

very various description. The upper classes are Fula, and there are some

Hausa and Kanuri (Bornuese), but the bulk of the people are pagan tribes

in a very low state of civilization. Sixty-four tribes sufficiently

differentiated from each other to speak different languages have been

reported upon. Hausa is the _lingua franca_ of the whole. The pagan

population has been classified for practical purposes as Hill pagans and

Plains pagans, Mounted pagans and Foot pagans. The Foot pagans of the

plains were brought under the Fula yoke in the beginning of the 19th

century and have never cast it off. The Hill pagans were partly

conquered, but many remained independent or have since succeeded in

asserting their freedom. The Mounted pagans are confined to the healthy

plateaus of the south-west corner of the province. They are independent

and there is considerable variety in the characteristics of the

different tribes. The better types are hardy, orderly and agriculturally

industrious. They are intelligent and have shown themselves peaceful and

friendly to Europeans. Others are, on the contrary, disposed to be

turbulent and warlike. Amongst the different tribes many are cannibals.

They all go practically naked. They are essentially horsemen, and have a

cruel habit of gashing the backs of their ponies that they may get a

good seat in the blood. They are armed with bows and arrows, but depend

almost entirely in battle on the charges of their mounted spearmen.

The native name "Bauchi," which is of great antiquity, Signifies the

"Land of Slaves," and from the earliest times the uplands which now form

the principal portion of the province been the hunting ground of the

slave raider, while the hill fastnesses have offered defensible refuge

to the population. So entirely was slavery a habit of the people, that

as late as 1905, after the slave-trade had been abolished for three

years, it was found that, in consequence of a famine which rendered food

difficult to obtain, a whole tribe (the Tangali) were selling themselves

as slaves to their neighbours. Children are readily sold by their

parents at a price varying from the equivalent of one shilling to one

and sixpence.

The province of Bauchi was conquered by the Fula at the beginning of the

19th century, and furnished them with a valuable slave preserve. But the

more civilized portion had already, under enlightened native rulers,

attained to a certain degree of prosperity and order. Mahommedanism was

partly adopted by the upper classes in the 18th century, if not earlier,

and the son of a Mahommedan native ruler, educated at Sokoto, accepted

the flag of Dan Fodio and conquered the country for the Fula. The name

of this remarkable soldier and leader was Yakoba (Jacob). His father's

name was Daouad (David), and his grandfather was Abdullah, all names

which indicate Arab or Mahommedan influence. The town of Bauchi and

capital of the province was founded by Yakoba in the year 1809, and the

emirate remained under Fula rule until the year 1902. In that year, in

consequence of determined slave-raiding and the defiant misrule of the

emir, a British expedition was sent against the capital, which submitted

without fighting. The emir was deposed, and the country was brought

under British control. A new emir was appointed, but he died within a

few months. The slave-trade was immediately abolished, and the

slave-market which was held at Bauchi, as in all Fula centres, was

closed. The Kano-Sokoto campaign in 1903 rendered necessary a temporary

withdrawal of the British resident from Bauchi, and comparatively little

progress was made until the following year. In 1904 the province was

organized for administration on the same system as the rest of Northern

Nigeria, and the reigning emir took the oath of allegiance to the

British crown. The province has been subdivided into thirteen

administrative districts, which again have been grouped into their

principal divisions, with their respective British headquarters at

Bauchi, Kanan and Bukuru. The Fula portion of this province, held like

the other Hausa states under a feudal system of large landowners or

fief-holders, has been organized and assessed for taxation on the system

accepted by the emirs throughout the protectorate, and the populations

are working harmoniously under British rule. Roads and telegraphs are in

process of construction, and the province is being gradually opened to

trade. Valuable indications of tin have been found to the north of the

Kibyen plateau, and have attracted the attention of the Niger Company.

Bauchi is a province of special importance from the European point of

view because, with free communication from the Benue assured, it is

probable that on the Kibyen and Sura plateaus, which are the healthiest

known in the protectorate, a sanatorium and station for a large civil

population might be established under conditions in which Europeans

could live free from the evil effects of a West African climate.

The emirate of Gombe, which is included in the first division of the

Bauchi province, is a Fula emirate independent of the emirs of Bauchi.

It forms a rich and important district, and its chiefs held themselves

in a somewhat sullen attitude of hostility to the British. It was at

Burmi in this district that the last stand was made by the religious

following of the defeated sultan of Sokoto, and here the sultan was

finally overthrown and killed in July 1903. Gombe has now frankly

accepted British rule. (F. L. L.)

BAUDELAIRE, CHARLES PIERRE (1821-1867), French poet, was born in Paris

on the 9th of April 1821. His father, who was a civil servant in good

position and an amateur artist, died in 1827, and in the following year

his mother married a lieutenant-colonel named Aupick, who was afterwards

ambassador of France at various courts. Baudelaire was educated at Lyons

and at the College Louis-le Grand in Paris. On taking his degree in 1839

he determined to enter on a literary career, and during the next two

years pursued a very irregular way of life, which led his guardians, in

1841, to send him on a voyage to India. When he returned to Paris, after

less than a year's absence, he was of age; but in a year or two his

extravagance threatened to exhaust his small patrimony, and his family

obtained a decree to place his property in trust. His _salons_ of 1845

and 1846 attracted immediate attention by the boldness with which he

propounded many views then novel, but since generally accepted. He took

part with the revolutionaries in 1848, and for some years interested

himself in republican politics but his permanent convictions were

aristocratic and Catholic. Baudelaire was a slow and fastidious worker,

and it was not until 1857 that he produced his first and famous volume

of poems, _Fleurs du mal_. Some of these had already appeared in the

_Revue des deux mondes_ when they were published by Baudelaire's friend

Auguste Poulet Malassis, who had inherited a printing business at

Alencon. The consummate art displayed in these verses was appreciated by

a limited public, but general attention was caught by the perverse

selection of morbid subjects, and the book became a by-word for

unwholesomeness among conventional critics. Victor Hugo, writing to the

poet, said, "Vous dotez le ciel de l'art d'un rayon macabre, vous creez

un frisson nouveau." Baudelaire, the publisher, and the printer were

successfully prosecuted for offending against public morals. The

obnoxious pieces were suppressed, but printed later as _Les Epaves_

(Brussels, 1866). Another edition of the _Fleurs du mal_, without these

poems, but with considerable additions, appeared in 1861.

Baudelaire had learnt English in his childhood, and had found some of

his favourite reading in the English "Satanic" romances, such as Lewis's

_Monk_. In 1846-1847 he became acquainted with the works of Edgar Allan

Poe, in which he discovered romances and poems which had, he said, long

existed in his own brain, but had never taken shape. From this time till

1865 he was largely occupied with his version of Poe's works, producing

masterpieces of the art of translation in _Histoires extraordinaires_

(1852), _Nouvelles Histoires extraordinaires_ (1857), _Adventures

d'Arthur Gordon Pym, Eureka_, and _Histoires grotesques et serieuses_

(1865). Two essays on Poe are to be found in his _Oeuvres completes_

(vols. v. and vi.). Meanwhile his financial difficulties grew upon him.

He was involved in the failure of Poulet Malassis in 1861, and in 1864

he left Paris for Belgium, partly in the vain hope of disposing of his

copyrights. He had for many years a _liaison_ with a coloured woman,

whom he helped to the end of his life in spite of her gross conduct. He

had recourse to opium, and in Brussels he began to drink to excess.

Paralysis followed, and the last two years of his life were spent in

_maisons de sante_ in Brussels and in Paris, where he died on the 31st

of August 1867.

His other works include:--_Petits Poemes en prose_; a series of art

criticisms published in the _Pays, Exposition universelle_; studies on

Gustave Flaubert (in _L'artiste_, 18th of October 1857); on Theophile

Gautier (_Revue contemporaine_, September 1858); valuable notices

contributed to Eugene Crepet's _Poetes francais_; _Les Paradis

artificiels opium et haschisch_ (1860); _Richard Wagner et Tannhauser a

Paris_ (1861); _Un Dernier Chapitre de l'histoire des oeuvres de Balzac_

(1880), originally an article entitled "Comment on paye ses dettes quand

on a du genie," in which his criticism is turned against his friends H.

de Balzac, Theophile Gautier, and Gerard de Nerval.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--An edition of his _Lettres_ (1841-1866) was issued by

the Soc. du Mercure de France in 1906. His _Oeuvres completes_ were

edited (1868-1870) by his friend Charles Asselineau, with a preface by

Theophile Gautier. Asselineau also undertook a vindication of his

character from the attacks made upon it in his _Charles Baudelaire, sa

vie, son oeuvre_ (1869). He left some material of more private

interest in a MS. entitled _Baudelaire_. See _Charles Baudelaire,

souvenirs, correspondance, bibliographie_ (1872), by Charles Cousin

and Spoelberch de Lovenjoul; _Charles Baudelaire, oeuvres posthumes et

correspondances inedites_ (1887), containing a journal entitled _Mon

coeur mis a nu_, and a biographical study by Eugene Crepet; also _Le

Tombeau de Charles Baudelaire_ (1896), a collection of pieces

unpublished or prohibited during the author's lifetime, edited by S.

