FOOTNOTE:

[1] M. E. _bakke_, the change to "bat" having apparently been

influenced by Lat. _batta_, _blatta_, moth. The word is thus distinct

from the other common term "bat," the implement for striking, which

is probably connected with Fr. _battre_, though a Celtic or simply

onomatopoetic origin has been suggested.

BATAC, a town of the province of Ilocos Norte, Luzon, Philippine

Islands, 10 m. S. of Laoag, the capital. Pop. (1903) 19,524;

subsequently, in October 1903, the town of Banna (pop. 4015) was

annexed. Cacao, tobacco, cotton, rice and indigo are grown in the

neighbouring country, and the town has a considerable trade in these and

other commodities; it also manufactures sugar, fans and woven fabrics.

Batac was founded in 1587. It is the birthplace and home of Archbishop

Gregorio Aglipay (b. 1860), the founder of an important sect of Filipino

Independent Catholics.

BATALA, a town of British India, in the Gurdaspur district of the

Punjab, with a station on a branch of the North-Western railway, 24 m.

from Amritsar. Pop. (1901) 27,365. It is an important centre of trade,

with manufactures of cotton and silk goods, shawls, brass-ware, soap and

leather. There are two mission schools.

BATALHA (i.e. battle), a town of Portugal, in the district of Leiria,

formerly included in the province of Estremadura; 8 m. S. of Leiria.

Pop. (1900) 3858. Batalha, which occupies the site of the medieval

Canoeira, is chiefly interesting for its great Dominican monastery of

Santa Maria da Victoria ("St Mary of the Victory"), also known as

Batalha. Both town and monastery owe their names to the battle fought on

the plain between Canoeira and Aljubarrota, 9 m. S. W., in which John I.

of Portugal defeated John I. of Castile in 1385 and secured the

independence of his kingdom. The monastery is built of golden-brown

limestone, resembling marble, and richly sculptured. In size and beauty

it excels all the other buildings of Portugal in which Gothic and

Moorish architecture are combined. Its ground-plan may be roughly

described as a parallelogram, measuring about 500 ft. from north to

south, and 445 from east to west; with the circular annexe of the royal

mausoleum on the east, and the Founder's chapel at the south-western

corner. In the centre is the royal cloister, which is flanked by the

refectory, now a museum, on the west; and by the chapter-house, on the

east. Two smaller cloisters, named respectively after Alphonso V. and

John III., form the northern division of the parallelogram; its southern

division is the Gothic church. The Founder's chapel contains the tomb of

John I. (d. 1433) and Philippa of Lancaster (d. 1416), his queen, with

the tomb of Prince Henry the Navigator (d. 1460). Like the royal

mausoleum, where several later monarchs are buried, it is remarkable

for the intricacy and exquisite finish of its carved stonework. The

monastery was probably founded in 1388. Plans and masons were procured

from England by Queen Philippa, and the work was entrusted to A.

Domingues, a native architect, and Huetor Houguet, an Irishman. Only the

royal cloister, church and Founder's chapel were included in the

original design; and all three show signs of English influence. Various

additions were made up to 1551, beginning with the royal mausoleum and

ending with the cloister of John III. Considerable damage was inflicted

by the earthquake of 1755; and in 1810 the monastery was sacked by the

French. It was secularized in 1834 and declared a national monument in

1840. Thenceforward it was gradually restored.

BATANGAS, a town, port of entry, and the capital of the province of

Batangas, Luzon, Philippine Islands, near the Batangas river, about 1 m.

from its mouth on the E. coast of the Gulf of Batangas, and about 65 m.

S. by E. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 33,131. The United States government has

established a military post here, and the town has numerous fine public

buildings and private residences. It is the most important port of a

province noted for the fertility of its soil and the industry of its

inhabitants. Its exports, which are large, include rice, coffee of

excellent quality, cacao, sugar, Indian corn, horses and cattle. The

horses of Batangas are unusually strong and active. Cotton is produced,

and is woven into fabrics by the women. The language is Tagalog.

BATARNAY, IMBERT DE (? 1438-1523), French statesman, was born of an old

but obscure family in Dauphine, about the year 1438. In consequence of a

chance circumstance he entered into relations with the dauphin Louis, at

that time (1455) in arms against the king his father; he attached

himself to the prince, and followed him on his retreat into Burgundy.

From the beginning of his reign Louis XI. loaded Batarnay with favours:

he married him to a rich heiress, Georgette de Montchenu, lady of Le

Bouchage; besides making him captain of Mont Saint Michel and giving him

valuable estates, with, later, the titles of counsellor and chamberlain

to the king. In 1469 Batarnay was sent to keep watch upon the duke of

Guienne's intrigues, which began to appear dangerous. As

lieutenant-general in Roussillon in 1475 he protected the countryside

against the wrath of the king, who wished to repress with cruel severity

a rebellion of the inhabitants. He was present at the interview between

Louis XI. and Edward IV. of England at Picquigny, and was afterwards

employed on negotiations with the duke of Burgundy. In accordance with

the recommendations of his father, Charles VIII. kept the lord of Le

Bouchage in his confidential service. During the differences that arose

in 1485 between the regent, Anne of Beaujeu, and the dukes of Orleans,

Brittany and Alencon, Imbert de Batarnay kept the inhabitants of Orleans

faithful to the king. He proved his skill in the negotiations concerning

the marquisate of Saluzzo and the town of Genoa. During the Naples

expedition he was in charge of the dauphin, Charles Orland, who died in

1495. He treated with Maximilian of Austria to prevent him from entering

Picardy during the war with Naples, and then proceeded to Castile to

claim promised support. Under Louis XII. he took part in the expedition

against the Genoese republic in 1507. Francis I. employed him to

negotiate the proposed marriage of Charles of Austria with Renee of

France, daughter of Louis XII., and appointed him governor to the

dauphin Francis in 1518. He died on the 12th of May 1523.

See also B. de Mandrot's _Ymbert de Batarnay_ (Paris, 1886).

(M. P.*)

BATAVIA, a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East Indies, bounded

E., S. and W. by the residencies of Krawana, Preanger and Bantam, and N.

by the Java Sea. It also comprises a number of small islands in the Java

Sea, including the Thousand Islands group, with a total area of 24 sq.

m. The population in 1898 was 1,313,383, including 12,434 Europeans,

82,510 Chinese, 3426 Arabs and other Asiatic foreigners. The natives

belong to a Sundanese group, but in the north contain a large admixture

of Malays. The northern half of the province is flat, and even marshy

along the coast, and consists of a broad band of alluvium formed by the

series of parallel rivers descending from the south. The southern half

on the other hand is covered by a mountain range whose chief peaks are

situated along the southern border, namely Halimun mountain, the

volcanoes Salak, Pangerango and Gede, and the Megamendung. The soil is

fertile, and whereas rice is mainly grown on the lowlands the highlands

are especially suitable for the cultivation of coffee, tea, tobacco,

cinchona and vanilla. Extensive cocoanut plantations are also found in

the plains, and market-gardening is practised in the neighbourhood of

the towns. Sugar was formerly cultivated. The government of the

residency of Batavia differs from that of the other residencies in

having no native regencies, the lands being privately owned. The

divisions of the residency are Batavia, town and surroundings,

Tangerang, Meester Cornelis and Buitenzorg, the first being directly

governed by a resident and the remainder by assistant residents. As

early as the second half of the 17th century the Dutch East India

Company began the practice of selling portions of the land to private

persons, and of granting other portions as the reward of good services.

A large strip of hill-country, almost corresponding to the present

southern or Buitenzorg division of the residency, was appropriated by

the governor-general in 1745 and attached to that office. In 1808,

however, Marshal Daendels disposed of this property to various

purchasers, including the Dutch government, and thus the whole of the

residency gradually passed into private hands. Hence the administration

of the residency is largely confined to police duties. The principal

towns are Batavia (q.v.), which is the capital of the residency, as well

as the seat of government of the whole Dutch East Indies, Meester

Cornelis, Tangerang, Bekasi and Buitenzorg (q.v.). Tangerang and Bekasi

are important centres of trade. The Buitenzorg hill-country is much

visited on account of its beauty, and cool and healthy climate. Gadok is

a health resort 6 m. south-east of Buitenzorg.

BATAVIA, a city and seaport on the north coast of the island of Java,

and the capital of all the Dutch settlements in the East. The population

in 1880 was 96,957; in 1898, 115,567; including 9423 Europeans, 26,433

Chinese, 2828 Arabs and 132 other Asiatic foreigners. It is situated on

both sides of the river Jacatra or Jilivong, in a swampy plain at the

head of a capacious bay. The streets are for the most part straight and

regular, and many of them have a breadth of from 100 to 200 ft. In

several cases there is a canal in the centre lined with stone, and

protected by low parapets or banks, while almost every street and square

is fringed with trees. The old town has greatly changed from its

condition in the 18th century. It was then surrounded by strong

fortifications, and contained a number of important buildings, such as

the town-house (built in 1652 and restored in 1706), the exchange, the

infirmary and orphan asylum, and the European churches. But the ramparts

were long ago demolished; only natives, Malays, Arabs and Chinese live

here, and the great European houses have either fallen into decay or

been converted into magazines and warehouses. The European inhabitants

live principally in the new town, which was gradually formed by the

integration of Weltevreden (_Well-content_), Molenvliet (_Mill-stream_),

Rijswijk (_Rice-town_), Noordwijk (_North-town_), Koningsplein (_King's

square_), and other suburban villages or stations. The situation of this

modern part is higher and healthier. The imitation of Dutch arrangements

has been avoided, and the natural advantages of the situation and

climate have been turned to account. The houses, generally of a single

storey or two at most, are frequently separated from each other by rows

of trees. Batavia contains numerous buildings connected with the civil

and military organisation of the government. The governor-general's

palace and the government buildings are the most important of these; in

the district of Weltevreden are also the barracks, and the artillery

school, as well as the military and civil hospital, and not far off is

the Frederik-Hendrik citadel built in 1837. Farther inland, at Meester

Cornelis, are barracks and a school for under-officers. The

Koningsplein is a large open square surrounded by mansions of the

wealthier classes. Noordwijk is principally inhabited by lesser

merchants and subordinate officials. There is an orphan asylum in the

district of Parapatna. Batavia has various educational and scientific

institutions of note. In 1851 the government founded a medical school

for Javanese, and in 1860 the "Gymnasium William III." in which a

comprehensive education is bestowed. A society of arts and sciences

(which possesses an excellent museum) was established in 1778, a royal

physical society in 1850, and a society for the promotion of industry

and agriculture in 1853. In addition to the _Transactions_ of these

societies--many of which contain valuable contributions to their

respective departments in their relation to the East Indies--a

considerable number of publications are issued in Batavia. Among

miscellaneous buildings of importance may be mentioned the public hall

known as the _Harmonie_, the theatre, club-house and several fine

hotels.

The population of Batavia is varied, the Dutch residents being a

comparatively small class, and greatly intermixed with Portuguese and

Malays. Here are found members of the different Indian nations,

originally slaves; Arabs, who are principally engaged in navigation, but

also trade in gold and precious stones; Javanese, who are cultivators;

and Malays, chiefly boatmen and sailors, and adherents of Mahommedanism.

The Chinese are both numerous and industrious. They were long greatly

oppressed by the Dutch government, and in 1740 they were massacred to

the number of 12,000.

Batavia Bay is rendered secure by a number of islands at its mouth, but

grows very shallow towards the shore. The construction of the new

harbour at Tanjong Priok, to the east of the old one, was therefore of

the first importance. The works, begun in 1877 and completed in 1886,

connect the town with Tanjong ("cape") Priok by a canal, and include an

outer port formed by two breakwaters, 6072 ft. long, with a width at

entrance of 408 ft. and a depth of 27 ft. throughout. The inner port has

3282 ft. of quayage; its length is 3609 ft., breadth 573 ft. and depth

24 ft. There is also a coal dock, and the port has railway and roadway

connexion with Batavia. The river Jilivong is navigable 2 m. inland for

vessels of 30 or 40 tons, but the entrance is narrow, and requires

continual attention to keep it open.

