ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

BASSO-RELIEVO BAY ISLANDS

BASS ROCK, THE BAYLE, PIERRE

BASSUS, AUFIDIUS BAYLO

BASSUS, CAESIUS BAYLY, THOMAS HAYNES

BASSUS, CASSIANUS BAYNES, THOMAS SPENCER

BASSUS, SALEIUS BAYONET

BASSVILLE, JEAN HUGON DE BAYONNE (town of France)

BASTAR BAYONNE (New Jersey, U.S.A.)

BASTARD BAYOU

BASTARNAE BAYREUTH

BASTI BAZA

BASTIA BAZAAR

BASTIAN, ADOLF BAZAINE, ACHILLE FRANCOIS

BASTIAT, FREDERIC BAZALGETTE, SIR JOSEPH WILLIAM

BASTIDE, JULES BAZARD, AMAND

BASTIDE BAZAS

BASTIEN-LEPAGE, JULES BAZIGARS

BASTILLE BAZIN, RENE

BASTINADO BAZIRE, CLAUDE

BASTION BDELLIUM

BASTWICK, JOHN BEACH

BASUTOLAND BEACHY HEAD

BAT BEACON

BATAC BEACONSFIELD, BENJAMIN DISRAELI

BATALA BEACONSFIELD (town of Tasmania)

BATALHA BEACONSFIELD (town of South Africa)

BATANGAS BEACONSFIELD (town of England)

BATARNAY, IMBERT DE BEAD

BATAVIA (residency of Java) BEADLE

BATAVIA (city of Java) BEAK

BATAVIA (New York, U.S.A.) BEAKER

BATEMAN, HEZEKIAH LINTHICUM BEALE, DOROTHEA

BATEMENT LIGHTS BEAM

BATES, HARRY BEAN

BATES, HENRY WALTER BEAN-FEAST

BATES, JOHN BEAR

BATES, JOSHUA BEAR-BAITING and BULL-BAITING

BATES, WILLIAM BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK

BATESON, THOMAS BEARD

BATH, THOMAS THYNNE BEARDSLEY, AUBREY VINCENT

BATH, WILLIAM PULTENEY BEARDSTOWN

BATH (county of England) BEARER

BATH (Maine, U.S.A.) BEARINGS

BATH-CHAIR BEAR-LEADER

BATHGATE BEARN

BATHOLITE BEAS

BATHONIAN SERIES BEAT

BATHORY, SIGISMUND BEATIFICATION

BATHOS BEATON, DAVID

BATHS BEATRICE

BATHURST, EARLS BEATTIE, JAMES

BATHURST BEATUS

BATHVILLITE BEAUCAIRE

BATHYBIUS BEAUCE

BATHYCLES BEAUCHAMP

BATLEY BEAUCHAMP, ALPHONSE DE

BATON BEAUFORT

BATONI, POMPEO GIROLAMO BEAUFORT, FRANCOIS DE VENDOME

BATON ROUGE BEAUFORT, HENRY

BATRACHIA BEAUFORT, LOUIS DE

BATRACHOMYOMACHIA BEAUFORT SCALE

BATTA BEAUFORT WEST

BATTAGLIA BEAUGENCY

BATTAKHIN BEAUHARNAIS

BATTALION BEAUHARNAIS, EUGENE DE

BATTAMBANG BEAUJEU

BATTANNI BEAULIEU

BATTAS BEAULY

BATTEL BEAUMANOIR

BATTEN, SIR WILLIAM BEAUMANOIR, PHILIPPE DE REMI

BATTEN BEAUMARCHAIS, PIERRE AUGUSTIN CARON DE

BATTENBERG BEAUMARIS

BATTER BEAUMONT (English family)

BATTERING RAM BEAUMONT, CHRISTOPHE DE

BATTERSEA BEAUMONT, SIR JOHN

BATTERY BEAUMONT and FLETCHER

BATTEUX, CHARLES BEAUMONT (Texas, U.S.A.)