Mallarme and others, with a study of the text of the _Fleurs du mal_

by Prince A. Ourousof; Feli Gautier, _Charles Baudelaire_ (Brussels,

1904), with facsimiles of drawings by Baudelaire himself; A. de la

Fitzeliere and C. Decaux, _Charles Baudelaire_ (1868) in the series of

_Essais de bibliographie contemporaine_; essays by Paul Bourget,

_Essais de psychologie conlemporaine_ (1883), and Maurice Spronck,

_Les Artistes litteraires_ (1889). Among English translations from

Baudelaire are _Poems in Prose_, by A. Symons (1905), and a selection

for the _Canterbury Poets_ (1904), by F.P. Sturm.

BAUDIER, MICHEL (c. 1589-1645), French historian, was born in Languedoc.

During the reign of Louis XIII. he was historiographer to the Court of

France. He contributed to French history by writing _Histoire de la

guerre de Flandre 1559-1609_ (Paris, 1615); _Histoire de

l'administration du cardinal d'Amboise, grand ministre d'etat en France_

(Paris, 1634), a defence of the cardinal; and _Histoire de

l'administration de l'abbe Suger_ (Paris, 1645). Taking an especial

interest in the Turks he wrote _Inventaire general de l'histoire des

Turcs_ (Paris, 1619); _Histoire generale de la religion des Turcs avec

la vie de leur prophete Mahomet_ (Paris, 1626); and _Histoire generale

du serail et de la cour du grand Turc_ (Paris, 1626; English trans. by

E. Grimeston, London, 1635). Having heard the narrative of a Jesuit who

had returned from China, Baudier wrote _Histoire de la cour du roi de

Chine_ (Paris, 1626; English trans. in vol. viii. of the _Collection of

Voyages and Travels_ of A. and J. Churchill, London, 1707-1747). He also

wrote _Vie du cardinal Ximenes_ (Paris, 1635), which was again published

with a notice of the author by E. Baudier (Paris, 1851), and a curious

romance entitled _Histoire de l'incomparable administration de Romieu,

grand ministre d'etat de Raymond Berenger, comte de Provence_ (Paris,

1635).

See J. Lelong, _Bibliotheque historique de la France_ (Paris,

1768-1778); L. Moreri, _Le Grand Dictionnaire historique_ (Amsterdam,

1740).

BAUDRILLART, HENRI JOSEPH LEON (1821-1892), French economist, was born

in Paris on the 28th of November 1821. His father, Jacques Joseph

(1774-1832), was a distinguished writer on forestry, and was for many

years in the service of the French government, eventually becoming the

head of that branch of the department of agriculture which had charge of

the state forests. Henri was educated at the College Bourbon, where he

had a distinguished career, and in 1852 he was appointed assistant

lecturer in political economy to M. Chevalier at the College de France.

In 1866, on the creation of a new chair of economic history, Baudrillart

was appointed to fill it. His first work was an _Eloge de Turgot_

(1846), which at once won him notice among the economists. In 1853 he

published an erudite work on _Jean Bodin et son temps_; then in 1857 a

_Manuel d'economie politique_; in 1860, _Des rapports de la morale et de

l'economie politique_; in 1865, _La Liberte du travail_; and from 1878

to 1880, _L'Histoire du luxe ... depuis l'antiquite jusqu'a nos

jours_, in four volumes. At the instance of the Academie des Sciences

Morales et Politiques he investigated the condition of the farming

classes of France, and published the results in four volumes (1885, _et

seq_.). From 1855 to 1864 he directed the _Journal des economistes_, and

contributed many articles to the _Journal des debats_ and to the _Revue

des deux mondes_. His writings are distinguished by their style, as well

as by their profound erudition. In 1863 he was elected member of the

Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques; in 1870 he was appointed

inspector-general of public libraries, and in 1881 he succeeded J.

Garnier as professor of political economy at the Ecole des Ponts et

Chaussees. Baudrillart was made an officer of the Legion of Honour in

1889. He died in Paris on the 24th of January 1892.

BAUDRY, or BALDERICH, OF BOURGUEIL (1046 or 1047-1130), archbishop of

Dol, historian and poet, was born at Meung-sur-Loire, where he passed

his early days. Educated at Meung and at Angers, he entered the

Benedictine abbey of Bourgueil, and in 1079 became abbot of this place,

but his time was devoted to literary pursuits rather than to his

official duties. Having failed to secure the bishopric of Orleans in

1097, he became archbishop of Dol in 1107, and went to Rome for his

pallium in 1108. The bishopric of Dol had been raised to the rank of an

archbishopric during the 10th century by Nomenoe, king of Brittany, but

this step had been objected to by the archbishops of Tours. Consequently

the position of the see was somewhat ambiguous, and Baudry is referred

to both as archbishop and as bishop of Dol. He appears to have striven

earnestly to do something for the education of the ignorant inhabitants

of Brittany but his efforts were not very successful, and he soon

abandoned the task. In 1116 he attended the Lateran council, and in 1119

the council of Reims, after which he paid a visit of two years' duration

to England. Returning to France he neglected the affairs of his diocese,

and passed his time mainly at St Samson-sur-Risle in Normandy. He died

on the 5th or 7th of January 1130.

Baudry wrote a number of Latin poems of very indifferent quality. The

most important of these, from the historical point of view, have been

published in the _Historiae Francorum Scriptores_, tome iv., edited by

A. Duchesne (Paris 1639-1649). Baudry's prose works are more important.

The best known of these is his _Historiae Hierosolymitance_, a history

of the first crusade from 1095 to 1099. This is a history in four books,

the material for which was mainly drawn from the anonymous _Gesta

Francorum_, but some valuable information has been added by Baudry. It

was very popular during the middle ages, and was used by Ordericus

Vitalis for his _Historiae ecclesiasticae_; by William, archbishop of

Tyre, for his _Belli sacri historia_; and by Vincent of Beauvais for his

_Speculum historiale_. The best edition is that by C. Thurot, which

appears in the _Recueil des historiens des croisades_, tome iv. (Paris,

1841-1887), Other works probably by Baudry are _Epistola ad Fiscannenses

monachos_, a description of the monastery of Fecamp; _Vita Roberti de

Arbrissello; Vita S. Hugonis archiepiscopi Rothomagensis; Translatio

capitis Gemeticum et miracula S. Valentini martyris; Relatio de scuto et

gladio_, a history of the arms of St. Michael; and _Vita S. Samsonis

Dolensis episcopi_. Other writings which on very doubtful authority have

been attributed to Baudry are _Acta S. Valeriani martyris Trenorchii; De

visitatione infirmorum; Vita S. Maglorii Dolensis episcopi et Vita S.

Maclovii, Alectensis episcopi; De revelatione abbatum Fiscannensium_;

and _Confirmatio bonorum monasterii S. Florentii_. Many of these are

published by J.P. Migne in the _Patrologia Latina_, tomes 160, 162 and

166 (Paris 1844).

See _Histoire litteraire de la France_, tome xi. (Paris, 1865-1869);

H. von Sybel, _Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges_ (Leipzig, 1881); A.

Thurot, "Etudes critiques sur les historiens de la premiere croisade;

Baudri de Bourgueil" in the _Revue historique_ (Paris, 1876).

BAUDRY, PAUL JACQUES AIME (1828-1886), French painter, was born at La

Roche-sur-Yonne (Vendee). He studied under Drolling, a sound but

second-rate artist, and carried off the Prix de Rome in 1850 by his

picture of "Zenobia found on the banks of the Araxes." His talent from

the first revealed itself as strictly academical, full of elegance and

grace, but somewhat lacking originality. In the course of his residence

in Italy Baudry derived strong inspiration from Italian art with the

mannerism of Coreggio, as was very evident in the two works he exhibited

in the Salon of 1857, which were purchased for the Luxembourg: "The

Martyrdom of a Vestal Virgin" and "The Child." His "Leda," "St John the

Baptist," and a "Portrait of Beule," exhibited at the same time, took a

first prize that year. Throughout this early period Baudry commonly

selected mythological or fanciful subjects, one of the most noteworthy

being "The Pearl and the Wave." Once only did he attempt an historical

picture, "Charlotte Corday after the murder of Marat" (1861), and

returned by preference to the former class of subjects or to painting

portraits of illustrious men of his day--Guizot, Charles Garnier, Edmond

About. The works that crowned Baudry's reputation were his mural

decorations, which show much imagination and a high artistic gift for

colour, as may be seen in the frescoes in the Paris Cour de Cassation,

at the chateau of Chantilly, and some private residences--the hotel

Fould and hotel Paiva--but, above all, in the decorations of the _foyer_

of the Paris opera house. These, more than thirty paintings in all, and

among them compositions figurative of dancing and music, occupied the

painter, for ten years. Baudry died in Paris in 1886. He was a member of

the Institut de France, succeeding Jean Victor Schnetz. Two of his

colleagues, Dubois and Marius Jean Mercie, co-operating with his

brother, Baudry the architect, erected a monument to him in Paris

(1890). The statue of Baudry at La Roche-sur-Yonne (1897) is by Gerome.