The exports from Batavia to the other islands of the archipelago, and to

the ports in the Malay Peninsula, are rice, sago, coffee, sugar, salt,

oil, tobacco, teak timber and planks, Java cloths, brass wares, &c., and

European, Indian and Chinese goods. The produce of the Eastern Islands

is also collected at its ports for re-exportation to India, China and

Europe--namely, gold-dust, diamonds, camphor, benzoin and other drugs;

edible bird-nests, trepang, rattans, beeswax, tortoise-shell, and dyeing

woods from Borneo and Sumatra; tin from Banka; spices from the Moluccas;

fine cloths from Celebes and Bali; and pepper from Sumatra. From Bengal

are imported opium, drugs and cloths; from China, teas, raw silk, silk

piece-goods, coarse China wares, paper, and innumerable smaller articles

for the Chinese settlers. The tonnage of vessels clearing from Batavia

to countries beyond the archipelago had increased from 879,000 tons in

1887 to nearly 1,500,000 tons by the end of the century. The old and new

towns are connected by steam tramways. The Batavia-Buitenzorg railway

passes the new town, thus connecting it with the main railway which

crosses the island from west to east.

Almost the only manufactures of any importance are the distillation of

arrack, which is principally carried on by Chinese, the burning of lime

and bricks, and the making of pottery. The principal establishment for

monetary transactions is the Java Bank, established in 1828 with a

capital of L500,000.

Batavia owes its origin to the Dutch governor-general Pieter Both, who

in 1610 established a factory at Jacatra (which had been built on the

ruins of the old Javanese town of Sunda Calappa), and to his successor,

Jan Pieters Coen, who in 1619 founded in its stead the present city,

which soon acquired a flourishing trade and increased in importance. In

1699 Batavia was visited by a terrible earthquake, and the streams were

choked by the mud from the volcano of Gunong Salak; they overflowed the

surrounding country and made it a swamp, by which the climate was so

affected that the city became notorious for its unhealthiness, and was

in great danger of being altogether abandoned. In the twenty-two years

from 1730 to 1752, 1,100,000 deaths are said to have been recorded.

General Daendels, who was governor from 1808 to 1811, caused the

ramparts of the town to be demolished, and began to form the nucleus of

a new city at Weltevreden. By 1816 nearly all the Europeans had left the

old town. In 1811 a British armament was sent against the Dutch

settlements in Java, which had been incorporated by France, and to this

force Batavia surrendered on the 8th of August. It was restored,

however, to the Dutch by the treaty of 1814.

BATAVIA, a village and the county-seat of Genesee county, New York,

U.S.A., about 36 m. N.E. of Buffalo, on the Tonawanda Creek. Pop. (1890)

7221; (1900) 9180, of whom 1527 were foreign-born; (1910), 11,613.

Batavia is served by the New York Central & Hudson River, the Erie, and

the Lehigh Valley railways. It is the seat of the New York State School

for the Blind, and of St Joseph's Academy (Roman Catholic), and has a

historical museum, housed in the Old Holland Land Office (1804),

containing a large collection of relics of the early days of New York,

and a memorial library erected in 1889 in memory of a son by Mary E.

Richmond, the widow of Dean Richmond; the building contained in 1908

more than 14,000 volumes. The public schools are excellent; in them in

1898 Superintendent John Kennedy (b. 1846) introduced the method of

individual instruction now known as the "Batavia scheme," under which in

rooms of more than fifty pupils there is, besides the class teacher, an

"individual" teacher who helps backward children in their studies. Among

Batavia's manufactures are harvesters, ploughs, threshers and other

agricultural implements, firearms, rubber tires, shoes, shell goods,

paper-boxes and inside woodwork. In 1905 the city's factory products

were valued at $3,589,406, an increase of 39.5% over their value in

1900. Batavia was laid out in 1801 by Joseph Ellicott (1760-1826), the

engineer who had been engaged in surveying the land known as the

"Holland Purchase," of which Batavia was a part. The village was

incorporated in 1823. Here lived William Morgan, whose supposed murder

(1826) by members of the Masonic order led to the organization of the

Anti-Masonic party. Batavia was the home during his last years of Dean

Richmond (1804-1866), a capitalist, a successful shipper and wholesaler

of farm produce, vice-president (1853-1864) and president (1864-1866) of

the New York Central railway, and a prominent leader of the Democratic

party in New York state.

See O. Turner, _History of the Holland Purchase_ (Buffalo, 1850).

BATEMAN, HEZEKIAH LINTHICUM (1812-1875), American actor and manager, was

born in Baltimore, Maryland, on the 6th of December 1812. He was

intended for an engineer, but in 1832 became an actor, playing with

Ellen Tree (afterwards Mrs Charles Kean) in juvenile leads. In 1855 he

was manager of the St Louis theatre for a few years and in 1859 moved to

New York. In 1866 he was manager for his daughter Kate, and in 1871

returned to London, where he took the Lyceum theatre. Here he engaged

Henry Irving, presenting him first in _The Bells_, with great success.

He died on the 22nd of March 1875.

His wife, SIDNEY FRANCES (1823-1881), daughter of Joseph Cowell, an

English actor who had settled in America, was also an actress and the

author of several popular plays, in one of which, _Self_ (1857), she and

her husband made a great success. After her husband's death Mrs Bateman

continued to manage the Lyceum till 1875. She later took the Sadler's

Wells theatre, which she managed until her death on the 13th of January

1881. She was the first to bring to England an entire American company

with an American play, Joaquin Miller's _The Danites_.

Mr and Mrs Bateman had eight children, three of the four daughters being

educated for the stage. The two oldest, Kate Josephine (b. 1842), and

Ellen (b. 1845), known as the "Bateman children," began their theatrical

career at an early age. In 1862 Kate played in New York as Juliet and

Lady Macbeth, and in 1863 had a great success in London as Leah in

Augustin Daly's adaptation of Mosenthal's _Deborah_. In 1866 she married

George Crowe, but returned to the stage in 1868, playing later as Lady

Macbeth with Henry Irving, and in 1875 in the title-part of Tennyson's

_Queen Mary_. When her mother opened the Sadler's Wells theatre in 1879

Miss Bateman appeared as Helen Macgregor in _Rob Roy_, and in 1881 as

Margaret Field in Henry Arthur Jones' _His Wife_. Her daughter, Sidney

Crowe (b. 1871), also became an actress. Virginia Bateman (b. 1854), a

younger sister of Kate, born in Cincinnati, Ohio, went on the stage as a

child, and first appeared in London in the title-part of her mother's

play, _Fanchette_, in 1871. She created a number of important parts

during several seasons at the Lyceum and elsewhere. She married Edward

Compton the actor. Another sister was Isabel (b. 1854), well known on

the London stage.

BATEMENT LIGHTS, in architecture the lights in the upper part of a

perpendicular window, abated, or only half the width of those below.

BATES, HARRY (1850-1899), British sculptor, was born at Stevenage,

Herts, on the 26th of April 1850. He began his career as a carver's

assistant, and before beginning the regular study of plastic art he

passed through a long apprenticeship in architectural decoration. In

1879 he came to London and entered the Lambeth School of Art, studying

under Jules Dalou and Rodin, and winning a silver medal in the national

competition at South Kensington. In 1881 he was admitted to the Royal

Academy schools, where in 1883 he won the gold medal and the travelling

scholarship of L200 with his relief of "Socrates teaching the People in

the Agora," which showed grace of line and harmony of composition. He

then went to Paris and studied under Rodin. A head and three small

bronze panels (the "Odyssey,") executed by Bates in Paris, were

exhibited at the Royal Academy, and selected for purchase by the

Chantrey trustees; but the selection had to be cancelled because they

had not been modelled in England. His "Aeneas" (1885), "Homer" (1886),

three "Psyche" panels and "Rhodope" (1887) all showed marked advance in

form and dignity; and in 1892, after the exhibition of his vigorously

designed "Hounds in Leash," Bates was elected A.R.A. This and his

"Pandora," in marble and ivory, which was bought in the same year for

the Chantrey Bequest, are now in the Tate Gallery. The portrait-busts of

Harry Bates are good pieces of realism--strong, yet delicate in

technique, and excellent in character. His statues have a

picturesqueness in which the refinement of the sculptor is always felt.

Among the chief of these are the fanciful "Maharaja of Mysore," somewhat

overladen with ornament, and the colossal equestrian statue of Lord

Roberts (1896) upon its important pedestal, girdled with a frieze of

figures, now set up in Calcutta, and a statue of Queen Victoria for

Dundee. But perhaps his masterpiece, showing the sculptor's delicate

fancy and skill in composition, was an allegorical presentment of "Love

and Life"--a winged male figure in bronze, with a female figure in ivory

being crowned by the male. Bates died in London on the 30th of January

1899, his premature death robbing English plastic art of its most

promising representative at the time. (See SCULPTURE.)

BATES, HENRY WALTER (1825-1892), English naturalist and explorer, was

born at Leicester on the 8th of February 1825. His father, a

manufacturing hosier, intended him for business, and for a time the son

yielded to his wishes, escaping as often as he could into the

neighbouring country to gratify his love of botany and entomology. In

1844 he met a congenial spirit in Alfred Russel Wallace, and the result

was discussion and execution of a plan to explore some then little-known

region of the globe. The banks of the Amazons was the district chosen,

and in April 1848 the two friends sailed in a trader for Para. They had

little or no money, but hoped to meet their expenses by the sale of

duplicate specimens. After two years Bates and Wallace agreed to collect

independently, Wallace taking the Rio Negro and the upper waters of the

Orinoco, while Bates continued his route up the great river for 1400 m.

He remained in the country eleven years, during which time he collected

no fewer than 8000 species of insects new to science. His long residence

in the tropics, with the privations which it entailed, undermined his

health. Nor had the exile from home the compensation of freeing him from

financial cares, which hung heavy on him till he had the good fortune to

be appointed in 1864 assistant-secretary of the Royal Geographical

Society, a post which, to the inestimable gain of the society, and the

advantage of a succession of explorers, to whom he was alike Nestor and

Mentor, he retained till his death on the 16th of February 1892. Bates

is best known as the auther of one of the most delightful books of

travel in the English language, _The Naturalist on the Amazons_ (1863),

the writing of which, as the correspondence between the two has shown,

was due to Charles Darwin's persistent urgency. "Bates," wrote Darwin to

Sir Charles Lyell, "is second only to Humboldt in describing a tropical

forest." But his most memorable contribution to biological science, and

more especially to that branch of it which deals with the agencies of

modification of organisms, was his paper on the "Insect Fauna of the

Amazon Valley," read before the Linnaean Society in 1861. He therein, as

Darwin testified, clearly stated and solved the problem of "mimicry," or

the superficial resemblances between totally different species and the

likeness between an animal and its surroundings, whereby it evades its

foes or conceals itself from its prey. Bates's other contributions to

the literature of science and travel were sparse and fugitive, but he

edited for several years a periodical of _Illustrated Travels_. A man of

varied tastes, he devoted the larger part of his leisure to entomology,

notably to the classification of coleoptera. Of these he left an

extensive and unique collection, which, fortunately for science, was

purchased intact by Rene Oberthur of Rennes.

BATES, JOHN. A famous case in English constitutional history, tried

before the court of exchequer in November 1606, arose out of the refusal

of a merchant of the Levant Company, John Bates, to pay an extra duty of

5s. per cwt. on imported currants levied by the sole authority of the

crown in addition to the 2s. 6d. granted by the Statute of Tonnage and

Poundage, on the ground that such an imposition was illegal without the

sanction of parliament. The unanimous decision of the four barons of the

exchequer in favour of the crown threatened to establish a precedent

which, in view of the rapidly increasing foreign trade, would have made

the king independent of parliament. The judgments of Chief Baron Fleming

and Baron Clark are preserved. The first declares that "the king's power

is double, ordinary and absolute, and they have several laws and ends.