BATTHYANY, LOUIS BEAUNE

BATTICALOA BEAUREGARD, MARQUIS DE

BATTISHILL, JONATHAN BEAUREGARD, PIERRE GUSTAVE TOUTANT

BATTLE (town of England) BEAUSOBRE, ISAAC DE

BATTLE (military engagement) BEAUVAIS

BATTLE ABBEY ROLL BEAUVILLIER

BATTLE CREEK BEAUVOIR, ROGER DE

BATTLEDORE AND SHUTTLECOCK BEAUX, CECILIA

BATTLEMENT BEAVER (animal)

BATTUE BEAVER (part of the helmet)

BATTUS BEAVER DAM

BATU BEAVER FALLS

BATUM BEAWAR

BATWA BEBEL, FERDINAND AUGUST

BATYPHONE BECCAFICO

BAUAN BECCAFUMI, DOMENICO DI PACE

BAUBLE BECCARIA, GIOVANNI BATTISTA

BAUCHI BECCARIA-BONESANA, CESARE

BAUDELAIRE, CHARLES PIERRE BECCLES

BAUDIER, MICHEL BECERRA, GASPAR

BAUDRILLART, HENRI LEON BECHE-DE-MER

BAUDRY, OF BOURGUEIL BECHER, JOHANN JOACHIM

BAUDRY, PAUL JACQUES AIME BECHUANA

BAUER, BRUNO BECHUANALAND

BAUERNFELD, EDUARD VON BECK, CHRISTIAN DANIEL

BAUFFREMONT BECK, DAVID

BAUHIN, GASPARD BECK, JAKOB SIGISMUND

BAULK BECKENHAM

BAUMBACH, RUDOLF BECKER, HEINRICH

BAUME, ANTOINE BECKER, WILHELM ADOLF

BAUMGARTEN, ALEXANDER BECKET, THOMAS

BAUMGARTEN, MICHAEL BECKFORD, WILLIAM

BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, LUDWIG BECKINGTON, THOMAS

BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN BECKMANN, JOHANN

BAUTAIN, LOUIS EUGENE MARIE BECKWITH, JAMES CARROLL

BAUTZEN BECKWITH, SIR THOMAS SYDNEY

BAUXITE BECKX, PIERRE JEAN

BAVAI BECQUE, HENRY FRANCOIS

BAVARIA BECQUER, GUSTAVO ADOLFO

BAVENO BECQUEREL

BAWBEE BED (furniture)

BAXTER, ANDREW BED (layer of rock)

BAXTER, RICHARD BEDARESI, YEDAIAH

BAXTER, ROBERT DUDLEY BEDARIEUX

BAXTER, WILLIAM BEDDGELERT

BAY BEDDOES, THOMAS

BAYAMO BEDDOES, THOMAS LOVELL

BAYARD, PIERRE TERRAIL BEDE

BAYARD, THOMAS FRANCIS BEDE, CUTHBERT

BAYAZID BEDELL, WILLIAM

BAYBAY BEDESMAN

BAY CITY BEDFORD, EARLS AND DUKES OF

BAYEUX BEDFORD (town of England)

BAYEUX TAPESTRY, THE BEDFORD (Indiana, U.S.A.)

BAYEZID I BEDFORD (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)

BAYEZID II BEDFORDSHIRE

BASSO-RELIEVO (Ital. for "low relief"), the term applied to sculpture in

which the design projects but slightly from the plane of the background.

The relief may not project at all from the original surface of the

material, as in the sunken reliefs of the Egyptians, and may be nearly

flat, as in the Panathenaic procession of the Parthenon. In the early

19th century the term _basso-relievo_, or "low relief," came to be

employed loosely for all forms of relief, the term _mezzo-relievo_

having already dropped out of general use owing to the difficulty of

accurate application.