See H. Delaborde, _Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de Baudry_

(1886); Ch. Ephrussi, _Baudry, sa vie et son oeuvre_ (1887).

(H. Fr.)

BAUER, BRUNO (1809-1882), German theologian and historian, was born on

the 6th of September 1809, the son of a painter in a porcelain factory,

at Eisenberg in Saxe-Altenburg. He studied at Berlin, where he attached

himself to the "Right" of the Hegelian school under P. Marheineke. In

1834 he began to teach in Berlin as a licentiate of theology, and in

1839 was transferred to Bonn. In 1838 he published his _Kritische

Darstellung der Religion des Alten Testaments_ (2 vols.), which shows

that at that date he was still faithful to the Hegelian Right. Soon

afterwards his opinions underwent a change, and in two works, one on the

Fourth Gospel, _Kritik der evangelischen Geschichte des Johannes_

(1840), and the other on the Synoptics, _Kritik der evangelischen

Geschichte der Synoptiker_ (1841), as well as in his _Herr Hengstenberg,

kritische Briefe uber den Gegensatz des Gesetzes und des Evangeliums_,

he announced his complete rejection of his earlier orthodoxy. In 1842

the government revoked his license and he retired for the rest of his

life to Rixdorf, near Berlin. Henceforward he took a deep interest in

modern history and politics, as well as in theology, and published

_Geschichte der Politik, Kultur und Aufklarung des 18ten Jahrhunderts_

(4 vols. 1843-1845), Geschichte der franzosischen Revolution (3 vols.

1847), and _Disraelis romantischer und Bismarcks socialistischer

Imperialismus_ (1882). Other critical works are: a criticism of the

gospels and a history of their origin, _Kritik der Evangelien und

Geschichte ihres Ursprungs_ (1850-1852), a book on the Acts of the

Apostles, _Apostelgeschichte_ (1850), and a criticism of the Pauline

epistles, _Kritik der paulinischen Briefe_ (1850-1852). He died at

Rixdorf on the 13th of April 1882. His criticism of the New Testament

was of a highly destructive type. David Strauss in his _Life of Jesus_

had accounted for the Gospel narratives as half-conscious products of

the mythic instinct in the early Christian communities. Bauer ridiculed

Strauss's notion that a community could produce a connected narrative.

His own contention, embodying a theory of C.G. Wilke (_Der

Urevangelist_, 1838), was that the original narrative was the Gospel of

Mark; that this was composed in the reign of Hadrian; and that after

this the other narratives were modelled by other writers. He, however,

"regarded Mark not only as the first narrator, but even as the creator

of the gospel history, thus making the latter a fiction and Christianity

the invention of a single original evangelist" (Pfleiderer). On the same

principle the four principal Pauline epistles were regarded as forgeries

of the 2nd century. He argued further for the preponderance of the

Graeco-Roman element, as opposed to the Jewish, in the Christian

writings. The writer of Mark's gospel was "an Italian, at home both in

Rome and Alexandria"; that of Matthew's gospel "a Roman, nourished by

the spirit of Seneca"; the Pauline epistles were written in the West in

antagonism to the Paul of the Acts, and so on. Christianity is

essentially "Stoicism triumphant in a Jewish garb." This line of

criticism has found few supporters, mostly in the Netherlands. It

certainly had its value in emphasizing the importance of studying the

influence of environment in the formation of the Christian Scriptures.

Bauer was a man of restless, impetuous activity and independent, if

ill-balanced, judgment, one who, as he himself perceived, was more in

place as a free-lance of criticism than as an official teacher. He came

in the end to be regarded kindly even by opponents, and he was not

afraid of taking a line displeasing to his liberal friends on the Jewish

question (_Die Judenfrage_, 1843).

His attitude towards the Jews is dealt with in the article in the

_Jewish Encyclopedia_. See generally Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_;

and cf. Otto Pfleiderer, _Development of Theology_, p. 226; Carl

Schwarz, _Zur Geschichte der neuesten Theologie_, pp. 142 ff.; and F.

Lichtenberger, _History of German Theology in the 19th Century_

(1889), pp. 374-378.

BAUERNFELD, EDUARD VON (1802-1890), Austrian dramatist, was born at

Vienna on the 13th of January 1802. Having studied jurisprudence at the

university of Vienna, he entered the government service in a legal

capacity, and after holding various minor offices was transferred in

1843 to a responsible post on the Lottery Commission. He had already

embarked upon politics, and severely criticized the government in a

pamphlet, _Pia Desideria eines osterreichischen Schriftstellers_ (1842);

and in 1845 he made a journey to England, after which his political

opinions became more pronounced. After the Revolution, in 1848, he

quitted the government service in order to devote himself entirely to

letters. He lived in Vienna until his death on the 9th of August 1890,

and was ennobled for his work. As a writer of comedies and farces,

Bauernfeld takes high rank among the German playwrights of the century;

his plots are clever, the situations witty and natural and the diction

elegant. His earliest essays, the comedies _Leichtsinn aus Liebe_

(1831); _Das Liebes-Protokoll_ (1831) and _Die ewige Liebe_ (1834);

_Burgerlich und Romantisch_, (1835) enjoyed great popularity. Later he

turned his attention to so-called _Salonstucke_ (drawing-room pieces),

notably _Aus der Gesellschaft_ (1866); _Moderne Jugend_ (1869), and _Der

Landfrieden_ (1869), in which he portrays in fresh, bright and happy

sallies the social conditions of the capital in which he lived.

A complete edition of Bauernfeld's works, _Gesammelte Schriften_,

appeared in 12 vols. (Vienna, 1871-1873); _Dramatischer Nachlass_, ed.

by F. von Saar (1893); selected works, ed. by E. Horner (4 vols.,

1905). See A. Stern, _Bauernfeld, Ein Dichterportrat_ (1890), R. von

Gottschall, "E. von Bauernfeld" (in _Unsere Zeit_, 1890), and E.

Horner, _Bauernfeld_ (1900).

BAUFFREMONT, a French family which derives its name from a village in

the Vosges, spelt nowadays Beaufremont. In consequence of an alliance

with the house of Vergy the Bauffremonts established themselves in

Burgundy and Franche-Comte. In 1448 Pierre de Bauffremont, lord of

Charny, married Marie, a legitimatized daughter of Philip the Good, duke

of Burgundy. Nicolas de Bauffremont, his son Claude, and his grandson

Henri, all played important parts in the states-general of 1576, 1588

and 1614, and their speeches have been published. Alexandre Emmanuel

Louis de Bauffremont (1773-1833), a prince of the Holy Roman Empire, was

created a peer of France in 1817, and duke in 1818. After having served

in the army of the princes he returned to France under the Empire, and

had been made a count by Napoleon. (M. P.*)

BAUHIN, GASPARD (1560-1624), Swiss botanist and anatomist, was the son

of a French physician, Jean Bauhin (1511-1582), who had to leave his

native country on becoming a convert to Protestantism. He was born at

Basel on the 17th of January 1560, and devoting himself to medicine, he

pursued his studies at Padua, Montpellier, and some of the celebrated

schools in Germany. Returning to Basel in 1580, he was admitted to the

degree of doctor, and gave private lectures in botany and anatomy. In

1582 he was appointed to the Greek professorship in that university, and

in 1588 to the chair of anatomy and botany. He was afterwards made city

physician, professor of the practice of medicine, rector of the

university, and dean of his faculty. He died at Basel on the 5th of

December 1624. He published several works relative to botany, of which

the most valuable was his _Pinax Theatri Botanici, seu Index in

Theophrasti, Dioscoridis, Plinii, et botanicorum qui a seculo

scripserunt opera_ (1596). Another great work which he planned was a

_Theatrum Botanicum_, meant to be comprised in twelve parts folio, of

which he finished three; only one, however, was published (1658). He

also gave a copious catalogue of the plants growing in the environs of

Basel, and edited the works of P.A. Mattioli (1500-1577) with

considerable additions. He likewise wrote on anatomy, his principal work

on this subject being _Theatrum Anatomicum infinitis locis auctum_

(1592).

His son, JEAN GASPARD BAUHIN (1606-1685), was professor of botany at

Basel for thirty years. His elder brother, JEAN BAUHIN (1541-1613),

after studying botany at Tubingen under Leonard Fuchs (1501-1566), and

travelling with Conrad Gesner, began to practise medicine at Basel,

where he was elected professor of rhetoric in 1766. Four years later he

was invited to become physician to the duke of Wurttemberg at

Montbeliard, where he remained till his death in 1613. He devoted

himself chiefly to botany. His great work, _Historia plantarum nova et

absolutissima_, a compilation of all that was then known about botany,

was not complete at his death, but was published at Yverdon in

1650-1651, the _Prodromus_ having appeared at the same place in 1619. He

also wrote a book _De aquis medicatis_ (1605).