That of the ordinary is for the profit of particular subjects, for the

execution of civil justice ... in the ordinary courts, and by the

civilians is nominated _jus privatum_, and with us common law; and these

laws cannot be changed without parliament.... The absolute power of the

king is not that which is converted or executed to private uses to the

benefit of particular persons, but is only that which is applied to the

general benefit of the people and is _salus populi_; and this power is

not guided by the rules which direct only at the common law, and is most

properly named policy or government; and as the constitution of this

body varieth with the time, so varieth this absolute law, according to

the wisdom of the king, for the common good; and these being general

rules, and true as they are, all things done within these rules are

lawful. The matter in question is material matter of state, and ought to

be ruled by the rules of policy, and if it be so, the king hath done

well to execute his extraordinary power. All customs (i.e. duties levied

at the ports), be they old or new, are no other but the effects and

issues of trades and commerce with foreign nations; but all commerce and

affairs with foreigners, all wars and peace, all acceptance and

admitting for foreign current coin, all parties and treaties whatsoever

are made by the absolute power of the king; and he who hath power of

causes hath power also of effects." Baron Clark, in his judgment,

concurred, declaring that the seaports were the king's ports, and that,

since foreign merchants were admitted to them only by leave of the

crown, the crown possessed also the right of fixing the conditions under

which they should be admitted, including the imposition of a money

payment. Incidentally, Baron Clark, in reply to the argument that the

king's right to levy impositions was limited by the statute of

1370-1371, advanced a principle still more dangerous to constitutional

liberty. "The statute of the 45 Edward III. cap. 4," he said, "which

hath been so much urged, that no new imposition shall be imposed upon

wool-fells, wool or leather, but only the custom and subsidy granted to

the king--this extends only to the king himself and shall not bind his

successors, for it is a principal part of the crown of England, which

the king cannot diminish."

See _State Trials_ (ed. 1779), xi. pp. 30-32; excerpts in G.W.

Prothero, _Statutes and Constitutional Documents_ (Clarendon Press,

1894); G.B. Adams and H. Morse Stephens, _Select Documents of Eng.

Const. Hist._ (New York, 1901); cf. T.P. Taswell-Langmead, _Eng.

Const. Hist._ (London, 1905), p. 393. (W. A. P.)

BATES, JOSHUA (1788-1864), American financier, was born in Weymouth,

Massachusetts, on the 10th of October 1788, of an old Massachusetts

family prominent in colonial affairs. After several winters' schooling

in his native town, he entered the counting-house of William Gray & Son

in Boston. In 1809 he began business on his own account, but failed

during the War of 1812 and again became associated with the Grays, then

the largest shipowners in America, by whom a few years later he was sent

to London in charge of their European business. There he came into

relations with the Barings, and in 1826 formed a partnership with John,

a son of Sir Thomas Baring. Two years later both partners were admitted

to the firm of Baring Brothers & Company, of which Bates eventually

became senior partner, occupying in consequence an influential position

in the British financial world. In 1853-1854 he acted with rare

impartiality and justice as umpire of the international commission

appointed to settle claims growing out of the War of 1812. In 1852-1855

he contributed $100,000 in books and in cash for a public library in

Boston, the money to be invested and the annual income to be applied to

the purchase of books. Upon his death the "upper hall," or main

reference-room (opened in 1861) in the building erected in 1858 by the

order of the library trustees, was named Bates Hall; and upon the

opening of the new building in 1895 this name was transferred to its

principal reading-room, one of the finest library halls in the world.

During the Civil War Bates's sympathies were strongly with the Union,

and besides aiding the United States government fiscal agents in various

ways, he used his influence to prevent the raising of loans for the

Confederacy. He died in London on the 24th of September 1864.

See _Memorial of Joshua Bates_ (Boston, 1865).

BATES, WILLIAM (1625-1699), English nonconformist divine, was born in

London in November 1625. He was admitted to Emmanuel College, Cambridge,

and removed thence to King's College in 1644. Of Presbyterian belief, he

held the rich living of St Dunstan's-in-the-West, London. He was one of

the commissioners at the conference in the Savoy, for reviewing the

public liturgy, and was concerned in drawing up the exceptions to the

Book of Common Prayer. Notwithstanding this he was appointed chaplain to

Charles II., and was offered the deanery of Lichfield and Coventry, but

he came out in 1662 as one of the 2000 ejected ministers. Bates was of

an amiable character, and enjoyed the friendship of the lord-keeper

Bridgeman, the lord-chancellor Finch, the earl of Nottingham and

Archbishop Tillotson. With other moderate churchmen he made several

efforts towards a comprehensive settlement, but the bishops were

uncompromising. He addressed William and Mary on their accession in

behalf of the dissenters. After some years of pastoral service at

Hackney he died there on the 14th of July 1699. Bates published _Select

Lives of Illustrious and Pious Persons_ in Latin; and after his death

all his works, except this, were printed in 1 vol. fol.; again in 1723;

and in 4 vols. 8vo in 1815. They treat of practical theology and include

_Considerations on the Existence of God and the Immortality of the Soul_

(1676), _Four Last Things_ (1691), _Spiritual Perfection_ (1699).

BATESON (BATSON or BETSON), THOMAS, an English writer of madrigals in

the early 17th century. He is said to have been organist of Chester

cathedral in 1599, and is believed to have been the first musical

graduate of Trinity College, Dublin. He is known to have written church

music, but his fame rests on his madrigals, which give him an important

place among Elizabethan composers. He published a set of madrigals in

1604 and a second set in 1618, and both collections have been reprinted

in recent years. He died in 1630.

BATH, THOMAS THYNNE, 1ST MARQUESS OF (1734-1796), English politician,

was the elder son of Thomas Thynne, 2nd Viscount Weymouth (1710-1751),

and the great-grandnephew of Thomas Thynne (c. 1640-1714), the friend of

Bishop Ken, who was created Baron Thynne and Viscount Weymouth in 1682.

His mother was Louisa (d. 1736), daughter of John Carteret, 1st Earl

Granville, and a descendant of the family of Granville who held the

earldom of Bath from 1661 to 1711. The Thynnes are descended from Sir

John Thynne, the builder of Longleat, the splendid seat of the family in

Wiltshire. Sir John, owed his wealth and position to the favour of his

master, the protector Somerset; he was comptroller of the household of

the princess Elizabeth, and was a person of some importance after the

princess became queen. He died in April 1580. Another famous member of

this family was Thomas Thynne (1648-1682), called on account of his

wealth "Tom of Ten Thousand." He is celebrated by Dryden as Issachar in

_Absalom and Achitophel_, and was murdered in London by some Swedes in

February 1682.

Born on the 13th of September 1734, Thomas Thynne succeeded, his father

as 3rd Viscount Weymouth in January 1751, and was lord-lieutenant of

Ireland for a short time during 1765, although he never visited that

country. Having, however, become prominent in English politics he was

appointed secretary of state for the northern department in January

1768; he acted with great promptitude during the unrest caused by John

Wilkes and the Middlesex election of 1768. He was then attacked and

libelled by Wilkes, who was consequently expelled from the House of

Commons. Before the close of 1768 he was transferred, from the northern

to the southern department, but he resigned in December 1770 in the

midst of the dispute with Spain over the possession of the Falkland

Islands. In November 1775 Weymouth returned to his former office of

secretary for the southern department, undertaking in addition the

duties attached to the northern department for a few months in 1779, but

he resigned both positions in the autumn of this year. In 1789 he was

created marquess of Bath, and he died on the 19th of November 1796.

Weymouth was a man of considerable ability especially as a speaker, but

according to more modern standards his habits were very coarse,

resembling those of his friend and frequent companion, Charles James

Fox. Horace Walpole refers frequently to his idleness and his

drunkenness, and in early life at least "his great fortune he had

damaged by such profuse play, that his house was often full of

bailiffs." He married Elizabeth (d. 1825), daughter of William Bentinck,

2nd duke of Portland, by whom he had three sons and ten daughters. His

eldest son Thomas (1765-1837) succeeded to his titles, while the two

younger ones, George (1770-1838) and John (1772-1849), succeeded in turn

to the barony of Carteret of Hawnes, which came to them from their

uncle, Henry Frederick Thynne (1735-1826). Weymouth's great-grandson,

John Alexander, 4th marquess of Bath (1831-1896), the author of

_Observations on Bulgarian affairs_ (1880), was succeeded as 5th

marquess by his son Thomas Henry (b. 1862).

See B. Botfield, _Stemmata Botevilliana_ (1858).

BATH, WILLIAM PULTENEY, 1ST EARL OF (1684-1764), generally known by the

surname of PULTENEY, English politician, descended from an ancient

family of Leicestershire, was the son of William Pulteney by his first

wife, Mary Floyd, and was born in April 1684. The boy was sent to

Westminster school, and from it proceeded to Christ Church, Oxford,

matriculating the 31st of October 1700. At these institutions he

acquired his deep classical knowledge. On leaving Oxford he made the

usual tour on the continent. In 1705 he was brought into parliament by

Henry Guy (secretary of the treasury, 1679-1688, and June 1691 to

February 1695) for the Yorkshire borough of Hedon, and at his death on

the 23rd of February 1710 inherited an estate of L500 a year and

L40,000 in cash. This seat was held by him without a break until 1734.

Throughout the reign of Queen Anne William Pulteney played a prominent

part in the struggles of the Whigs, and on the prosecution of

Sacheverell he exerted himself with great zeal against that violent

divine. When the victorious Tories sent his friend Robert Walpole to the

Tower in 1712, Pulteney championed his cause in the House of Commons and

with the leading Whigs Visited him in his prison-chamber. He held the

post of secretary of war from 1714 to 1717 in the first ministry of

George I., and when the committee of secrecy on the Utrecht treaty was

formed in April 1715 the list included the flame of William Pulteney.

Two years later (6th of July 1716), he became one of the privy council.

When Townshend was dismissed, in April 1717, from his post of

lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and Walpole resigned his places, they were

followed in their retirement by Pulteney. The crash of the South Sea

Company restored Walpole to the highest position, but all that he

offered to Pulteney was a peerage. The offer was rejected, but in May

1723 Pulteney stooped to accept the lucrative but insignificant post of

cofferer of the household. In this obscure position he was content for

some time to await the future; but when he found himself neglected he

opposed the proposition of Walpole to discharge the debts of the civil

list, and in April 1725 was dismissed from his sinecure. From the day of

his dismissal to that of his ultimate triumph Pulteney remained in

opposition, and, although Sir Robert Walpole attempted in 1730 to

conciliate him by the offer of Townshend's place and of a peerage, all

his overtures were spurned. Pulteney's resentment was not confined to

his speeches in parliament. With Bolingbroke he set on foot in December

1726 the well-known periodical called the _Craftsman_, and in its pages

the minister was incessantly denounced for many years. Lord Hervey

published an attack on the _Craftsman_, and Pulteney, either openly or

behind the person of Amhurst, its editor, replied to the attack. Whether

the question at issue was the civil list, the excise, the income of the

prince of Wales, or the state of domestic affairs Pulteney was ready

with a pamphlet, and the minister or one of his friends came out with a

reply. For his "Proper reply to a late scurrilous libel" (_Craftsman_,

1731), an answer to "Sedition and defamation displayed," he was

challenged to a duel by Lord Hervey; for another, "An answer to one part

of an infamous libel entitled remarks on the _Craftsman's_ indication of

his two honourable patrons," he was in July 1731 struck off the roll of

privy councillors and dismissed from the commission of the peace in

several counties. In print Pulteney was inferior to Bolingbroke alone

among the antagonists of Walpole, but in parliament, from which St John

was excluded, he excelled all his comrades. When the sinking fund was

appropriated in 1733 his voice was the foremost in denunciation; when

the excise scheme in the same year was stirring popular feeling to its

lowest depths the passion of the multitude broke out in his oratory.

Through Walpole's prudent withdrawal of the latter measure the fall, of

his ministry was averted. Bolingbroke withdrew to France on the

suggestion, it is said, of Pulteney, and the opposition was weakened by

the dissensions of the leaders.