BASS ROCK, THE, a small island in the Firth of Forth, about 2 m. from

Canty Bay, Haddingtonshire, Scotland. It is circular in shape, measuring

a mile in circumference, and is 350 ft. high. On three sides the cliffs

are precipitous, but they shelve towards the S.W., where landing is

effected. The Bass Rock is an intrusive mass of phonolitic trachyte or

orthophyre. No nepheline has been detected in the rock, but analcite is

present in small quantity together with abundant orthoclase and green

soda-augite. It bears a close resemblance to the eruptive masses of

North Berwick Law and Traprain Law, but is non-porphyritic. It is

regarded by Sir A. Geikie as a plug filling an old volcanic vent, from

which lava emanated during the Calciferous Sandstone period. It used to

be grazed by sheep, of which the mutton was thought to be unusually

good, but its principal denizens are sea-birds, chiefly solan geese,

which haunt the rock in vast numbers. A lighthouse with a six-flash

lantern of 39,000 candle power was opened in 1002. For a considerable

distance E. and W. there runs through the rock a tunnel, about 15 ft.

high, accessible at low water. St Baldred, whose name has been given to

several of the cliffs on the shore of the mainland, occupied a hermitage

on the Bass, where he died in 756. In the 14th century the island became

the property of the Lauders, called afterwards Lauders of the Bass, from

whom it was purchased in 1671 by government, and a castle with dungeons

was erected on it, in which many Covenanters were imprisoned. Among them

were Alexander Peden (1626-1686), for four years, and John Blackadder

(1615-1686), who died there after five years' detention. At the

Revolution four young Jacobites captured the Rock, and having been

reinforced by a few others, held it for King James from June 1691 to

April 1694, only surrendering when threatened by starvation. Thus the

island was the last place in Great Britain to submit to William III.

Dismantled of its fortifications in 1701, the Bass passed into the

ownership of Sir Hew Dalrymple, to whose family it belongs. It is let on

annual rental for the feathers, eggs, oil and young of the sea-birds and

for the fees of visitors, who reach it usually from Canty Bay and North

Berwick.

BASSUS, AUFIDIUS, a Roman historian, who lived in the reign of Tiberius.

His work, which probably began with the civil wars or the death of

Caesar, was continued by the elder Pliny, who, as he himself tells us,

carried it down at least as far as the end of Nero's reign. The _Bellum

Germanicum_ of Bassus, which is commended, may have been either a

separate work or a section of his general history. The elder Seneca

speaks highly of him as an historian, but the fragments preserved in

that writer's _Suasoriae_ (vi. 23) relating to the death of Cicero, are

characterized by an affected style.

Pliny, _Nat. Hist._, praefatio, 20; Tacitus, _Dialogus de Oratoribus_,

23; Quintilian, _Instit_, x. 1. 103.

BASSUS, CAESIUS, a Roman lyric poet, who lived in the reign of Nero. He

was the intimate friend of Persius, who dedicated his sixth satire to

him, and whose works he edited (Schol. on Persius, vi. 1). He is said to

have lost his life in the eruption of Vesuvius (79). He had a great

reputation as a poet; Quintilian (_Instit_, x. 1. 96) goes so far as to

say that, with the exception of Horace, he was the only lyric poet worth

reading. He is also identified with the author of a treatise _De

Metris_, of which considerable fragments, probably of an abbreviated

edition, are extant (ed. Keil, 1885). The work was probably originally

in verse, and afterwards recast or epitomized in prose form to be used

as an instruction book. A worthless and scanty account of some of the

metres of Horace (in Keil, _Grammatici Latini_, vi. 305), bearing the

title _Ars Caesii Bassi de Metris_ is not by him, but chiefly borrowed

by its unknown author from the treatise mentioned above.

BASSUS, CASSIANUS, called SCHOLASTICUS (lawyer), one of the _geoponici_

or writers on agricultural subjects. He lived at the end of the 6th or

the beginning of the 7th century A.D. He compiled from earlier writers a

collection of agricultural literature (_Geoponica_) which was afterwards

revised by an unknown editor and published about the year 950, in the

reign of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, to whom the work itself has been

ascribed. It contains a full list of the authorities drawn upon, and the

subjects treated include agriculture, birds, bees, horses, cattle,

sheep, dogs, fishes and the like.