BAULK, or BALK (a word common to Teutonic languages, meaning a ridge,

partition, or beam), the ridge left unploughed between furrows or

ploughed fields; also the uncultivated strip of land used as a boundary

in the "open-field" system of agriculture. From the meaning of something

left untouched comes that of a hindrance or check, so of a horse

stopping short of an obstacle, of the "baulk-line" in billiards, or of

the deceptive motion of the pitcher in baseball. From the other original

meaning, i.e. "beam," comes the use of the word for the cross or

tie-beam of a roof, or for a large log of timber sawn to a one or one

and a half foot square section (see JOINERY).

BAUMBACH, RUDOLF (1840-1905), German poet, was born at Kranichfeld on

the Ilm in Thuringia, on the 28th of September 1840, the son of a local

medical practitioner, and received his early schooling at the gymnasium

of Meiningen, to which place his father had removed. After studying

natural science in various universities, he engaged in private tuition,

both independently and in families, in the Austrian towns of Graz,

Brunn, Gorz and Triest respectively. In Triest he caught the popular

taste with an Alpine legend, _Zlatorog_ (1877), and songs of a

journeyman apprentice, _Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen_ (1878), both of

which have run into many editions. Their success decided him to embark

upon a literary career. In 1885 he returned to Meiningen, where he

received the title of _Hofrat_, and was appointed ducal librarian. His

death occurred on the 14th of September 1905.

Baumbach was a poet of the breezy, vagabond school, and wrote, in

imitation of his greater compatriot, Victor Scheffel, many excellent

drinking songs, among which _Die Lindenwirtin_ has endeared him to the

German student world. But his real strength lay in narrative verse,

especially when he had the opportunity of describing the scenery and

life of his native Thuringia. Special mention may be made of _Frau

Holde_ (1881), _Spielmannslieder_ (1882), _Von der Landstrasse_ (1882),

_Thuringer Lieder_ (1891), and his prose, _Sommermarchen_ (1881).

BAUME, ANTOINE (1728-1804), French chemist, was born at Senlis on the

26th of February 1728. He was apprenticed to the chemist Claude Joseph

Geoffroy, and in 1752 was admitted a member of the Ecole de Pharmacie,

where in the same year he was appointed professor of chemistry. The

money he made in a business he carried on in Paris for dealing in

chemical products enabled him to retire in 1780 in order to devote

himself to applied chemistry, but, ruined in the Revolution, he was

obliged to return to a commercial career. He devised many improvements

in technical processes, e.g. for bleaching silk, dyeing, gilding,

purifying saltpetre, &c., but he is best known as the inventor of the

hydrometer associated with his name (often in this connexion improperly

spelt Beaume). Of the numerous books and papers he wrote the most

important is his _Elemens de pharmacie theorique et pratique_ (9

editions, 1762-1818). He became a member of the Academy of Sciences in

1772, and an associate of the Institute in 1796. He died in Paris on the

15th of October 1804.

BAUMGARTEN, ALEXANDER GOTTLIEB (1714-1762), German philosopher, born at

Berlin. He studied at Halle, and became professor of philosophy at Halle

and at Frankfort on the Oder, where he died in 1762. He was a disciple

of Leibnitz and Wolff, and was particularly distinguished as having been

the first to establish the _Theory of the Beautiful_ as an independent

science. Baumgarten did good service in severing aesthetics (q.v.) from

the other philosophic disciplines, and in marking out a definite object

for its researches. The very name (_Aesthetics_), which Baumgarten was

the first to use, indicates the imperfect and partial nature of his

analysis, pointing as it does to an element so variable as _feeling_ or

_sensation_ as the ultimate ground of judgment in questions pertaining

to beauty. It is important to notice that Baumgarten's first work

preceded those of Burke, Diderot, and P. Andre, and that Kant had a

great admiration for him. The principal works of Baumgarten are the

following: _Dispulationes de nonnullis ad poema pertinentibus_ (1735);

_Aesthetics; Metaphysica_ (1739; 7th ed. 1779); _Ethica philosophica_

(1751, 2nd ed. 1763); _Initia philosophiae practicae primae_ (1760).

After his death, his pupils published a _Philosophia Generalis_ (1770)

and a _Jus Naturae_ (1765), which he had left in manuscript.

See Meyer, _Baumgarten's Leben_ (1763); Abbt, _Baumgarten's Leben und

Charakler_ (1765); H.G. Meyer, _Leibnitz und Baumgarten_ (1874); J.

Schmidt, _Leibnitz und Baumgarten_ (Halle, 1875); and article

AESTHETICS.

His brother, SIEGMUND JACOB BAUMGARTEN (1706-1757), was professor of

theology at Halle, and applied the methods of Wolff to theology. His

chief pupil, Johann Salomo Semler (q.v.), is sometimes called, the

father of German rationalism. Baumgarten, though he did not renounce the

Pietistic doctrine, began the process which Semler completed. His works

include _Evangelische Glaubenslehre_ (1759); _Auszug der

Kirchengeschichte_ (1743-1762); _Primae lineae breviarii anliquitatum

Christianarum_ (1747); _Geschichte der Religionsparteien_ (1760);

_Nachricht van merkwurdigen Buchern_ (1752-1757); _Nachrichten van einer

hallischen Bibliothek_ (1748-1751).

See life by Semler (Halle, 1758).

BAUMGARTEN, MICHAEL (1812-1889), German Protestant theologian, was born

at Haseldorf in Schleswig-Holstein on the 25th of March 1812. He studied

at Kiel University (1832), and became professor ordinarius of theology

at Rostock (1850). A liberal scholar, he became widely known in 1854

through a work, _Die Nachtgesichte Sacharjas. Eine Prophetenstimme aus

der Gegenwart_, in which, starting from texts in the Old Testament and

assuming the tone of a prophet, he discussed topics of every kind. At a

pastoral conference in 1856 he boldly defended evangelical freedom as

regards the legal sanctity of Sunday. This, with other attempts to

liberalize religion, brought him into conflict with the ecclesiastical

authorities of Mecklenburg, and in 1858 he was deprived of his

professorship. He then travelled throughout Germany, demanding justice,

telling the story of his life (_Christliche Selbstgesprache_, 1861), and

lecturing on the life of Jesus (_Die Geschichte Jesu. Fur das

Verstandniss der Gegenwart_, 1859). In 1865 he helped to found the

_Deutsche Protestantenverein_, but withdrew from it in 1877. On several

occasions (1874, 1877 and 1878) he sat in the Reichstag as a member of

the progressive party. He died on the 21st of July 1889. Other works:

_Apostelgeschichte oder Entwicklungsgang der Kirche van Jerusalem bis

Rom_ (2 vols. 2nd ed., 1859), and _Doktor Martin Luther, ein Volksbuch_

(1883).

H.H. Studt published his autobiography in 1891 (2 vols.); see also C.

Schwartz, _Neueste Theologie_ (1869); Lichtenberger, _Hist. Germ.

Theol._, 1889; Calwer-Zeller, _Kirchen-Lexikon_.

BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, LUDWIG FRIEDRICH OTTO (1788-1842), German Protestant

divine, was born at Merseburg. In 1805 he entered the university of

Leipzig and studied theology and philology. After acting as

_Privatdocent_ at Leipzig, he was, in 1812, appointed professor

extraordinarius of theology at Jena, where he remained to the end of his

life, rising gradually to the head of the theological faculty. He died

on the 31st of May 1842. With the exception of Church history, he

lectured on all branches of so-called theoretical theology, especially

on New Testament exegesis, biblical theology, dogmatic ethics, and the

history of dogma, and his comprehensive knowledge, accurate scholarship

and wide sympathies gave peculiar value to his lectures and treatises,

especially those on the development of church doctrine. His published

works are many, the most important being:--_Lehrbuch der christtichen

Sittenlehre_ (1826); _Grundzuge der biblischen Theologie_ (1828);

_Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte_ (1832); _Compendium der

Dogmengeschichte_ (1840). The last, perhaps his best work, was left

unfinished, but was completed from his notes in 1846 by Karl Hase.

BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN (1792-1860), leader of the Tubingen school of

theology, was born at Schmiden, near Canstatt, on the 21st of June 1792.

After receiving an early training in the theological seminary at

Blaubeuren, he went in 1809 to the university of Tubingen. Here he

studied for a time under Ernst Bengel, grandson of the eminent New

Testament critic, Johann Albrecht Bengel, and at this early stage in his

career he seems to have been under the influence of the old Tubingen

school. But at the same time the philosophers Immanuel Fichte and

Friedrich Schelling were creating a wide and deep impression. In 1817

Baur returned to the theological seminary at Blaubeuren as professor.