From the general election of 1734 until his elevation to the peerage

Pulteney sat for Middlesex. For some years after this election the

minister's assailants made little progress in their attack, but in 1738

the troubles with Spain supplied them with the opportunity which they

desired. Walpole long argued for peace, but he was feebly supported in

his own cabinet, and the frenzy of the people for War knew no bounds. In

an evil moment for his own reputation he consented to remain in office

and to gratify popular passion with a war against Spain. His downfall

was not long deferred. War was declared in 1739; a new parliament was

summoned in the summer of 1741, and over the divisions on the election

petitions the ministry of Walpole fell to pieces. The task of forming

the new administration was after some delay entrusted to Pulteney, who

weakly offered the post of first lord of the treasury to that harmless

politician the earl of Wilmington, and contented himself with a seat in

the cabinet and a peerage thinking that by this action he would preserve

his reputation for consistency in disdaining office and yet retain his

supremacy in the ministry. At this act popular feeling broke out into

open indignation, and from the moment of his elevation to the Upper

House Pulteney's influence dwindled to nothing. Horace Walpole asserts

that when Pulteney wished to recall his desire for a peerage it was

forced upon him through the ex-minister's advice by the king, and

another chronicler of the times records that when victor and vanquished

met in the House of Lords, the one as Lord Orford, the other as the earl

of Bath, the remark was made by the exulting Orford: "Here we are, my

lord, the two most insignificant fellows in England." On the 14th of

July 1742 Pulteney was created Baron Pulteney of Hedon, Co. York,

Viscount Pulteney of Wrington, Co. Somerset, and earl of Bath. On the

20th of February he had been restored to his rank in the privy council.

At Wilmington's death in 1743 he made application to the king for the

post of first lord of the treasury, only to find that it had been

conferred on Henry Pelham. For two days, 10th-12th February 1746, he was

at the head of a ministry, but in "48 hours, three quarters, seven

minutes, and eleven seconds" it collapsed. An occasional pamphlet and an

infrequent speech were afterwards the sole fruits of Lord Bath's

talents. His praises whilst in retirement have been sung by two bishops,

Zachary Pearce and Thomas Newton. He died on the 7th of July 1764, and

was buried on the 17th of July in his own vault in Islip chapel,

Westminster Abbey. He married on the 27th of December 1714 Anna Maria,

daughter and co-heiress of John Gumley of Isleworth, commissary-general

to the army who was often satirized by the wits of the day (_Notes and

Queries_, 3rd S. ii. 402-403, iii. 490). She died on the 14th of

September 1758, and their only son William died unmarried at Madrid on

the 12th of February 1763. Pulteney's vast fortune came in 1767 to

William Johnstone of Dumfries (third son of Sir James Johnstone), who

had married Frances, daughter and co-heiress of his cousin, Daniel

Pulteney, a bitter antagonist of Walpole in parliament, and had taken

the name of Pulteney.

Pulteney's eloquence was keen and incisive, sparkling with vivacity and

with allusions drawn from the literature of his own country and of Rome.

Of business he was never fond, and the loss in 1734 of his trusted

friend John Merrill, who had supplied the qualities which he lacked, was

feelingly lamented by him in a letter to Swift. His chief weakness was a

passion for money. Lord Bath has left no trace of the possession of

practical statesmanship.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Wm. Coxe's _Memoirs_ of Sir Robert Walpole (1816), and

of Henry Pelham (1829); John Morley's _Walpole_ (1889); Walter

Sichel's _Bolingbroke_ (1901-1902); A. Ballantyne's _Carteret_ (1887);

_Eng. Hist. Rev._ iv. 749-753, and the general political memoirs of

the time. (W. P. C.)

BATH, a city, municipal, county and parliamentary borough, and health

resort of Somersetshire, England, on the Great Western, Midland, and

Somerset & Dorset railways, 107-1/2 m. W. by S. of London. Pop. (1901)

49,839. Its terraces and crescents, built mostly of grey freestone,

cover the slopes and heights of the abrupt hills which rise like an

amphitheatre above the winding valley of the river Avon. The climate is

pleasant, and the city, standing amidst fine scenery, itself possesses a

number of beautiful walks and gardens. Jointly with Wells, it is an

episcopal see of the Church of England. The abbey church of St Peter and

St Paul occupies the site of earlier Saxon and Norman churches, founded

in connexion with a 7th-century convent, which was transferred for a

time to a body of secular canons, and from about 970 until the

Dissolution, to Benedictine monks. The present cruciform building dates

from the 15th century, being a singularly pure and ornate example of

late Perpendicular work. From the number of its windows, it has been

called "The Lantern of the West," and especially noteworthy is the great

west window, with seven lights, and flanking turrets on which are carved

figures of the angels ascending and descending on Jacob's Ladder. Within

are the tombs of James Quin, the actor, with an epitaph by Garrick;

Richard Nash; Thomas Malthus the economist; William Broome the poet, and

many others. Some of the monuments are the work of Bacon, Flaxman and

Chantrey. Slight traces of the previous Norman building remain. There

are many other churches and chapels in Bath, the oldest being that of St

Thomas of Canterbury, and one of the most interesting St Swithin's,

which contains the tombs of Christopher Anstey and Madame d'Arblay.

Among educational institutions may be mentioned the free grammar school,

founded by Edward VI., the Wesleyan College, originally established at

Bristol by John Wesley, and the Roman Catholic College. The hospital of

St John was founded in the 12th century. The public buildings include a

guild hall, assembly rooms, Jubilee hall, art gallery and library,

museum, literary and scientific institute, and theatres. In the populous

suburb of Twerton (pop. 11,098), there are lias quarries, and bricks and

woollen cloths are manufactured. The parliamentary borough returns two

members. The city is governed by a mayor, 14 aldermen and 42

councillors. Area, 3382 acres.

The mineral springs supply several distinct establishments. The

temperature varies in the different springs from 117 deg. to 120 deg. F,

and the specific gravity of the hot baths is 1.002. The principal

substances in solution are calcium and sodium sulphates, and sodium and

magnesium chlorides. Traces of radium have been revealed, and the gases

contain argon and helium. The waters are very beneficial in cases of

rheumatism, gout, neuralgia, sciatica, diseases of the liver, and

cutaneous and scrofulous affections. The highest archaeological

interest, moreover, attaches to the baths in view of the magnificent

Roman remains testifying to the early recognition of the value of the

waters. It may here be noted that two distinct legends ascribe the

foundation of Bath to a British king Bladud. According to Geoffrey of

Monmouth this monarch gave its healing power to the water by his spells.

According to a later version, he was banished as a leper, and made the

discovery leading to his cure, and to the origin of Bath, whilst

wandering as a swineherd in 863 B.C. This, at least, is the date

inscribed on a statue of Bladud placed in the Pump Room in 1699. There

is, however, no real evidence of a British settlement. By the Romans

Bath was named _Aquae Sulis_, the name indicating the dedication to a

British goddess Sul or Sulis, whom the Romans considered the counterpart

of Minerva. There were a temple of the goddess and a few houses for

priests, officials and visitors, besides the large baths, and the place

was apparently walled; but it did not contain a large resident

population. Many relics have been disinterred, such as altars,

inscriptions, fragments of stone carvings and figures, Samian ware, and

others. The chief buildings were apparently grouped near the later abbey

churchyard, and included, besides two temples, a magnificent bath,

discovered when the duke of Kingston pulled down the old priory in 1755

to form the Kingston Baths. Successive excavations have rendered

accessible a remarkable series of remains, including several baths, a

_sudarium_, and conduits. The main bath still receives its water (now

for the purpose of cooling) through the original conduit. The

fragmentary colonnade surrounding this magnificent relic still supports

the street and buildings beneath which it lies, the Roman foundations

having been left untouched. The remains of the bath and of the temple

are among the most striking Roman antiquities in western Europe.

Bath (variously known as Achemann, Hat Bathun, Bathonea, Batha) was a

place of note in Saxon times, King Edgar being crowned there in 973. It

was a royal borough governed by a reeve, with a burg mote in 907.

Richard I. granted the first charter in 1189, which allowed the same

privileges as Winchester to the members of the merchant gild. This was

confirmed by Henry III. in 1236, 1247 and 1256, by charters giving the

burgesses of Bath the right to elect coroners, with freedom from arrest

for the debts of others, and from the interference of sheriffs or kings'

bailiffs. Charters were granted by succeeding kings in 1312, 1322, 1341,

1382, 1399, 1414, 1432, 1447, 1466 and 1545. The existence of a

corporation being assumed in the earliest royal charter, and a common

seal having been used since 1249, there was no formal incorporation of

Bath until the charter of 1590, 1794 and 1835. Parliamentary

representation began in 1297. Various fairs were granted to Bath, to be

held on the 29th of August, the 9th of August, the 30th of June to the

8th of July (called Cherry Fair), the 1st of February to the 6th of

February, in 1275, 1305, 1325 and 1545 respectively. Fairs are now held

on the 4th of February and on the Monday after the 9th of December.

These fairs were flourishing centres of the cloth trade in the middle

ages, but this industry has long departed. Bath "beaver," however, was

known throughout England, and Chaucer makes his "Wife of Bath" excel the

cloth-weavers "of Ypres and of Gaunt." The golden age of Bath began in

the 18th century, and is linked with the work of the two architects Wood

(both named John), of Ralph Allen, their patron, and of Richard Nash,

master of the ceremonies. Previously the baths had been ill-kept, the

lodging poor, the streets beset by footpads. All this was changed by the

architectural scheme, including Queen Square, the Royal Crescent and the

North and South Parades, which was chiefly designed by the elder Wood,

and chiefly executed by his son. Instead of the booth which did duty as

a gaming club and chocolate house, Nash provided the assembly rooms

which figure largely in the pages of Fielding, Smollett, Burney, Dickens

and their contemporaries. Anstey published his _New Bath Guide_ to

ridicule the laws of taste which "Beau" Nash dictated; but two royal

visits, in 1734 and 1738, established Bath as a centre of English

fashion. The weekly markets granted on Wednesday and Saturday in 1305

are still held.

See R. Warner, _History and Antiquities of Bath_ (1801); C.E. Davis,

_Ancient Landmarks of Bath; The Mineral Baths of Bath_ (1883);

_Excavations of Roman Baths_ (1895), and _The Saxon Cross_ (1898); Sir

G. Jackson, _Archives of Bath_ (2 vols., 1873); R.E.M. Peach, _Rambles

about Bath_ (1875), _Bath Old and New_ (1888), _Collections of Books

belonging to the City_ (1893), &c.; H. Scarth, _Aquae Solis, or

Notices of Roman Bath_ (1864); A. Barbeau, _Life and Letters at Bath

in the 18th Century_ (from the French _Une Ville d'eaux anglaise au

XVIII^e siecle_) (London, 1904); A.H. King, _Charter of Bath

Corporation_.

BATH, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Sagadahoc county,

Maine, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Kennebec river, 12 m. from its

mouth and 36 m. N.E. of Portland. Pop. (1890) 8723; (1900) 10,477, of

whom 1759 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 9396. It is served by the

Maine Central railway, by steamboat lines to Boston, and by inter-urban

electric railway. The city covers an area of about 9 sq. m., and extends

along the W. bank of the river for about 5 m.; the business district is

only a few feet above sea-level, but most of the residences are on

higher ground. The streets are well shaded, chiefly with elms. At Bath

are the state military and naval orphan asylum, two homes for the aged,

and a soldiers' monument. Bath has a good harbour and its principal

industry is the building of ships, both of wood and of iron and steel,

several vessels of the United States navy have been built here. In 1905

three-fourths of the city's wage-earners were employed in this industry.

Bath also manufactures lumber, iron and brass goods, and has a

considerable trade in ice, coal, lumber and iron and steel. First

settled about 1660, Bath was a part of Georgetown until 1781, when it

was incorporated as a separate town; in 1789 it was made a port of

entry, and in 1847 was chartered as a city.

BATH-CHAIR, a vehicle with a folding hood, which can be used open or

closed, and a glass front, mounted on three or four wheels and drawn or

pushed by hand. If required to be drawn by a donkey or small pony it is

then mounted on four wheels, with the usual turning arrangement. James

Heath, of Bath, who flourished rather before the middle of the 18th

century, was the inventor.