COMPLETE EDITIONS.--Needham (1704), Niclas (1781), Beckh (1895); see

also Gemoll in _Berliner Studien_, i. (1884); Oder in _Rheinisches

Museum_, xlv. (1890), xlviii. (1893), and De Raynal in _Annuaire de

l'Assoc. pour l'Encouragement des Etudes Grecques_, viii. (1874).

BASSUS, SALEIUS, Roman epic poet, a contemporary of Valerius Flaccus, in

the reign of Vespasian. Quintilian credits him with a vigorous and

poetical genius (_Instit_, x. 1. 90) and Julius Secundus, one of the

speakers in Tacitus _Dialogus de Oratoribus_ (5; see also 9) styles him

a perfect poet and most illustrious bard. He was apparently overtaken by

poverty, but was generously treated by Vespasian, who made him a present

of 500,000 sesterces. Nothing from his works has been preserved; the

_Laus Pisonis_, which has been attributed to him, is probably by Titus

Calpurnius Siculus (J. Held, _De Saleio Basso_. 1834).

BASSVILLE, or BASSEVILLE, NICOLAS JEAN HUGON DE (d. 1793), French

journalist and diplomatist, was born at Abbeville on the 7th of February

1753. He was trained for the priesthood, taught theology in a provincial

seminary and then went to Paris. Here in 1784 he published _Elements de

mythologie_ and some poems, which brought him into notice. On the

recommendation of the prince of Conde he became tutor to two young

Americans travelling in Europe. With them he visited Berlin, made the

acquaintance there of Mirabeau, and became a member of the Berlin

Academy Royal. At the outbreak of the Revolution he turned to

journalism, becoming editor of the _Mercure international_. Then,

through the Girondist minister Lebrun-Tondu, he entered the diplomatic

service, went in May, 1792, as secretary of legation to Naples and was

shortly afterwards sent, without official status, to Rome. Here his

conduct was anything but diplomatic. He at once announced himself as the

protector of the extreme Jacobins in Rome, demanded the expulsion of the

French _emigres_ who had taken refuge there, including the "demoiselles

Capet," and ordered the _fleur-de-lys_ on the escutcheon of the French

embassy to be replaced by a picture of Liberty painted by a French art

student. He talked at large of the "purple geese of the Capitol" and met

the remonstrances of Cardinal Zelada, the papal secretary of state, with

insults. This enraged the Roman populace; a riot broke out on the 13th

of January 1793, and Bassville, who was driving with his family to the

Corso, was dragged from his carriage and so roughly handled that he

died. The affair was magnified in the Convention into a deliberate

murder of the "representative of the Republic" by the pope's orders. In

1797 by an article of the treaty of Tolentino the papal government

agreed to pay compensation to Bassville's family. Among his writings we

may also mention _Memoires historiques, critiques el politiques sur la

Revolution de France_ (Paris 1790; English trans. London, 1790).

See F. Masson, _Les Diplomates de la Revolution_ (Paris, 1882);

Silvagni, _La Carte e la Societa romana nei secoli XVIII. e XIX._

(Florence, 1881).

BASTAR, a feudatory state of British India, in the Chattisgarh division

of the Central Provinces; area, 13,062 sq. m. In 1901 the population was

306,501, showing a decrease of 1% compared with an apparent increase of

58% in the preceding decade. Estimated revenue L22,000; tribute L1100.