This move marked a turning-point in his life, for he was now able to set

to work upon those investigations on which his reputation rests. He had

already, in 1817, written a review of G. Kaiser's _Biblische Theologie_

for Bengel's _Archiv fur Theologie_ (ii. 656); its tone was moderate and

conservative. When, a few years after his appointment at Blaubeuren, he

published his first important, work, _Symbolik und Mythologie oder die

Naturreligion des Altertums_ (1824-1825), it became evident that he had

made a deeper study of philosophy, and had come under the influence of

Schelling and more particularly of Friedrich Schleiermacher. The

learning of the work was fully recognized, and in 1826 the author was

called to Tubingen as professor of theology. It is with Tubingen that

his greatest literary achievements are associated. His earlier

publications here treated of mythology and the history of dogma. _Das

manichaische Religionssystem_ appeared in 1831, _Apollonius von Tyana_

in 1832, _Die christliche Gnosis_ in 1835, and _Uber das Christliche im

Platonismus oder Socrates und Christus_ in 1837. As Otto Pfleiderer

(_Development of Theology_, p. 285) observes, "the choice not less than

the treatment of these subjects is indicative of the large breadth of

view and the insight of the historian into the comparative history of

religion." Meantime Baur had exchanged one master in philosophy for

another, Schleiermacher for Hegel. In doing so, he had adopted

completely the Hegelian philosophy of history. "Without philosophy," he

has said, "history is always for me dead and dumb." The change of view

is illustrated clearly in the essay, published in the _Tubinger

Zeitschrift_ for 1831, on the Christ-party in the Corinthian Church,

_Die Chrislusparlei in der korinthischen Gemeinde, der Gegensatz des

paulinischen und petrinischen in der alsten Kirche, der Apostel Petrus

in Rom_, the trend of which is suggested by the title. Baur contends

that St Paul was opposed in Corinth by a Jewish-Christian party which

wished to set up its own form of Christian religion instead of his

universal Christianity. He finds traces of a keen conflict of parties in

the post-apostolic age. The theory is further developed in a later work

(1835, the year in which David Strauss' _Leben Jesu_ was published),

_Uber die sogenannten Pastoralbriefe_. In this Baur attempts to prove

that the false teachers mentioned in the Epistles to Timothy and Titus

are the Gnostics, particularly the Marcionites, of the second century,

and consequently that the Epistles were produced in the middle of this

century in opposition to Gnosticism. He next proceeded to investigate

the Pauline Epistles and the Acts of the Apostles in the same manner,

publishing his results in 1845 under the title _Paulus, der Apostel Jesu

Christi, sein Leben und Wirken, seine Briefe und seine Lehre_. In this

he contends that only the Epistles to the Galatians, Corinthians and

Romans are genuinely Pauline, and that the Paul of Acts is a different

person from the Paul of these genuine Epistles, the author being a

Paulinist who, with an eye to the different parties in the Church, is at

pains to represent Peter as far as possible as a Paulinist and Paul as

far as possible as a Petrinist. Thus it becomes clear that Baur is

prepared to apply his theory to the whole of the New Testament; in the

words of H.S. Nash, "he carried a sweeping hypothesis into the

examination of the New Testament." Those writings alone he considers

genuine in which the conflict between Jewish-Christians and

Gentile-Christians is clearly marked. In his _Kritische Untersuchungen

uber die kanonischen Evangelien, ihr Verhaltniss zu einander, ihren

Charakter und Ursprung_ (1847) he turns his attention to the Gospels,

and here again finds that the authors were conscious of the conflict of

parties; the Gospels reveal a mediating or conciliatory tendency

(_Tendenz_) on the part of the writers or redactors. The Gospels, in

fact, are adaptations or redactions of an older Gospel, such as the

Gospel of the Hebrews, of Peter, of the Egyptians, or of the Ebionites.

The Petrine Matthew bears the closest relationship to this original

Gospel (_Urevangelium_); the Pauline Luke is later and arose

independently; Mark represents a still later development; the account in

John is idealistic: it "does not possess historical truth, and cannot

and does not really lay claim to it." Baur's whole theory indeed starts

with the supposition that Christianity was gradually developed out of

Judaism. Before it could become a universal religion, it had to struggle

with Jewish limitations and to overcome them. The early Christians were

Jewish-Christians, to whom Jesus was the Messiah. Paul, on the other

hand, represented a breach with Judaism, the Temple, and the Law. Thus

there was some antagonism between the Jewish apostles, Peter, James and

John and the Gentile apostle Paul, and this struggle continued down to

the middle of the 2nd century. In short, the conflict between Petrinism

and Paulinism is, as Carl Schwarz puts it, the key to the literature of

the 1st and 2nd century.

But Baur was a theologian and historian as well as a Biblical critic. As

early as 1834 he published a strictly theological work, _Gegensatz des

Katholicismus und Protestantismus nach den Prinzipien und Hauptdogmen der

beiden Lehrbegriffe_, a strong defence of Protestantism on the lines of

Schleiermacher's _Glaubenslehre_, and a vigorous reply to J. Mohler's

_Symbolik_ (1833). This was followed by his larger histories of dogma,

_Die christliche Lehre van der Versohnung in ihrer geschichtlichen

Entwicklung bis auf die neueste Zeit_ (1838), _Die christliche Lehre von

der Dreieinigkeit und Menschwerdung Gottes in ihrer geschichtlichen

Entwicklung_ (3 vols., 1841-1843), and the _Lehrbuch der christlichen

Dogmengeschichte_ (1847). The value of these works is impaired somewhat

by Baur's habit of making the history of dogma conform to the formulae of

Hegel's philosophy, a procedure "which only served to obscure the truth

and profundity of his conception of history as a true development of the

human mind" (Pfleiderer). Baur, however, soon came to attach more

importance to personality, and to distinguish more carefully between

religion and philosophy. The change is marked in his _Epochen der

kirchlichen Geschichtschreibung_ (1852), _Das Christenthum und die

christliche Kirche der drei ersten Jahrhunderte_ (1853), and _Die

christliche Kirche von Anfang des vierten bis zum Ende des sechsten

Jahrhunderts_ (1859), works preparatory to his _Kirchengeschichte_, in

which the change of view is specially pronounced. The _Kirchengeschichte_

was published in five volumes during the years 1853-1863, partly by Baur

himself, partly by his son, Ferdinand Baur, and his son-in-law, Eduard

Zeller, from notes and lectures which the author left behind him.

Pfleiderer describes this work, especially the first volume, as "a

classic for all time." "Taken as a whole, it is the first thorough and

satisfactory attempt to explain the rise of Christianity and the Church

on _strictly historical_ lines, i.e. as a natural development of the

religious spirit of our race under the combined operation of various

human causes" (_Development of Theology_, p. 288). Baur's lectures on the

history of dogma, _Ausfuhrlichere Vorlesungen uber die christliche

Dogmengeschichte_, were published later by his son (1865-1868).

Baur's views were revolutionary and often extreme; but, whatever may be

thought of them, it is admitted that as a critic he rendered a great

service to theological science. "One thing is certain: New Testament

study, since his time, has had a different colour" (H.S. Nash). He has

had a number of disciples or followers, who have in many cases modified

his positions.

A full account of F.C. Baur's labours, and a complete list of his

writings will be found in the article in Herzog-Hauck,

_Realencyklopadie_, in which his work is divided into three periods:

(1) "Philosophy of Religion," (2) "Biblical criticism," (3) "Church

History." See also H.S. Nash, _The History of the Higher Criticism of

the New Testament_ (New York, 1901); Otto Pfleiderer, _The Development

of Theology in Germany since Kant_ (trans., 1890); Carl Schwarz, _Zur

Geschichte der neuesten Theologie_ (Leipzig, 1869); R.W. Mackay, _The

Tubingen School and its Antecedents_ (1863); A.S. Farrar, _A Critical

History of Free Thought in reference to the Christian Religion_

(Bampton Lectures, 1862); and cf. the article on "The Tubingen

Historical School," in _Bibliotheca Sacra_, vol. xix. No. 73, 1862.

(M. A. C.)

BAUTAIN, LOUIS EUGENE MARIE (1796-1867), French philosopher and

theologian, was born at Paris. At the Ecole Normale he came under the

influence of Cousin. In 1816 he adopted the profession of higher

teaching, and was soon after called to the chair of philosophy in the

university of Strassburg. He held this position for many years, and gave

a parallel course of lectures as professor of the literary faculty in

the same city. The reaction against speculative philosophy, which

carried away De Maistre and Lamennais, influenced him also. In 1828 he

took orders, and resigned his chair at the university. For several years

he remained at Strassburg, lecturing at the Faculty and at the college

of Juilly, but in 1840 he set out for Paris as vicar of the diocese. At

Paris he obtained considerable reputation as an orator, and in 1853 was

made professor of moral theology at the theological faculty. This post

he held till his death. Like the Scholastics, he distinguished reason

and faith, and held that revelation supplies facts, otherwise

unattainable, which philosophy is able to group by scientific methods.