[Illustration]

BATHGATE, a municipal and police burgh of Linlithgowshire, Scotland, 19

m. W. by S. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. Pop. (1901) 7549.

The district is rich in limestone, coal, ironstone, shale and fireclay,

all of which are worked. Silver also was once mined. The manufactures

include paraffin, paper, glass, chemicals, flour and whisky, and

freestone is quarried. The burgh is a considerable centre for

agricultural produce. Bathgate became a burgh of barony in 1824 and a

police burgh in 1865. Although it was not until the development of its

mineral wealth that it attained to commercial importance, it is a place

of some antiquity, and formed the dowry of Marjory, Robert Bruce's

daughter, who married Walter, the hereditary steward of Scotland, in

1315.

BATHOLITE (from Gr. [Greek: bothus], deep, and [Greek: lithus], a

stone), in geology, a term given to certain intrusive rock masses.

Especially in districts which are composed principally of rocks

belonging to the older geological systems extensive areas of granite

frequently occur. By their relations to the strata around them, it is

clear that these granites have been forced into their present positions

in a liquid state, and under great pressure. The bedding planes of

stratified rocks are wedged apart and tongues of granite have been

injected into them, while cracks have been opened up and filled with

intrusions in the shape of igneous veins. Great masses of the strata

which the granite has invaded are often floated off, and are found lying

in the heart of the granite much altered by the heat to which they have

been exposed, and traversed by the igneous rock in ramifying threads.

Such granite intrusions are generally known as bosses from their rounded

surfaces, and the frequency with which they form flattish dome-shaped

hills, rising above the older rocks surrounding them. At one time many

geologists held that in certain situations the granite had arisen from

the complete fusion and transformation of the stratified rocks over a

limited area of intense metamorphism. The chemical no less than the

structural relations of the two sets of rocks, however, preclude the

acceptance of this hypothesis. Obviously the granite is an intruder

which has welled up from below, and has cooled gradually, and solidified

in its present situation.

Regarding the mechanism of this process there are two theories which

hold the field, each having a large number of supporters. One school

considers that they are mostly "batholites" or conical masses rising

from great depths and eating up the strata which lie above and around

them. The frequency of inclusions of the surrounding rocks, their

rounded shapes indicating that they have been partly dissolved by the

igneous magma, the intense alteration which they have undergone pointing

to a state approaching actual fusion, the extensive changes induced in

the rocks which adjoin the granite, the abundance of veins, and the

unusual modifications of the granite which occur where it comes in

contact with the adjacent strata, are adduced as evidence that there has

been absorption and digestion of the country rock by the intrusive mass.

These views are in favour especially in France; and instances are cited

in which as the margins of the granite are approached diorites and other

rocks make their appearance, which are ascribed to the effect which

admixture with dissolved sedimentary material has had on the composition

of the granite magma; at the same time the schists have been permeated

with felspar from the igneous rocks, and are said to have been

felspathized.

The opponents of this theory hold these granitic masses to be

"laccolites" (Gr. [Greek: lakkos], a cistern), or great cake-shaped

injections of molten rock, which have been pressed from below into

planes of weakness in the upper portions of the earth's crust, taking

the lines of least resistance, and owing their shape to the varying

flexibility of the strata they penetrated. The modifications of the

granite are ascribed to magmatic segregation (chemical and physical

processes which occasioned diffusion of certain components towards the

cooling surfaces). Absorption of country rock is held to be unimportant

in amount, and insufficient to account for the great spaces in the

schists which are occupied by the granite. Those who support this theory

leave the question of the ultimate source of the granite unanswered, but

consider that it is of deep-seated origin, and the bosses which now

appear at the surface are only comparatively superficial manifestations.

The bulk of the evidence is in favour of the laccolitic theory; in fact

it has been clearly demonstrated in many important cases. Still it is

equally clear that many granites are not merely passive injections, but

have assimilated much foreign rock. Possibly much depends on the

chemical composition of the respective masses, and on the depths and

temperatures at which the intrusion took place. Increase of pressure and

of temperature, which we know to take place at great depths, would

stimulate resorption of sedimentary material, and by retarding cooling

would allow time for dissolved foreign substances to diffuse widely

through the magma. (J. S. F.)

BATHONIAN SERIES, in geology. The typical Bathonian is the Great Oolite

series of England, and the name was derived from the "Bath Oolite," so

extensively mined and quarried in the vicinity of that city, where the

principal strata were first studied by W. Smith. The term was first used

by J. d'Omalius d'Halloy in 1843 (_Precis Geol_.) as a synonym for

"Dogger"; but it was limited in 1849 by A. d'Orbigny (_Pal. Franc. Jur_.

i. p. 607). In 1864 Mayer-Eymar (_Tabl. Synchron_.) used the word

"Bathien" = Bajocian + Bathonian (sen. str.). According to English

practice, the Bathonian includes the following formations in descending

order: Cornbrash, Forest Marble with Bradford Clay, Great or Bath

Oolite, Stonesfield Slate and Fullers' Earth. (The Fullers' Earth is

sometimes regarded as constituting a separate stage, the "Fullonian.")

The "Bathonien" of some French geologists differs from the English

Bathonian in that it includes at the base the zone of the ammonite

_Parkinsonia Parkinsoni_, which in England is placed at the summit of

the Inferior Oolite. The Bathonian is the equivalent of the upper part

of the "Dogger" (Middle Jurassic) of Germany, or to the base of the

Upper Brown Jura (substage "E" of Quenstedt).

Rocks of Bathonian age are well developed in Europe: in the N.W. and

S.W. oolite limestones are characteristically associated with

coral-bearing, crinoidal and other varieties, and with certain beds of

clay. In the N. and N.E., Russia, &c., clays, sandstones and ferruginous

oolites prevail, some of the last being exploited for iron. They occur

also in the extreme north of America and in the Arctic regions,

Greenland, Franz Josef Land, &c.; in Africa, Algeria, German East

Africa, Madagascar and near the Cape (Enon Beds); in India, Rajputana

and Gulf of Cutch, and in South America.

The well-known Caen stone of Normandy and "Hauptrogenstein" of Swabia,

as well as the "Eisenkalk" of N.W. Germany, and "Klaus-Schichten" of the

Austrian Alps, are of Bathonian age.

For a general account, see A. de Lapparent, _Traite de geologie_ (5th

ed., 1906), vol. ii.; see also the article JURASSIC. (J. A. H.)

BATHORY, SIGISMUND (ZSIGMOND), (1572-1613), prince of Transylvania, was

the son of Christopher, prince of Transylvania, and Elizabeth Bocskay,

and nephew of the great Stephen Bathory. He was elected prince in his

father's lifetime, but being quite young at his father's death (1581),

the government was entrusted to a regency. In 1588 he attained his

majority, and, following the advice of his favourite councillor Alfonso

Carillo, departed from the traditional policy of Transylvania in its

best days (when friendly relations with the Porte were maintained as a

matter of course, in order to counterpoise the ever hostile influence of

the house of Habsburg), and joined the league of Christian princes

against the Turk. The obvious danger of such a course caused no small

anxiety in the principality, and the diet of Torda even went so far as

to demand a fresh coronation oath from Sigismund, and, on his refusal to

render it, threatened him with deposition. Ultimately Bathory got the

better of his opponents, and executed all whom he got into his hands

(1595). Nevertheless, if anybody could have successfully carried out an

anti-Turkish policy, it was certainly Bathory. He had inherited the

military genius of his uncle, and his victories astonished contemporary

Europe. In 1595 he subdued Walachia and annihilated the army of Sinan

Pasha at Giurgevo (October 28th). The turning-point of his career was

his separation from his wife, the archduchess Christina of Austria, in

1599, an event followed by his own abdication the same year, in order

that he might take orders. It was on this occasion that he offered the

throne of Transylvania to the emperor Rudolph II., in exchange for the

duchy of Oppeln. In 1600, however, at the head of an army of Poles and

Cossacks, he attempted to recover his throne, but was routed by Michael,

voivode of Moldavia, at Suceava. In February 1601 the diet of

Klausenburg reinstated him, but again he was driven out by Michael,

never to return. He died at Prague in 1613. Bathory's indisputable

genius must have been warped by a strain of madness. His

incalculableness, his savage cruelty (like most of the princes of his

house he was a fanatical Catholic and persecutor) and his perpetual

restlessness point plainly enough to a disordered mind.

See Ignaz Acsady, _History of the Hungarian State_ (Hung.) vol. ii.,

(Budapest, 1904). (R. N. B.)

BATHOS (Gr. [Greek: bathos]), properly depth, the bottom or lowest part

of anything. The current usage for an anticlimax, a descent "from the

sublime to the ridiculous," from the elevated to the commonplace in

literature or speech, is due to Pope's satire on _Bathos_

(_Miscellanies_, 1727-1728), "the art of sinking in poetry." The title

was a travesty of Longinus's essay, _On the Sublime_, [Greek: Peri

hupsous].

BATHS. In the ordinary acceptation of the word a bath is the immersion

of the body in a medium different from the ordinary one of atmospheric

air, which medium is usually common water in some form. In another sense

it includes the different media that may be used, and the various

arrangements by which they are applied.

_Ancient Baths._--Bathing, as serving both for cleanliness and for

pleasure, has been almost instinctively practised by nearly every

people. The most ancient records mention bathing in the rivers Nile and

Ganges. From an early period the Jews bathed in running water, used both

hot and cold baths, and employed oils and ointments. So also did the

Greeks; their earliest and commonest form of bathing was swimming in

rivers, and bathing in them was practised by both sexes. Warm baths

were, according to Homer, used after fatigue or exercise. The Athenians

appear for a long time to have had only private baths, but afterwards

they had public ones: the latter seem to have originated among the

Lacedaemonians, who invented the hot-air bath, at least the form of it

called after them the _laconicum_. Although the baths of the Greeks were

not so luxurious as those of some other nations, yet effeminate people

were accused among them of using warm baths in excess; and the bath

servants appear to have been rogues and thieves, as in later and larger

establishments. The Persians must have had handsomely equipped baths,

for Alexander the Great admired the luxury of the bath of Darius.

But the baths of the Greeks, and probably of all Eastern nations, were

on a small scale as compared with those which eventually sprang up among

the Romans. In early times the Romans used after exercise to throw

themselves into the Tiber. Next, when ample supplies of water were

brought into the city, large _piscinae_, or cold swimming baths, were

constructed, the earliest of which appear to have been the _piscina

publica_ (312 B.C.), near the Circus Maximus, supplied by the Appian

aqueduct, the _lavacrum_ of Agrippina, and a bath at the end of the

Clivus Capitolinus. Next, small public as well as private baths were

built; and with the empire more luxurious forms of bathing were

introduced, and warm became far more popular than cold baths.

Public baths (_balneae_) were first built in Rome after Clodius brought

in the supply of water from Praeneste, After that date baths began to be

common both in Rome and in other Italian cities; and private baths,

which gradually came into use, were attached to the villas of the

wealthy citizens. Maecenas was one of the first who built public baths

at his own expense. After his time each emperor, as he wished to

ingratiate himself with the people, lavished the revenues of the state

in the construction of enormous buildings, which not only contained

suites of bathing apartments, but included gymnasia, and sometimes even

theatres and libraries. Such enormous establishments went by the name of

_thermae_. The principal thermae were those of Agrippa 21 B.C., of Nero

65 A.D., of Titus 81, of Domitian 95, of Commodus 185, of Caracalla 217,

and still later those of Diocletian 302, and of Constantine. The

technical skill displayed by the Romans in rendering their walls and the

sides of reservoirs impervious to moisture, in conveying and heating

water, and in constructing flues for the conveyance of hot air through

the walls, was of the highest order.