The eastern part of Bastar is a flat elevated plateau, from 1800 to 2000

ft. above the level of the sea, the centre and N.W. portions are very

mountainous, and the southern parts consist of hills and plains. On the

plateau there are but few hills; the streams run slowly and the country

is a mixture of plain and undulating ground covered by dense _sal_

forests. Principal mountains of the district: (1) a lofty range which

separates it from the Sironcha district; (2) a range of equal height

called the Bela Dila lying in the centre of the district; (3) a range

running N. and S. near Narayanpur; (4) Tangri Dongri range, running E.

and W.; (5) Tulsi Dongri, bordering on the Sabari river and the Jaipur

state. There is also a small range running from the river Indravati to

the Godavari. The Indravati, the Sabari and the Tal or Talper, are the

chief rivers of the district; all of them affluents of the Godavari. The

soil throughout the greater portion of Bastar consists of light clay,

with an admixture of sand, suited for raising rice and wet crops. In

the jungles the Marias, who are among the aboriginal tribes of Gond

origin, raise kosra (_Panicum italicum_) and other inferior grains.

Aboriginal races generally follow the migratory system of tillage,

clearing the jungle on selected patches, and after taking crops for two

or three years abandoning them for new ground. They do not use the

plough; nor do they possess buffaloes, bullocks or cows; their only

agricultural implement is a long-handled iron hoe. They are a timid,

quiet, docile race, and although addicted to drinking not quarrelsome.

They inhabit the densest jungles and are very shy, avoiding contact with

strangers, and flying to the hills on the least alarm; but they bear a

good character for honesty and truthfulness. They are very scantily

dressed, wear a variety of trinkets, with a knife, hatchet, spear, bow

and arrows, the only weapons they use. Their hair is generally shaved,

excepting a topknot; and when not shaved it gets into a matted, tangled

mass, gathered into a knot behind or on the crown. The Marias and the

Jhurias are supposed to be a subdivision of the true Gond family. All

the aboriginal tribes of Bastar worship the deities of the Hindu

pantheon along with their own national goddess Danteswari.

Bastar is divided into two portions--that held by the Raja or chief

himself, and that possessed by feudatory chiefs under him. The climate

is unhealthy--fever, smallpox, dysentery and rheumatism being the

prevailing diseases. Jagdalpur, Bijapur, Madder and Bhupalpatnam are the

only places of any note in the dependency, the first (on the Indravati

river) being the residence of the raja and the chief people of the

state. The principal products are rice, oil-seeds, lac, tussur silk,

horns, hides, wax and a little iron. Teak timber is floated down the

rivers to the Madras coast. A good road has brought Jagdalpur into

connexion with the railway at Raipur.

BASTARD (O. Fr. _bastard_, mod. _batard = fils de bast_, "pack-saddle

child," from _bast_, saddle), a person born out of legal wedlock.

Amongst the Romans, bastards were classified as _nothi_, children born

in concubinage, and _spurii_, those not so born. Both classes had a

right of succession to their mother, and the _nothi_, were entitled to

support from their father, but had no rights of inheritance from him.

Both, however, had in other respects most of the rights of citizenship.

The Germanic law was based upon an entirely different principle. It

recognized as legitimate only those whose parents were of the same

social rank. All others were regarded as bastards, and took the status

of the parent of inferior rank. The aim of all the Germanic codes was to

preserve purity of race, not to improve morals, for incestuous unions

are not censured. The influence of the Germanic law lasted throughout

the early feudal period, and bastards were debarred rights of

inheritance. In the 13th century the influence of Roman law tended again

to modify this severity. An exception was probably made in the case of

those whose fathers were of royal blood, in which case it even seems

that no stigma was attached to the accident of their birth, nor did they

suffer from the usual disabilities as to inheritance which attended

those of illegitimate birth (Gregory of Tours, v. 25). Among the Franks

we find Theodoric I., a natural son of Clovis, sharing the kingdom with

the legitimate sons; Zwentibold, natural son of Arnulf, was created king

of Lorraine by his father in 895; and even William the Conqueror

actually assumed the appellation of bastard.

In English law a bastard still retains certain disabilities. His rights

are only such as he can acquire; for civilly he can inherit nothing,

being looked upon as the son of nobody, and sometimes called _filius

nullius_, sometimes _filius populi_. This, however, does not hold as to

moral purposes, e.g. he cannot marry his mother or bastard sister. Yet

he may gain a surname by reputation though he has none by inheritance,

and may even be made legitimate and capable of inheriting by the

transcendent power of an act of parliament.