Theology and philosophy thus form one comprehensive science. Yet Bautain

was no rationalist; like Pascal and Newman he exalted faith above

reason. He pointed out, following chiefly the Kantian criticism, that

reason can never yield knowledge of things in themselves. But there

exists in addition to reason another faculty which may be called

intelligence, through which we are put in connexion with spiritual and

invisible truth. This intelligence does not of itself yield a body of

truth; it merely contains the germs of the higher ideas, and these are

made productive by being brought into contact with revealed facts. This

fundamental conception Bautain worked out in the departments of

psychology and morals. The details of this theology are highly

imaginative. He says, for instance, that there is a spirit of the world

and a spirit of nature; the latter gives birth to a physical and

psychical spirit, and the physical spirit to the animal and vegetable

spirits. His theories may well be compared with the arbitrary mysticism

of van Helmont and the Gnostics. The most important of his works

are:--_Philosophie du Christianisme_ (1835); _Psychologic experimentale_

(1839), new edition entitled _Esprit humain et ses facultes_ (1859);

_Philosophie morale_ (1840); _Religion et liberte_ (1848); _La Morale de

l'evangile comparee aux divers systemes de morale_ (Strassburg, 1827;

Paris, 1855); _De l'education publique en France au XIX^e siecle_

(Paris, 1876).

BAUTZEN (Wendish _Budissin_, "town"), a town of Germany, in the kingdom

of Saxony and the capital of Saxon Upper Lusatia. Pop. (1890) 21,515;

(1905) 29,412. It occupies an eminence on the right bank of the Spree,

680 ft. above the level of the sea, 32 m. E.N.E. from Dresden, on the

Dresden-Gorlitz-Breslau main line of railway, and at the junction of

lines from Schandau and Konigswartha. The town is surrounded by walls,

and outside these again by ramparts, now in great measure turned into

promenades, and has extensive suburbs partly lying on the left bank of

the river. Among its churches the most remarkable is the cathedral of St

Peter, dating from the 15th century, with a tower 300 ft. in height. It

is used by both Protestants and Roman Catholics, an iron screen

separating the parts assigned to each. There are five other churches, a

handsome town hall, an orphan-asylum, several hospitals, a mechanics'

institute, a famous grammar school (gymnasium), a normal and several

other schools, and two public libraries. The general trade and

manufactures are considerable, including woollen (stockings and cloth),

linen and cotton goods, leather, paper, saltpetre, and dyeing. It has

also iron foundries, potteries, distilleries, breweries, cigar

factories, &c.

Bautzen was already in existence when Henry I., the Fowler, conquered

Lusatia in 928. It became a town and fortress under Otto I., his

successor, and speedily attained considerable wealth and importance, for

a good share of which it was indebted to the pilgrimages which were made

to the "arm of St Peter," preserved in one of the churches. It suffered

greatly during the Hussite war, and still more during the Thirty Years'

War, in the course of which it was besieged and captured by the elector

of Brandenburg, John George (1620), fell into the hands of Wallenstein

(1633), and, in the following year was burned by its commander before

being surrendered to the elector of Saxony. At the peace of Prague in

1635 it passed with Lusatia to Saxony as a war indemnity.

Battle of Bautzen, 1813.

The town gives its name to a great battle in which, on the 20th and 21st

of May 1813, Napoleon I. defeated an allied army of Russians and

Prussians (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). The position chosen by the allies

as that in which to receive the attack of Napoleon ran S.W. to N.E. from

Bautzen on the left to the village of Gleina on the right. Bautzen

itself was held as an advanced post of the left wing (Russians), the

main body of which lay 2 m. to the rear (E.) near Jenkwitz. On the

heights of Burk, 2-1/2 m. N.E. of Bautzen, was Kleist's Prussian corps,

with Yorck's in support. On Kleist's right at Pliskowitz (3 m. N.E. of

Burk) lay Blucher's corps, and on Blucher's right, formed at an angle to

him, and refused towards Gleina (7 m. N.E. by E. of Bautzen), were the

Russians of Barclay de Tolly. The country on which the battle was fought

abounded in strong defensive positions, some of which were famous as

battlegrounds of the Seven Years' War. The whole line was covered by the

river Spree, which served as an immediate defence for the left and

centre, and an obstacle to any force moving to attack the right;

moreover the interval between the river and the position on this side

was covered with a network of ponds and watercourses. Napoleon's right

and centre approached (on a broad front owing to the want of cavalry)

from Dresden by Bischofswerda and Kamenz; the left under Ney, which was

separated by nearly 40 m. from the left of the main body at Luckau, was

ordered to march via Hoyerswerda, Weissig and Klix to strike the allies'

right. At noon on the 20th, Napoleon, after a prolonged reconnaissance,

advanced the main army against Bautzen and Burk, leaving the enemy's

right to be dealt with by Ney on the morrow. He equally neglected the

extreme left of the allies in the mountains, judging it impossible to

move his artillery and cavalry in the broken ground there. Oudinot's

(XII.) corps, the extreme right wing, was to work round by the hilly

country to Jenkwitz in rear of Bautzen, Macdonald's (XI.) corps was to

assault Bautzen, and Marmont, with the VI. corps, to cross the Spree and

attack the Prussians posted about Burk. These three corps were directed

by Soult. Farther to the left, Bertrand's (IV.) corps was held back to

connect with Ney, who had then reached Weissig with the head of his

column. The Guard and other general reserves were in rear of Macdonald

and Marmont. Bautzen was taken without difficulty; Oudinot and Marmont

easily passed the Spree on either side, and were formed up on the other

bank of the river by about 4 P.M. A heavy and indecisive combat took

place in the evening between Oudinot and the Russian left, directed by

the tsar in person, in which Oudinot's men made a little progress

towards Jenkwitz. Marmont's battle was more serious. The Prussians were

not experienced troops, but were full of ardour and hatred of the

French. Kleist made a most stubborn resistance on the Burk ridge, and

Bertrand's corps was called up by Napoleon to join in the battle; but

part of Blucher's corps fiercely engaged Bertrand, and Burk was not

taken till 7 P.M. The French attack was much impeded by the ground and

by want of room to deploy between the river and the enemy. But

Napoleon's object in thus forcing the fighting in the centre was

achieved. The allies, feeling there the weight of the French attack,

gradually drew upon the reserves of their left and right to sustain the

shock. At nightfall Bautzen and Burk were in possession of the French,

and the allied line now stretched from Jenkwitz northward to Pliskowitz,

Blucher and Barclay maintaining their original positions at Pliskowitz

and Gleina. The night of the 20th-21st was spent by both armies on the

battlefield. Napoleon cared little that the French centre was almost

fought out; it had fulfilled its mission, and on the 21st the decisive

point was to be Barclay's position. Soon after daybreak fighting was

renewed along the whole line; but Napoleon lay down to sleep until the

time appointed for Ney's attack. To a heavy counter-stroke against

Oudinot, which completely drove that marshal from the ground won on the

20th, the emperor paid no more heed than to order Macdonald to support

the XII corps. For in this second position of the allies, which was far

more formidable than the original line, the decisive result could be

brought about only by Ney. That commander had his own (III) corps, the

corps of Victor and of Lauriston and the Saxons under Reynier, a total

force of 60,000 men. Lauriston, at the head of the column, had been

sharply engaged on the 19th, but had spent the 20th in calculated

inaction. Early on the 21st the flank attack opened; Ney and Lauriston

moving direct upon Gleina, while Reynier and Victor operated by a wide

turning movement against Barclay's right rear. The advance was carried

out with precision; the Russians were quickly dislodged, and Ney was now

closing upon the rear of Blucher's corps at the village of Preititz.

Napoleon at once ordered Soult's four corps to renew their attacks in

order to prevent the allies from reinforcing their right. But at the

critical moment Ney halted; his orders were to be in Preititz at 11 A.M.

and he reached that place an hour earlier. The respite of an hour

enabled the allies to organize a fierce counter-attack; Ney was checked

until the flanking columns of Victor and Reynier could come upon the

scene. At 1 P.M., when Ney resumed his advance, it was too late to cut

off the retreat of the allies. Napoleon now made his final stroke. The

Imperial Guard and all other troops in the centre, 80,000 strong and

covered by a great mass of artillery, moved forward to the attack; and

shortly the allied centre, depleted of its reserves, which had been sent

to oppose Ney, was broken through and driven off the field. Blucher, now

almost surrounded, called back the troops opposing Ney to make head

against Soult, and Ney's four corps then carried all before them.

Preparations had been made by the allies, ever since Ney's appearance,

to break off the engagement, and now the tsar ordered a general retreat

eastwards, himself with the utmost skill and bravery directing the

rearguard. Thus the allies drew off unharmed, leaving no trophies in the

hands of Napoleon, whose success, tactically unquestionable, was, for a

variety of reasons, and above all owing to the want of cavalry, a _coup

manque_ strategically. The troops engaged were, on the French side

163,000 men, on that of the allies about 100,000; and the losses

respectively about 20,000 and 13,500 killed and wounded.

BAUXITE, a substance which has been considered to be a mineral species,

having the composition Al2O(OH)4 (corresponding with alumina 73.9, water

26.1%), and thus to be distinct from the crystallized aluminium

hydroxides, diaspore (AlO(OH)) and gibbsite (= hydrargillite, Al(OH)3).