The Roman baths contained swimming baths, warm baths, baths of hot air,

and vapour baths. The chief rooms (which in the largest baths appear to

have been mostly distinct, whereas in smaller baths one chamber was made

to do duty for more than a single purpose) were the following:--(1) The

_apodyterium_ or _spoliatorium_, where the bathers undressed; (2) the

_alipterium_ or _unctuarium_, where oils and ointments were kept

(although the bathers often brought their own pomades), and where the

_aliptae_, anointed the bathers; (3) the _frigidarium_, or cool room,

_cella frigida_, in which usually was the cold bath, the _piscina_ or

_baptisterium_; (4) the _tepidarium_, a room moderately heated, in which

the bathers rested for a time, but which was not meant for bathing; (5)

the _calidarium_ or heating room, over the _hypocaustum_ or furnace;

this in its commonest arrangement had at one end a warm bath, the

_alveus_ or _calida lavatio_; at the other end in a sort of alcove was

(6) the _sudatorium_ or _laconicum_, which usually had a _labrum_ or

large vessel containing water, with which bathers sprinkled themselves

to help in rubbing off the perspiration. In the largest baths the

laconicum was probably a separate chamber, a circular domical room with

recesses in the sides, and a large opening in the top; but there is no

well-preserved specimen, unless that at Pisa may be so regarded. In the

drawing of baths from the thermae of Titus (fig. 1), the laconicum is

represented as a small cupola rising in a corner of the calidarium. It

is known that the temperature of the laconicum was regulated by drawing

up or down a metallic plate or _clypeus_. Some think that this clypeus

was directly over the flames of the hypocaustum, and that when it was

withdrawn, the flames must have sprung into the laconicum. Others, and

apparently they have Vitruvius on their side, think that the clypeus was

drawn up or down only from the aperture in the roof, and that it

regulated the temperature simply by giving more or less free exit to the

hot air. If the laconicum was only one end of the calidarium, it is

difficult to see how that end of the room was kept so much hotter than

the rest of it; on the other hand, to have had flames actually issuing

from the laconicum must have caused smoke and soot, and have been very

unpleasant. The most usual order in which the rooms were employed seems

to have been the following, but there does not appear to have been any

absolute uniformity of practice then, any more than in modern Egyptian

and Turkish baths. Celsus recommends the bather first to sweat a little

in the tepidarium with his clothes on, to be anointed there, and then to

pass into the calidarium; after he has sweated freely there he is not to

descend into the solium or cold bath, but to have plenty of water poured

over him from his head,--first warm, then tepid, and then cold

water--the water being poured longer over his head than on the rest of

the body; next to be scraped with the strigil, and lastly to be rubbed

and anointed.

The warmest of the heated rooms, i.e. the calidarium and laconicum, were

heated directly from the hypocaustum, over which they were built or

suspended (_suspensura_); while from the hypocaustum tubes of brass, or

lead, or pottery carried the hot air or vapour to the walls of the other

rooms. The walls were usually hollow, so that the hot air could readily

circulate.

The water was heated ingeniously. Close to the furnace, about 4 in. off,

was placed the calidarium, the copper (_ahenum_) for boiling water, near

which, with the same interval between them, was the copper for warm

water, the _tepidarium_, and at the distance of 2 ft. from this was the

receptacle for cold water, or the _frigidarium_, often a plastered

reservoir. A constant communication was kept up between these vessels,

so that as fast as hot water was drawn off from the calidarium a supply

was obtained from the tepidarium, which, being already heated, but

slightly reduced the temperature of the hotter boiler. The tepidarium,

again, was supplied from the frigidarium, and that from an aqueduct. In

this way the heat which was not taken up by the first boiler passed on

to the second, and instead of being wasted, helped to heat the second--a

principle which has only lately been introduced into modern furnaces. In

the case of the large thermae the water of an aqueduct was brought to

the _castellum_ or top of the building and was allowed to descend into

chambers over the hypocaustum, where it was heated and transmitted in

pipes to the central buildings. Remains of this arrangement are to be

seen in the baths of Caracalla. The general plan of such buildings may

be more clearly understood by the accompanying illustrations. In the

well-known drawing (fig. 1) found in the baths of Titus, the name of

each part of the building is inscribed on it. The small dome inscribed

laconicum directly over the furnace, and having the clypeus over it,

will be observed in the corner of the chamber named concamerata sudatio.

The vessels for water are inscribed, according to their temperature,

with the same names as some of the chambers, frigidarium, tepidarium and

calidarium.

[Illustration: FIG 1.--Roman baths.]

The baths of Pompeii (as shown in fig. 2) were a double set, and were

surrounded with tabernae or shops, which are marked by a lighter shade.

There were streets on four sides; and the reservoir supplying water was

across the street in the building on the left hand of the cut. There

were three public entrances--21a, 21b, 21c--to the men's baths and one

to the women's. The furnaces (9) heated water, which was conveyed on one

side to the larger baths of the men, on the other to the women's.

Entering from the street at 21c there was a latrina on the left hand

(22). From this entrance it was usual to proceed to a court (20)

surrounded by pillars, where servants were in attendance. There is some

doubt as to the purpose to which the room (19) was devoted. Leaving the

hall a passage conducted to the apodyterium or dressing-room (17), at

one end of it is the frigidarium, baptisterium or cold plunge bath (18).

Entering out of the apodyterium is the tepidarium or warming-room (15),

which most probably was also used as the alipterium or anointing-room.

From it bathers passed into the hot room or calidarium (12), which had

at one end the alveus or calida lavatio (13), at the other end the

labrum (14). This end of the calidarium served as the laconicum. The

arrangements of the women's baths were similar, but on a smaller scale.

The calidarium (5) had the labrum (7) at one end, and the alveus (6) was

in one side of the room. The general arrangements of a calidarium are

well illustrated by the accompanying section (fig. 3) of a bath

discovered at Tusculum. The disposition of the parts is the same as at

Pompeii. We here have the calidarium supported on the pillars of the

fornax, the suspensura. The alveus (3) is at one end, and the labrum (4)

at the other. (1) and (2) are the vessels for water over the fornax; and

the passages in the roof and walls for the escape of heated air will be

observed.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Ground plan of the baths of Pompeii.]

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Section of bath discovered at Tusculum, showing

the calidarium (hot room).]

A clear idea of the relative position of the different rooms, and some

slight indication of their ornamentation, will be obtained from fig. 4.

The flues under the calidarium and the labrum (1) may be observed, as

also the opening in the roof above. (2), (3) and (4) mark the vessels

for water which are placed between the men's baths on the left and the

women's on the right.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Section of baths of Pompeii.]

The arrangements of the _thermae_ were mainly those of the balneae on a

larger scale. Some idea of their size may be gathered from such facts as

these, that in the baths of Diocletian one room has been transmuted into

a church of most imposing proportions, and that the outside walls of

the baths of Caracalla extend about a quarter of a mile on each of the

four sides. A visit to the remains of the baths of Titus, of Diocletian,

or of Caracalla impresses the mind strongly with a sense of the vast

scale on which they were erected, and Ammianus's designation of them as

provinces appears scarcely exaggerated. It is said that the baths of

Caracalla contained 1600, and those of Diocletian 3200 marble seats for

the use of the bathers. In the largest of the thermae there was a

stadium for the games of the young men, with raised seats for the

spectators. There were open colonnades and seats for philosophers and

literary men to sit and discourse or read their productions aloud or for

others to discuss the latest news. Near the porticoes, in the interior

open space, rows of trees were planted. There was a _sphaeristerium_ or

place for playing ball, which was often over the apodyterium; but it

must be confessed that the purposes of many portions of these large

edifices have not been made out in as satisfactory a way as those of

smaller baths. A more definite idea of the thermae can be best got by an

examination of the accompanying plan of the baths of Caracalla (fig. 5).

A good deal of the plan is conjectural, the restorations being marked by

lighter shading.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Ground plan of the baths of Caracalla.]

At the bottom of the plan is shown a long colonnade, which faces the

street, behind which was a series of chambers, supposed to have been

separate bathing-rooms. Entering by the opening in its centre, the

visitor passes what was probably an inner colonnade round the main

building. Passing in by either of the gates (2, 2), he reaches the

large chamber (3), which has been variously called the natatio or

large swimming-bath, or the tepidarium. The great central room (4) in

all probability was the calidarium, with two labra (6, 6) on opposite

sides, and with four alvei, one in each corner, represented by small

circular dots. (9) has been regarded by some as the laconicuim,

although it appears very large for that purpose. The rooms (15, 15)

have been variously described as baptisteria and as laconica. Most

authors are agreed in thinking that the large rooms (13) and (16) were

the sphaeristeria or places for playing ball.

Returning to the outside, (1) and (18) and the corresponding places on

the other side are supposed to have been the exedrae for philosophers,

and places corresponding to the Greek xysti. (20) and (19) have been

considered to be servants' rooms. (22) was the stadium, with raised

seats for the spectators. The space between this and the large central

hall (9) was planted with trees, and at (21) the aqueduct brought

water into the castellum or reservoir, which was on an upper storey.

There were upper storeys in most portions of the building, and in

these probably were the libraries and small theatres.

The piscinae were often of immense size--that of Diocletian being 200

ft. long--and were adorned with beautiful marbles. The halls were

crowded with magnificent columns and were ornamented with the finest

pieces of statuary. The walls, it has been said, were covered with

exquisite mosaics that imitated the art of the painter in their elegance

of design and variety of colour. The Egyptian syenite was encrusted with

the precious green marbles of Numidia. The rooms contained the works of

Phidias and Praxiteles. A perpetual stream of water was poured into

capacious basins through the wide mouths of lions of bright and polished

silver, water issued from silver, and was received on silver. "To such a

pitch of luxury have we reached," says Seneca, "that we are dissatisfied

if we do not tread on gems in our baths."

The richer Romans used every variety of oils and pomades (_smegmata_);

they scarcely had true soaps. The poorer class had to be content with

the flour of lentils, an article used at this day for the same purpose

by Orientals. The most important bath utensil was the strigillus, a

curved instrument made of metal, with which the skin was scraped and all

sordes removed.

The bath servants assisted in anointing, in using the strigillus and in

various other menial offices. The poorer classes had to use their

strigils themselves. The various processes of the aliptae seem to have

been carried on very systematically.

[Illustration: FIG. 6.[1] Ring on which are suspended some of the

articles in use in the Alipterium]

The hot baths appear to have been open from 1 P.M. till dark. It was

only one of the later emperors that had them lighted up at night. When

the hot baths were ready (for, doubtless, the plunge baths were

available at an earlier hour), a bell or _aes_ was rung for the

information of the people. Among the Greeks and Romans the eighth hour,

or 1 o'clock, before their dinner, was the commonest hour for bathing.

The bath was supposed to promote appetite, and some voluptuaries had one

or more baths after dinner, to enable them to begin eating again; but

such excesses, as Juvenal tells us, occasionally proved fatal. Some of

the most effeminate of the emperors are said to have bathed seven or

eight times in the course of the day. In early times there was delicacy

of feeling about the sexes bathing together--even a father could not

bathe with his sons; but latterly, under most of the emperors, men and

women often used the same baths. There frequently were separate baths

for the women, as we see at Pompeii or at Badenweiler; but although

respectable matrons would not go to public baths, promiscuous bathing

was common during the Empire.

The public baths and thermae were under the more immediate

superintendence of the aediles. The charge made at a public bath was

only a quadrans or quarter of an as, about half a farthing. Yet cheap

though this was, the emperors used to ingratiate themselves with the

populace, by making the baths at times gratuitous.

Wherever the Romans settled, they built public baths; and wherever they

found hot springs or natural stufae, they made use of them, thus saving

the expense of heating, as at the _myrteta_ of Baiae or the _Aquae

Sulis_ of Bath. In the cities there appear to have been private baths

for hire, as well as the public baths; and every rich citizen had a set

of baths attached to his villa, the fullest account of which is given in

the _Letters_ of Pliny, or in Ausonius's _Account of a Villa on the

Moselle_, or in Statius's _De Balneo Etrusco_. Although the Romans never

wholly gave up cold bathing, and that practice was revived under

Augustus by Antonius Musa, and again under Nero by Charmis (at which

later time bathing in the open sea became common), yet they chiefly

practised warm bathing (_calida lavatio_). This is the most luxurious

kind of bathing, and when indulged in to excess is enervating. The women

were particularly fond of these baths, and were accused, at all events

in some provincial cities, of drunkenness in them.