For poor-law purposes, all legitimate children take the settlement of

their father, but a bastard takes the settlement of its mother. The

mother of an illegitimate child is entitled to its custody in preference

to the father, and consequently the responsibility of its support falls

primarily on her. But the English law has always recognized the

principle that to a certain extent the father must share in that

responsibility. This, however, was imposed not with the idea of

furnishing the woman with a civil remedy, nor to have a penal effect

against the man, but solely to prevent the cost of maintenance of the

bastard child from falling upon the parish. Indeed, the legislation upon

the subject, which dates back to 1576, was until 1845 an intimate part

of the poor law. The act of 1576, the basis of English bastardy law,

empowered justices to take order for the punishment of the mother and

reputed father of every bastard child left to the care of the parish,

and to charge the mother and reputed father with the payment of a weekly

sum or other needful sustenance. Other acts were passed in 1609 and

1733, enabling the mother of any child chargeable or likely to become

chargeable to the parish to secure the apprehension, and even the

imprisonment, of the father until he should indemnify the parish,

provisions which were made somewhat more stringent by acts passed in

1809 and 1810. In 1832 a commission was appointed to inquire into the

operation of the poor laws, and the commissioners in their report gave

great attention to the subject of bastardy. They reviewed the various

acts from 1576 downwards and gave examples of their operation. The

conclusion to which the commissioners came was that the laws "which

respect bastardy appear to be pre-eminently unwise," and that they gave

rise to many abuses. For example, the weekly payment recovered by the

parish was usually transferred to the mother; even in many cases

guaranteed. The commissioners recommended that the mother alone should

be responsible for the maintenance of the child. "This," they said, "is

now the position of a widow, and there can be no reason for giving to

vice privileges which we deny to misfortune." Acting on the

recommendation of the commissioners the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834

endeavoured to discourage the principle of making the putative father

contribute by introducing a somewhat cumbersome method of procedure. The

trend of public opinion proved against the discouragement of

affiliation, and an act of 1839 transferred jurisdiction in affiliation

cases from quarter-sessions to petty-sessions. A commission of inquiry

on the working of the bastardy acts in 1844 recommended "that

affiliation should be facilitated," and, accordingly, by the Bastardy

Act of 1845 effect was given to this recommendation by giving the mother

an independent civil remedy against the putative father and dissociating

the parish altogether from the proceedings. Subsequently, legislation

gave the parish the right of attaching, and in some cases suing for,

money due from the putative father for the maintenance of the child. The

existing law is set out under AFFILIATION.

The incapacities attaching to a bastard consist principally in this,

that he cannot be heir to any one; for being _nullius filius_, he is

therefore of kin to nobody, and has no ancestor from whom an inheritable

blood can be derived. Therefore, if there be no other claimant upon an

inheritance than such illegitimate child, it escheats to the lord. And

as bastards cannot be heirs themselves, so neither can they have any

heirs but those of their own bodies; for as all collateral kindred

consists in being derived from the same common ancestor, and as a

bastard has no legal ancestor, he can have no collateral kindred, and

consequently no legal heirs, except such as claim by a lineal descent

from himself. And hence, if a bastard purchase land, and die seised

therefor without issue and intestate, the land escheats to the lord of

the fee. Originally a bastard was deemed incapable of holy orders, and

disqualified by the fact of his birth from holding any dignity in the

church; but this doctrine is now obsolete, and in all other respects

there is no distinction between a bastard and another man. By the law of

Scotland a bastard is not only excluded from his father's succession,

because the law knows no father who is not marked out by marriage; and

from all heritable succession, whether by the father or mother, because

he cannot be pronounced lawful heir by the inquest in terms of the

brief; but also from the movable succession of his mother, because he is

not her lawful child, and legitimacy is implied in all succession

deferred by the law. But a bastard, although he cannot succeed _jure

sanguinis_, may succeed by destination, where he is specially called to

the succession by entail or testament. In Scotland, as in England, a

bastard can have no legal heirs except those of his own body; and hence,

failing his lawful issue, the king succeeds to him as last heir.