It was first described by P. Berthier in 1821 as "alumine hydratee de

Beaux," and was named beauxite by P.A. Dufrenoy in 1847 and bauxite by

E.H. Sainte-Claire Deville in 1861; this name being derived from the

original locality, the village of Les Baux (or Beaux), near Arles, dep.

Bouches-du-Rhone in the south of France, where the material has been for

many years extensively mined as an ore of aluminium. It is never found

in a crystallized state, but always as earthy, clay-like or

concretionary masses, often with a pisolitic structure. In colour it

varies from white through yellow and brown to red, depending on the

amount and the degree of hydration of the iron present. The specific

gravity also varies with the amount of iron; that of the variety known

as wocheinite (from near Lake Wochein, near Radmannsdorf, in northern

Carniola) is given as 2.55. The numerous chemical analyses, which have

mostly been made for technical purposes, show that material known as

bauxite varies very widely in composition, the maximum and minimum

percentages of each constituent being as follows: alumina (Al2O3)

33.2-76.9; water (H2O) 8.6-31.4; iron oxide (Fe2O3) 0.1-48.8; silica

(SiO2) 0.3-37.8; titanic acid (TiO2) up to 4. The material is thus

usually very impure, being mixed with clay, quartz-sand and hydroxides

of iron in variable amounts, the presence of which may be seen by a

microscopical examination. Analyses of purer material often approximate

to diaspore or gibbsite in composition, and minute crystalline scales of

these minerals have been detected under the microscope.

Bauxite can therefore scarcely be regarded as a simple mineral, but

rather as a mixture of gibbsite and diaspore with various impurities; it

is in fact strikingly like laterite, both in chemical composition and in

microscopical structure. Laterite is admittedly a decomposition-product

of igneous or other crystalline rocks, and the same is no doubt also

true of bauxite. The deposits in Co. Antrim occur with pisolitic iron

ore inter-bedded with the Tertiary basalts, and similar deposits are met

with in connexion with the basaltic rocks of the Westerwald in Germany.

On the other hand, the more extensive deposits in the south of France

(departments Bouches-du-Rhone, Ariege, Herault, Var) and the southern

United States (Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas) are often associated with

limestones; in this case the origin of the bauxite has been ascribed to

the chemical action of solutions of aluminium sulphate on the

limestones.

Bauxite is of value chiefly as a source of metallic aluminium (q.v.);

the material is first purified by chemical processes, after which the

aluminium hydroxide is reduced in the electric furnace. Bauxite is also

largely used in the manufacture of alum and other aluminium salts used

in dyeing. Its refractory qualities render it available for the

manufacture of fire-bricks and crucibles. (L. J. S.)

BAVAI, a town of northern France in the department of Nord, 15 m. E.S.E.

of Valenciennes by rail. Pop. (1906) 1622. The town carries on the

manufacture of iron goods and of fertilizers. Under the name of

_Bagacum_ or _Bavacum_ it was the capital of the Nervii and, under the

Romans, an important centre of roads, the meeting-place of which was

marked by a milestone, destroyed in the 17th century and replaced in the

19th century by a column. Bavai was destroyed during the barbarian

invasions and never recovered its old importance. It suffered much

during the wars of the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries.

BAVARIA (Ger. _Bayern_), a kingdom of southern Germany, next to Prussia

the largest state of the German empire in area and population. It

consists of two distinct and unequal portions. Bavaria proper, and the

Palatinate of the Rhine, which lie from 25 to 40 m. W. apart and are

separated by the grand-duchies of Baden and Hesse.

_Physical Features._--Bavaria proper is bounded on the S. by the Alps,

on the N.E., towards Bohemia, by a long range of mountains known as the

Bohmerwald, on the N. by the Fichtelgebirge and the Frankenwald, which

separate it from the kingdom of Saxony, the principality of Reuss, the

duchies of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and Meiningen and the Prussian province of

Hesse-Cassel. The ranges seldom exceed the height of 3000 or 4000 ft.;

but the ridges in the south, towards Tirol, frequently attain an

elevation of 9000 or 10,000 ft. On the W. Bavaria is bounded by

Wurttemberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt. The country mainly belongs to

the basins of the Danube and the Main; by far the greater portion being

drained by the former river, which, entering from Swabia as a navigable

stream, traverses the entire breadth of the kingdom, with a winding

course of 200 m., and receives in its passage the Iller, the Lech, the

Isar and the Inn from the south, and the Naab, the Altmuhl and the

Wornitz from the north. The Inn is navigable before it enters Bavarian

territory, and afterwards receives the Salzach, a large river flowing

from Upper Austria. The Isar does not become navigable till it has

passed Munich; and the Lech is a stream of a similar size. The Main

traverses the northern regions, or Upper and Lower Franconia, with a

very winding course and greatly facilitates the trade of the provinces.

The district watered by the southern tributaries of the Danube consists

for the most part of an extensive plateau, with a mean elevation of 2390

ft. In the mountainous parts of the country there are numerous lakes and

in the lower portions considerable stretches of marshy ground. The

smaller or western portion, the Palatinate, is bounded on the E. by the

Rhine, which divides it from the grand-duchy of Baden, on the S. by

Alsace, and on the W. and N. by a lofty range of hills, the

Haardtgebirge, which separate it from Lorraine and the Prussian Rhine

province.

The climate of Bavaria differs greatly according to the character of the

region, being cold in the vicinity of Tirol but warm in the plains

adjoining the Danube and the Main. On the whole, the temperature is in

the winter months considerably colder than that of England, and a good

deal hotter during summer and autumn.

_Area and Population._--Bavaria proper, or the eastern portion, contains

an area of 26,998 sq. m., and the Palatinate or western, 2288 sq. m.,

making the whole extent of the kingdom about 29,286 sq. m. The total

population, according to the census of 1905, was 6,512,824. Almost a

quarter of the inhabitants live in towns, of which Munich and Nuremberg

have populations exceeding 100,000, Augsburg, Wurzburg, Furth and

Ludwigshafen between 50,000 and 100,000, while twenty-six other towns

number from 10,000 to 50,000 inhabitants.

Ethnographically, the Bavarians belong to various ancient tribes;

Germanized Slavs in the north-east, Swabians and Franks in the centre,

Franks towards the west, and, in the Palatinate, Walloons. Politically,

the country is divided into eight provinces, as follows:--

+------------------+------------+----------------+---------+

| | |Pop. of Province| Area in |

| Provinces. | Capital. | in 1905. | sq. m. |

+------------------+------------+----------------+---------+

| Upper Bavaria | Munich | 1,410,763 | 6,456 |

| Lower Bavaria | Landshut | 706,345 | 4,152 |

| Upper Palatinate | Regensburg | 573,476 | 3,728 |

| Upper Franconia | Bayreuth | 637,239 | 2,702 |

| Middle Franconia | Ansbach | 868,072 | 2,925 |

| Lower Franconia | Wurzburg | 680,769 | 3,243 |

| Swabia | Augsburg | 750,880 | 3,792 |

| The Palatinate | Spires | 885,280 | 2,288 |

| | +----------------+---------+

| | Total | 6,512,824 | 29,286 |

+------------------+------------+----------------+---------+

_Religion._--The majority of the inhabitants (about 70%) are Roman

Catholics. The Protestant-Evangelical Church claims about 29%, while

Jews, and a very small number of other sects, account for the remainder.

The districts of Lower Bavaria, Upper Bavaria and the Upper Palatinate

are almost wholly Roman Catholic, while in the Rhine Palatinate, Upper

Franconia, and especially Middle Franconia, the preponderance is on the

side of the Protestants. The exercise of religious worship in Bavaria is

altogether free. The Protestants have the same civil rights as the Roman

Catholics, and the sovereign may be either Roman Catholic or Protestant.

Of the Roman Catholic Church the heads are the two archbishops of

Munich-Freising and Bamberg, and the six bishops of Eichstatt, Spires,

Wurzburg, Augsburg, Regensburg and Passau, of whom the first three are

suffragans of Bamberg. The "Old Catholic" party, under the bishop of

Bonn, has failed, despite its early successes, to take deep root in the

country. Among the Protestants the highest authority is the general

consistory of Munich. The numbers of the different religions in 1900

were as follows:--Roman Catholics, 4,357,133; Protestants, 1,749,206;

Jews, 54,928.

_Education._--Bavaria, formerly backward in education, has recently done

much in this connexion. The state has two Roman Catholic universities,

Munich and Wurzburg, and a Lutheran, Erlangen; in Munich there are a

polytechnic, an academy of sciences and an academy of art.

_Agriculture._--Of the total surface of Bavaria about one-half is under

cultivation, one-third forest, and the remaining sixth mostly pasture.