The unbounded license of the public baths, and their connexion with

modes of amusement that were condemned, led to their being to a

considerable extent proscribed by the early Christians. The early

Fathers wrote that bathing might be practised for the sake of

cleanliness or of health, but not of pleasure; and Gregory the Great saw

no objection to baths being used on Sunday. About the 5th century many

of the large thermae in Rome fell into decay. The cutting off of the

aqueducts by the Huns, and the gradual decrease of the population,

contributed to this. Still it is doubtful whether bathing was ever

disused to the extent that is usually represented. It was certainly kept

up in the East in full vigour at Alexandria and at Brusa. Hot bathing,

and especially hot air and vapour baths, were adopted by the

Mahommedans; and the Arabs brought them with them into Spain. The Turks,

at a later time, carried them high up the Danube, and the Mahommedans

spread or, it may be more correct to say, revived their use in Persia

and in Hindustan. The Crusaders also contributed to the spread of baths

in Europe, and hot vapour baths were specially recommended for the

leprosy so prevalent in those days. After the commencement of the 13th

century there were few large cities in Europe without hot vapour baths.

We have full accounts of their regulations--how the Jews were only

allowed to visit them once a week, and how there were separate baths for

lepers. In England they were called hothouses. Erasmus, at the date of

the Reformation, spoke of them as common in France, Germany and Belgium;

he gives a lively account of the mixture of all classes of people to be

found in them, and would imply that they were a common adjunct to inns.

They seem after a time to have become less common, though Montaigne

mentions them as being still in Rome in his day. In England the next

revival of baths was at the close of the 17th century, under the Eastern

name of _Hummums_ or the Italian name of Bagnios. These were avowedly on

the principle of the Turkish baths described below. But there were

several considerable epochs in the history of baths, one in the

commencement of the 18th century, when Floyer and others recalled

attention to cold bathing, of which the virtues had long been

overlooked. In the middle of the century also, Russell and others

revived sea-bathing in England, and were followed by others on the

continent, until the value of sea-bathing became fully appreciated.

Later in the same century the experiments of James Currie on the action

of complete or of partial baths on the system in disease attracted

attention; and though forgotten for a while, they bore abundant fruit in

more recent times.

_Modern Baths._--It is uncertain how far the Turkish and Egyptian and

even the Russian baths are to be regarded merely as successors of the

Roman baths, because the principle of vapour baths has been known to

many nations in a very early period of civilization. Thus the Mexicans

and Indians were found using small vapour baths. The ancient inhabitants

of Ireland and of Scotland had some notion of their use, and the large

vapour baths of Japan, now so extensively employed, are probably of

independent origin.

The following accounts of Turkish and Russian baths illustrate the

practices of the ancient Roman and also of modern Turkish baths. In

Lane's _On the Modern Egyptians_ we read: "The building consists of

several apartments, all of which are paved with marble, chiefly white.

The inner apartments are covered with domes, which have a number of

small glazed apertures for the admission of light. The bather, on

entering, if he has a watch or purse, gives them in charge to the keeper

of the bath. The servant of the bath takes off his shoes and supplies

him with a pair of wooden clogs. The first apartment has generally three

or four _leewans_ (raised parts of the floor used as couches) cased with

marble, and a fountain of cold water, which rises from an octagonal

basement in the centre. One of the leewans, which is meant for the

higher classes, is furnished with cushions or mats. In warm weather

bathers usually undress in this room; in winter they undress in an inner

room, called the _beytowwal_ or first chamber, between which and the

last apartment there is a passage often with two or three latrines off

it. This is the first of the heated chambers. It generally has two

raised seats. The bather receives a napkin in which to put his clothes

and another to put round his waist--this reaches to the knees; a third,

if he requires it, is brought him to wind round his head, leaving the

top of it bare; a fourth to put over his chest; and a fifth to cover his

back. When the bather has undressed, the attendant opens to him the door

of the inner and principal apartment. This in general has four leewans,

which gives it the form of a cross, and in the centre a fountain of hot

water rises from a small shallow basin. The centre room, with the

adjoining ones, forms almost a square. The beytowwal already mentioned

is one of them. Two small chambers which adjoin each other, one

containing a tank of hot water, the other containing a trough, over

which are two taps, one of hot and one of cold water, occupy the two

other angles; while the fourth angle of the square is occupied by the

chamber which contains the fire, over which is the boiler. The bather

having entered this apartment soon perspires profusely from the humid

heat which is produced by the hot water of tanks and fountains, and by

the steam of the boiler. The bather sits on one of the marble seats, or

lies on the leewan or near one of the tanks, and the operator then

commences his work. The operator first cracks aloud every joint in the

body. He makes the vertebrae of the back and even of the neck crack. The

limbs are twisted with apparent violence, but so skilfully, that no harm

is ever done. The operator next kneads the patient's flesh. After this

he rubs the soles of the feet with a kind of rasp of baked clay. There

are two kinds of rasps, one porous and rough, one of fine smooth clay.

Those used by ladies are usually encased in thin embossed silver. The

next operation is rubbing the bather's flesh with a small coarse woollen

bag, after which the bather dips himself in one of the tanks. He is next

taken to one of the chambers in the corner, and the operator lathers the

bather with fibres of the palm tree, soap and water. The soap is then

washed off with water, when the bather having finished washing, and

enveloped himself in dry towels, returns to the beytowwal and reclines.

Here he generally remains an hour to an hour and a half, sipping coffee

and smoking, while an attendant rubs the soles of the feet and kneads

the body and limbs. The bather then dresses and goes out."

The following description of a Russian bath is from Kohl's _Russia_

(1842): "The passage from the door is divided into two behind the

check-taker's post, one for the male, one for the female guests. We

first enter an open space, in which a set of men are sitting in a state

of nudity on benches, those who have already bathed dressing, while

those who are going to undergo the process take off their clothes. Round

this space or apartment are the doors leading to the vapour-rooms. The

bather is ushered into them, and finds himself in a room full of vapour,

which is surrounded by a wooden platform rising in steps to near the

roof of the room. The bather is made to lie down on one of the lower

benches, and gradually to ascend to the higher and hotter ones. The

first sensation on entering the room amounts almost to a feeling of

suffocation. After you have been subjected for some time to a

temperature which may rise to 145 deg. the transpiration reaches its

full activity, and the sensation is very pleasant. The bath attendants

come and flog you with birchen twigs, cover you with the lather of soap,

afterwards rub it off, and then hold you over a jet of ice-cold water.

The shock is great, but is followed by a pleasant feeling of great

comfort and of alleviation of any rheumatic pains you may have had. In

regular establishments you go after this and lie down on a bed for a

time before issuing forth. But the Russians often dress in the open air,

and instead of using the jet of cold water, go and roll themselves at

once in the snow."

Turkish baths have, with various modifications, become popular in

Europe. The Russian baths were introduced into German towns about 1825.

They had a certain limited amount of popularity, but did not take firm

root. Another class practically owes its origin to Dr Barter and David

Urquhart. It professed to be founded on the Turkish bath, but in reality

it was much more of a hot air bath, i.e. more devoid of vapour than

either Roman or Turkish baths ever were, for it is doubtful whether in

any case the air of the laconicum was free from vapour. These baths,

with their various modifications, have become extremely popular in Great

Britain, in Germany and in northern Europe, but have, curiously enough,

never been used extensively in France, notwithstanding the familiarity

of the French with Turkish baths in Algiers.

In England hot air baths are now employed very extensively. They are

often associated with Turkish and electric baths.

Bathing among the ancients was practised in various forms. It was

sometimes a simple bath in cold or in tepid water; but at least, in the

case of the higher orders, it usually included a hot air or vapour bath,

and was followed by affusion of cold or warm water, and generally by a

plunge into the piscina. In like manner the order varies in which the

different processes are gone through in Turkish baths in modern Europe.

Thus in the baths in Vienna, the process begins by immersion in a large

basin of warm water. Sudation is repeatedly interrupted by cold douches

at the will of the bathers, and after the bath they are satisfied with a

short stay in the cooling-room, where they have only a simple sheet

rolled round them. In Copenhagen and in Stockholm the Oriental baths

have been considerably modified by their association with hydropathic

practices.

This leads us to notice the introduction of the curiously misnamed

system known as hydropathy (q.v.). Although cold baths were in vogue

for a time in Rome, warm baths were always more popular. Floyer, as we

have seen, did something to revive their use in England; but it was

nearly a century and a half afterwards that a Silesian peasant,

Priessnitz, introduced, with wonderful success, a variety of operations

with cold water, the most important of which was the packing the patient

in a wet sheet, a process which after a time is followed by profuse

sudation. Large establishments for carrying out this mode of bathing and

its modifications were erected in many places on the continent and in

Great Britain, and enjoyed at one time a large share of popularity. The

name "hydropathic" is still retained for these establishments, though

hydropathy so-called is no longer practised within them to any extent.

But the greatest and most important development of ordinary baths in

modern times was in England, though it has extended gradually to some

parts of the continent. The English had long used affusion and

swimming-baths freely in India. Cold and hot baths and shower baths have

been introduced into private houses to an extent never known before;

and, since 1842, public swimming-baths, besides separate baths, have

been supplied to the public at very moderate rates, in some cases

associated with wash-houses for the poorer classes. Their number has

increased rapidly in London and in the principal continental cities.

Floating-baths in rivers, always known in some German towns, have become

common wherever there are flowing streams. The better supply of most

European cities with water has aided in this movement. Ample enclosed

swimming-baths have been erected at many seaside places. When required,

the water, if not heated in a boiler, is raised to a sufficient

temperature by the aid of hot water pipes or of steam. Separate baths

used to be of wood, painted; they are now most frequently of metal,

painted or lined with porcelain enamel. The swimming-baths are lined

with cement, tiles or marble and porcelain slabs; and a good deal of

ornamentation and painting of the walls and ceiling of the apartments,

in imitation of the ancients, has been attempted.

We have thus traced in outline the history of baths through successive

ages. The medium of the baths spoken of thus far has been water, vapour

or dry hot air. But baths of more complex nature, and of the greatest

variety, have been in use from the earliest ages. The best known media

are the various mineral waters and sea-water. Of baths of _mineral_

substances, those of sand are the oldest and best known; the practice of

_arenation_ or of burying the body in the sand of the sea-shore, or in

heated sand near some hot spring, is very ancient, as also that of

applying heated sand to various parts of the body. Baths of _peat_ earth

are of comparatively recent origin. The peat earth is carefully prepared

and pulverized, and then worked up with water into a pasty consistence,

of which the temperature can be regulated before the patient immerses

himself in it.

There are various terms that may be termed _chemical_, in which chlorine

or hydrochloric acid is added to the water of the bath, or where fumes

of sulphur are made to rise and envelop the body.

Of _vegetable_ baths the number is very large. Lees of wine, in a state

of fermentation, have been employed. An immense variety of aromatic

herbs have been used to impregnate water with. At one time fuci or

sea-weed were added to baths, under the idea of conveying into the

system the iodine which they contain; but by far the most popular of all

vegetable baths are those made with an extract got by distilling certain

varieties of pine leaves.

The strangeness of the baths of _animal_ substances, that have been at

various times in use, is such that their employment seems scarcely

credible. That baths of milk or of whey might be not unpopular is not

surprising, but baths of blood, in some cases even of human blood, have

been used; and baths of horse dung were for many ages in high favour,

and were even succeeded for a short time by baths of guano.

_Electrical_ baths are now largely used, a current being passed through

the water; and electrical _massage_, by the d'Arsonval or other system,

is colloquially termed a "bath."

Baths also of _compressed air_, in which the patient is subjected to the

pressure of two or three atmospheres, were formerly employed in some

places.

A _sun_ bath (_insolatio_ or _heliosis_), exposing the body to the sun,

the head being covered, was a favourite practice among the Greeks and

Romans.

Some special devices require a few words of explanation.

_Douches_ were used by the ancients, and have always been an important

mode of applying water to a circumscribed portion of the body. They are,

in fact, spouts of water, varying in size and temperature, applied by a

hose-pipe with more or less force for a longer or shorter time against

particular parts. A douche exercises a certain amount of friction, and a

continued impulse on the spot to which it is applied, which stimulate

the skin and the parts beneath it, quickening the capillary circulation.

The effects of the douche are so powerful that it cannot be applied for

more than a few minutes continuously. The alternation of hot and cold

douches, which for some unknown reason has got the name of _Ecossaise_,

is a very potent type of bath from the strong action and reaction which

it produces. The _shower_ bath may be regarded as a union of an immense

number of fine douches projected on the head and shoulders. It produces

a strong effect on the nervous system. An ingenious contrivance for

giving circular _spray_ baths, by which water is propelled laterally in

fine streams against every portion of the surface of the body, is now

common.

To all these modes of acting on the cutaneous surface and circulation

must be added dry rubbing, as practised by the patient with the flesh

glove, but much more thoroughly by the bath attendants, if properly

instructed (see also MASSAGE).

_Action of Baths on the Human System._--The primary operation of baths

is the action of heat and cold on the cutaneous surfaces through the

medium of water.

The first purpose of baths is simply that of abstersion and cleanliness,

to remove any foreign impurity from the surface, and to prevent the

pores from being clogged by their own secretions or by desquamations of

cuticle. It need scarcely be said that such objects are greatly promoted

by the action of the alkali of soaps and by friction; that the use of

warm water, owing to its immediate stimulation of the skin, promotes the

separation of sordes, and that the vapour of water is still more

efficient than water itself.

It has been supposed that water acts on the system by being absorbed

through the skin, but, under ordinary circumstances, no water is

absorbed, or, if any, so minute a quantity as not to be worth

considering. No dissolved substances, under the ordinary circumstances

of a bath, are actually absorbed into the system; although when a

portion of skin has been entirely cleared of its sebaceous secretion, it

is possible that a strong solution of salts may be partially absorbed.

In the case of medicated baths we therefore only look (in addition to

the action of heat and cold, or more properly to the abstraction or

communication and retention of heat) to any stimulant action on the skin

that the ingredients of the bath may possess.

The powerful influence of water on the capillaries of the skin, and the

mode and extent of that operation, depend primarily on the temperature

of the fluid. The human system bears changes of temperature of the air

much better than changes of the temperature of water. While the

temperature of the air at 75 deg. may be too warm for the feelings of

many people, a continued bath at that temperature is felt to be cold and

depressing. Again, a bath of 98 deg. to 102 deg. acts far more

excitingly than air of the same temperature, both because, being a

better conductor, water brings more heat to the body and because it

suppresses the perspiration which is greatly augmented by air of that

temperature. Further, a temperature a few degrees below blood heat is

that of indifferent baths, which can be borne longest without natural

disturbance of the system.

_Cold baths_ act by refrigeration, and their effects vary according to

the degree of temperature. The effects of a cold bath, the temperature

not being below 50 deg., are these:--there is a diminution of the

temperature of the skin and of the subjacent tissues; there is a certain

feeling of shock diffused over the whole surface, and if the cold is

intense it induces a slight feeling of numbness in the skin. It becomes

pale and its capillaries contract. The further action of a cold bath

reaches the central nervous system, the heart and the lungs, as

manifested by the tremor of the limbs it produces, along with a certain

degree of oppression of the chest and a gasping for air, while the pulse

becomes small and sinks. After a time reaction takes place, and brings

redness to the skin and an increase of temperature.

The colder the water is, and the more powerful and depressing its

effects, the quicker and more active is the reaction. Very cold baths,

anything below 50 deg., cannot be borne long. Lowering of the

temperature of the skin may be borne down to 9 deg., but a further

reduction may prove fatal. The diminution of temperature is much more

rapid when the water is in motion, or when the bather moves about;

because, if the water is still, the layer of it in immediate contact

with the body is warmed to a certain degree.

A great deal depends on the form of the cold bath; thus one may

have--(1) Its depressing operation,--with a loss of heat, retardation of

the circulation, and feeling of weariness, when the same water remains

in contact with the skin, and there is continuous withdrawal of heat

without fresh stimulation. This occurs with full or sitz baths, with

partial or complete wrapping up the body in a wet sheet which remains

unchanged, and with frictions practised without removing the wet sheets.

(2) Its exciting operation,--with quickening of the action of the heart

and lungs, and feeling of glow and of nervous excitement and of

increased muscular power. These sensations are produced when the layer

of water next the body and heated by it is removed, and fresh cold water

causes fresh stimulus. These effects are produced by full baths with the

water in motion used only for a short time, by frictions when the wet

sheet is removed from the body, by douches, shower baths, bathing in

rivers, &c. The depressing operation comes on much earlier in very cold

water than in warmer; and in the same way the exciting operation comes

on faster with the colder than with the warmer water. The short duration

of the bath makes both its depressing and its exciting action less; its

longer duration increases them; and if the baths be continued too long,

the protracted abstraction of animal heat may prove very depressing.

_Tepid baths_, 85 deg. to 95 deg.--The effects of a bath of this

temperature are confined to the peripheral extremities of the nerves,

and are so slight that they do not reach the central system. There is no

reaction, and the body temperature remains unchanged. Baths of this kind

can be borne for hours with impunity.

_Warm baths_ from 96 deg. to 104 deg.--In these the action of the heat

on the peripheral surface is propagated to the central system, and

causes reaction, which manifests itself in moderately increased flow of

the blood to the surface, and in an increased frequency of pulse.

With a _hot bath_ from 102 deg. up to 110 deg. the central nervous and

circulating systems are more affected. The frequency of the pulse

increases rapidly, the respiration becomes quickened, and is interrupted

by deep inspirations. The skin is congested, and there is profuse

perspiration.

_Very hot baths._--Everything above 110 deg. feels very hot; anything

above 120 deg. almost scalding. Baths of from 119 deg. to 126 deg. have

caused a rise of 2 deg. to 4-1/2 deg. in the temperature of the blood.

Such a bath can be borne for only a few minutes. It causes great

rapidity of the pulse, extreme lowering of the blood-pressure, excessive

congestion of the skin, and violent perspiration.

In the use of hot baths a certain amount of vapour reaches the parts of

the body not covered by the water, and is also inhaled.

_Vapour_ baths produce profuse perspiration and act in cleansing the

skin, as powerful hot water baths do. Vapour, owing to its smaller

specific heat, does not act so fast as water on the body. A vapour bath

can be borne for a much longer time when the vapour is not inhaled.

Vapour baths can be borne hotter than water baths, but cannot be

continued too long, as vapour, being a bad conductor, prevents radiation

of heat from the body. A higher heat than 122 deg. is not borne

comfortably. The vapour bath though falling considerably short of the

temperature of the hot air bath, raises the temperature much more.

_Hot air_ baths differ from vapour baths in not impeding the respiration

as the latter do, by depositing moisture in the bronchial tubes. The

lungs, instead of having to heat the inspired air, are subjected to a

temperature above their own. Hot air baths, say of 135 deg., produce

more profuse perspiration than vapour baths. If very hot, they raise the

temperature of the body by several degrees. Vapour baths, hot air baths,

and hot water baths agree in producing violent perspiration. As

perspiration eliminates water and effete matter from the system, it is

obvious that its regulation must have an important effect on the

economy.

In comparing the general effects of cold and hot baths, it may be said

that while the former tend to check perspiration, the latter favour it.

The warm bath causes swelling and congestion of the capillaries of the

surface in the first instance; when the stimulus of heat is withdrawn

their contraction ensues. A cold bath, again, first causes a contraction

of the capillaries of the surface, which is followed by their expansion

when reaction sets in. A warm bath elevates the temperature of the body,

both by bringing a supply of heat to it and by preventing the radiation

of heat from it. It can be borne longer than a cold bath. It draws blood

to the surface, while a cold bath favours internal congestions.

But baths often produce injurious effects when used injudiciously. Long

continued warm baths are soporific, and have, owing to this action,

often caused death by drowning. The effects of very hot baths are

swimming in the head, vomiting, fainting, congestion of the brain, and,

in some instances, apoplexy.

The symptoms seem to point to paralysis of the action of the heart. It

is therefore very evident how cautious those should be, in the use of

hot baths, who have weak hearts or any obstruction to the circulation.

Fat men, and those in whom the heart or blood-vessels are unsound,

should avoid them. Protracted indulgence in warm baths is relaxing, and

has been esteemed a sign of effeminacy in all ages. Sleepiness, though

it will not follow the first immersion in a cold bath, is one of the

effects of protracted cold baths; depression of the temperature of the

surface becomes dangerous. The risk in cold baths is congestion of the

internal organs, as often indicated by the lips getting blue. Extremely

cold baths are always dangerous.

For the medical use of baths see BALNEOTHERAPEUTICS.

_Public Baths._--It was not till 1846 that it was deemed advisable in

England, for the "health, comfort, and welfare" of the inhabitants of

towns and populous districts, to encourage the establishment therein of

baths by the local authority acting through commissioners. A series of

statutes, known collectively as "The Baths and Wash-houses Acts 1846 to

1896," followed. By the Public Health Act 1875, the urban authority was

declared to be the authority having power to adopt and proceed under

the previous acts, and in 1878 provision was for the first time

expressly made for the establishment of swimming baths, which might be

used during the winter as gymnasia, and by an amending act of 1899, for

music or dancing, provided a licence is obtained. By the Local

Government Act 1894, it was provided that the parish meeting should be

the authority having exclusive power of adopting the Baths and

Wash-houses Acts in rural districts, which should, if adopted, be

carried into effect by the parish council. Up to 1865 it seems as if

only twenty-five boroughs had cared to provide bathing accommodation for

their inhabitants. There is no complete information as to the number of

authorities who have adopted the acts since 1865, but a return of

reproductive undertakings presented to the House of Commons in 1899

shows that no local authorities outside the metropolis applied for power

to raise loans to provide baths, of whom 48 applied before 1875 and 62

after 1875. In the year 1907 the loans sanctioned for the purpose

amounted to L53,026. The revenues of parish councils are so limited that

it has not been possible for them to take much advantage of the acts. In

the metropolis, by the Local Government Act of 1894, the power of

working the act was given to vestries, and by the act of 1899 this power

was transferred to the borough councils. There are 35 parishes in London

in which the acts have been adopted, all of which except 11 have taken

action since 1875. These establishments, according to the return made in

1908, provided 3502 private baths and 104 swimming baths. The maximum

charge for a second-class cold bath is 1d., for a hot bath 2d. In

1904-1905 the number of bathers was 6,342,158, of whom 3,064,998 were

bathers in private baths and 3,277,160 bathers in swimming baths. In

1896-1897 the gross total had been only 2,000,000. In cases where the

proportion between the sexes has been worked out, it is found that only

18% of the users of private baths, and 10% of the users of swimming

baths, are females. In 1898 the School Board was authorized to pay the

fees for children using the baths if instruction in swimming were

provided, and in 1907-1908 the privilege was used by 1,556,542 children.

The cost of this public provision in London--water being supplied by

measure--is over L80,000 a year. No account can be given of the numbers

using the ponds and lakes in the parks and open spaces, but it is

computed that on a hot Sunday 25,000 people bathe in Victoria Park,

London, some of the bathers starting as early as four o'clock in the

morning. These returns show how great is the increase of the habit of

bathing, but they also show how even now the habit is limited to a

comparatively small part of the population. People require to be tempted

to the use of water, at any rate at the beginning. There are still

authorities in London responsible for 800,000 persons who have provided

no baths, and those who have made provision have not always done so in a

sufficiently liberal and tempting way. The comparison between English

great towns and those of the continent is not in favour of the former.

For the literature of baths in earlier periods we may refer to the

_Architecture_ of Vitruvius, and to Lucian's _Hippias_; see art.

"Bader" in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_ (1896), by A. Mau;

"Balneum" in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dict. des antiquites_ J. Marquardt

_Das Privalleben der Romer_ (1886), pp. 269-297; Backer's _Gallus_,

and the article "Balneae" by Rich, in Dr Smith's _Dictionary of Greek

and Roman Antiquities_ (rev. ed. 1890); also the bibliography to

HYDROPATHY.