The level country, including both Lower Bavaria (extending northwards to

the Danube) and the western and middle parts of Franconia, is productive

of rye, oats, wheat, barley and millet, and also of hemp, flax, madder

and fruit and vines. The last are grown chiefly in the vicinity of the

Lake of Constance, on the banks of the Main, in the lower part of its

course, and in the Palatinate of the Rhine. Hops are extensively grown

in central Franconia; tobacco (the best in Germany) round Nuremberg and

in the Palatinate, which also largely produces the sugar-beet. Potatoes

are cultivated in all the provinces, but especially in the Palatinate

and in the Spessart district, which lies in the north-west within a

curve of the Main. The southern divisions of Swabia and Upper Bavaria,

where pasture-land predominates, form a cattle-breeding district and the

dairy produce is extensive. Here also horses are bred in large numbers.

The extent of forest forms nearly a third of the total area of Bavaria.

This is owing to various causes: the amount of hilly and mountainous

country, the thinness of the population and the necessity of keeping a

given extent of ground under wood for the supply of fuel. More than a

third of the forests are public property and furnish a considerable

addition to the revenue. They are principally situated in the provinces

of Upper Bavaria, Lower Bavaria and the Palatinate of the Rhine. The

forests are well stocked with game, deer, chamois (in the Alps), wild

boars, capercailzie, grouse, pheasants, &c. being plentiful. The greater

proportion of the land throughout the kingdom is in the hands of peasant

proprietors, the extent of the separate holdings differing very much in

different districts. The largest peasant property may be about 170

acres, and the smallest, except in the Palatinate, about 50.

_Minerals._--The chief mineral deposits in Bavaria are coal, iron ore,

graphite and salt. The coal mines lie principally in the districts of

Amberg, Kissingen, Steben, Munich and the Rhine Palatinate. Salt is

obtained on a large scale partly from brine springs and partly from

mines, the principal centres being Halle, Berchtesgaden, Traunstein and

Rosenheim. The government monopoly which had long existed was abolished

in 1867 and free trade was established in salt between the members of

the customs-union. Of quicksilver there are several mines, chiefly in

the Palatinate of the Rhine; and small quantities of copper, manganese

and cobalt are obtained. There are numerous quarries of excellent

marble, alabaster, gypsum and building stone; and the porcelain-clay is

among the finest in Europe. To these may be added emery, steatite,

barytes, felspar and ochre, in considerable quantities; excellent

lithographic stone is obtained at Solenhofen; and gold and silver are

still worked, but to an insignificant extent.

_Manufactures and Trade._--A great stimulus was given to manufacturing

industry in Bavaria by the law of 1868, which abolished the last remains

of the old restrictions of the gilds, and gave the whole country the

liberty which had been enjoyed by the Rhine Palatinate alone. The chief

centres of industry are Munich, Nuremberg, Augsburg, Furth, Erlangen,

Aschaffenburg, Regensburg, Wurzburg, Bayreuth, Ansbach, Bamberg and Hof

in Bavaria proper, and in the Palatinate Spires and the Rhine port of

Ludwigshafen. The main centres of the hardware industry are Munich,

Nuremberg, Augsburg and Furth; the two first especially for locomotives

and automobiles, the last for tinfoil and metal toys. Aschaffenburg

manufactures fancy goods, Augsburg and Hof produce excellent cloth, and

Munich has a great reputation for scientific instruments. In Franconia

are numerous paper-mills, and the manufacture of wooden toys is largely

carried on in the forest districts of Upper Bavaria. A considerable

quantity of glass is made, particularly in the Bohmerwald. Brewing forms

an important industry, the best-known breweries being those of Munich,

Nuremberg, Erlangen and Kulmbach. Other articles of manufacture are

leather, tobacco, porcelain, cement, spirits, lead pencils (Nuremberg),

plate-glass, sugar, matches, aniline dyes, straw hats and baskets. The

commerce of Bavaria is very considerable. The exports consist chiefly of

corn, potatoes, hops, beer, wine, cloth, cotton goods, glass, fancy

wares, toys, cattle, pigs and vegetables. The seat of the hop-trade is

Nuremberg; of wool, Augsburg. The imports comprise sugar, tobacco,

cocoa, coffee, oils, silk and pig iron.

_Communications._--Trade is served by an excellent railway system and

there are steamboat services on the navigable rivers, to the east by way

of Passau on the Danube, and to the west by Ludwigshafen. The high roads

of Bavaria, many of which are military roads laid out at the beginning

of the 19th century, extend in all over about 10,000 m. There were 4377

m. of railways in operation in 1904, of which about 3800 were in the

hands of the state, and about 440 m. belonged to the private system of

the Palatinate. The principal canal is the Ludwigskanal, which connects

the Rhine with the Danube, extending from Bamberg on the Regnitz to

Dietfurt on the Altmuhl. There is an extensive network of telegraph and

telephone lines. All belong to the government post office, which forms

an administrative system independent of the imperial German post office.

_Constitution and Administration._--By the treaty of Versailles (23rd

November 1870) and the imperial constitution of the 16th of April 1871,

Bavaria was incorporated with the German empire, reserving, however,

certain separate privileges (_Sonderrechte_) in respect of the

administration of the army, the railways and the posts, the excise

duties on beer, the rights of domicile and the insurance of real estate.

The king is the supreme chief of the army, and matters requiring

adjudication in the adjutant-general's court are referred to a special

Bavarian court attached to the supreme imperial military tribunal in

Berlin. Bavaria is represented in the Bundesrat by six votes and sends

forty-eight deputies to the imperial diet. The Bavarian constitution is

mainly founded on the constitutional act of the 26th of May 1818,

modified by subsequent acts--that of the 9th of March 1828 as affecting

the upper house, and those of the 4th of June 1848 and of the 21st of

March 1881 as affecting the lower--and is a limited monarchy, with a

legislative body of two houses. The crown is hereditary in the house of

Wittelsbach, according to the rights of primogeniture, females being

excluded from succession so long as male agnates of equal birth exist.

The title of the sovereign is king of Bavaria, that of his presumptive

heir is crown-prince of Bavaria, and during the minority or incapacity

of the sovereign a regency is declared, which is vested in the nearest

male agnate capable of ascending the throne. Such a regency began on the

10th of June 1886, at first for King Louis II., and after the 14th of

the same month for King Otto I., in the person of the prince regent

Luitpold. The executive power resides in the king and the responsibility

for the government of the kingdom in his ministers. The royal family is

Roman Catholic, and the seat of government is Munich, the capital.

The upper house of the Bavarian parliament (_Kammer der Reichsrate_) is

composed of (1) the princes of the blood royal (being of full age), (2)

the ministers of the crown, (3) the archbishops of Munich, Freising and

Bamberg, (4) the heads of such noble families as were formerly

"immediate" so long as they retain their ancient possessions in Bavaria,

(5) of a Roman Catholic bishop appointed by the king for life, and of

the president for the time being of the Protestant consistory, (6) of

hereditary counsellors (_Reichsrate_) appointed by the king, and (7) of

other counsellors appointed by the king for life. The lower house

(_Kammer der Abgeordneten_) or chamber of representatives, consists,

since 1881, of 159 deputies, in proportion of one--reckoned on the

census of 1875--to every 31,500 inhabitants. A general election takes

place every six years, and, under the electoral law of 1906, is direct.

Qualifications for the general body of electors are full age of

twenty-five years, Bavarian citizenship of one year at least, and

discharge of all rates and taxes. Parliament must be assembled every

three years, but as the budget is taken every two years, it is regularly

called together within that period. No laws affecting the liberty or

property of the subject can be passed without the sanction of

parliament.

_Revenue._--The following is a fairly typical statement of the budget

estimates (1902-1903), in marks (= 1 shilling sterling):--

Receipts.

Mks.

Direct taxes 38,199,000

Customs and indirect taxes 50,900,990

State railways 184,551,000

Posts and telegraphs 41,665,100

Forests and agricultural dues 37,395,000

Imperial assignments 62,571,605

------------

415,282,695

===========

= L20,764,135

Disbursements.

Mks.

Civil list 5,402,475

State debt 51,323,200

Ministry of the Royal house

and of Foreign dept. 688,398

Ministry of Justice 20,615,299

Ministry of interior 30,055,338

Public worship and education 34,667,673

Minister of finance 6,696,780

Constribution to imperial

exchequer 72,647,090

------------

222,296,253

===========

= L11,114,813

The public debt amounts to about L95,000,000, of which over 75% was

incurred for railways.

_Army._--The Bavarian army forms a separate portion of the army of the

German empire, with a separate administration, but in time of war is

under the supreme command of the German emperor. The regulations

applicable to other sections of the whole imperial army are, however,

observed. It consists, on a peace footing, of three army corps, 1st, 2nd

and 3rd Royal Bavarian (each of two divisions), the headquarters of

which are in Munich, Nuremberg and Wurzburg respectively. The Bavarian

army comprises sixty-seven battalions of infantry, two battalions of

rifles, ten regiments of cavalry (two heavy, two Ulan and six

Chevauxlegers), a squadron of mounted infantry (_Jager-zu-pferde_),

twelve field- and two foot-artillery regiments, three battalions of

engineers, three of army service, and a balloon section; in all 60,000

men with 10,000 horses. In time of war the total force is trebled.

(P. A. A.)