Formerly bastards in Scotland without issue of their own could not make

a will, but this disability was removed by a statute of 1835. If

bastards or other persons without kindred die intestate without wife or

child, their effects go to the king as _ultimus haeres_; but a grant is

usually made of them by letters patent, and the grantee becomes entitled

to the administration.

According to the common law, which is the law of England, a bastard

cannot be divested of his state of illegitimacy, unless by the supreme

power of an act of parliament. But in those countries which have

followed the Roman or civil law, a bastard's status may be provisional,

and he can be made legitimate by the subsequent marriage of his parents.

(See LEGITIMACY AND LEGITIMATION; and, for statistics, ILLEGITIMACY.)

AUTHORITIES.--Bacquet, _Traite de la batardise_ (1608); Du Cange,

_Gloss. Lat._, infra "Bastardus"; L.G. Koenigswater, _Histoire de

l'organisation de la famille en France_ (1851), and _Essai sur les

enfants nes hors mariage_ (1842); E.D. Glasson, _Histoire des droits

et des institutions de l'Angleterre_ (6 vols., 1882-1883), _Histoire

du droit et des institutions de la France_ (1887); Pollock and

Maitland, _History of English Law_ (1898); Stephen's _Commentaries_;

Nicholls and Mackay, _History of the English Poor Law_ (3 vols.,

1898).

BASTARNAE, the easternmost people of the Germanic race, the first to

come into contact with the ancient world and the Slavs. Originally

settled in Galicia and the Bukovina, they appeared on the lower Danube

about 200 B.C., and were used by Philip V. of Macedon against his

Thracian neighbours. Defeated by these the Bastarnae returned north,

leaving some of their number (hence called Peucini) settled on Peuce, an

island in the Danube. Their main body occupied the country between the

eastern Carpathians and the Danube. As allies of Perseus and of

Mithradates the Great, and lastly on their own account, they had hostile

relations with the Romans who in the time of Augustus defeated them, and

made a peace, which was disturbed by a series of incursions. In these

the Bastarnae after a time gave place to the Goths, with whom they seem

to have amalgamated, and we last hear of them as transferred by the

emperor Probus to the right bank of the Danube. Polybius and the authors

who copy him regard the Bastarnae as Galatae; Strabo, having learned of

the Romans to distinguish Celts and Germans, first allows a German

element; Tacitus expressly declares their German origin but says that

the race was degraded by intermarriage with Sarmatians. The descriptions

of their bodily appearance, tribal divisions, manner of life and methods

of warfare are such as are applied to either race. No doubt they were an

outpost of the Germans, and so had absorbed into themselves strong

Getic, Celtic and Sarmatian elements. (E. H. M.)

BASTI, a town and district of British India, in the Gorakhpur division

of the United Provinces. The town, a collection of villages, is on the

river Kuana, 40 m. from Gorakhpur by railway. The population in 1901 was

14,761. It has no municipality. The district has an area of 2792 sq. m.

It stretches out in one vast marshy plain, draining towards the

south-east, and traversed by the Rapti, Kuana, Banganga, Masdih, Jamwar,

Ami and Katneihia rivers. The tract lying between these streams consists

of a rich alluvial deposit, more or less subject to inundations, but

producing good crops of rice, wheat and barley. In 1901 the population

was 1,846,153, showing an increase of 3% in the decade. A railway from

Gorakhpur to Gonda runs through the district, and the river Gogra is

navigable. A large transit trade is conducted with Nepal. The export

trade of the district itself is chiefly in rice, sugar and other

agricultural produce.

BASTIA, a town and seaport on the eastern coast of the island of

Corsica, 98 m. N.N.E. of Ajaccio by rail. Pop. (1906) 24,509. Bastia,

the chief commercial town in Corsica, consists of the densely-populated

quarter of the old port with its labyrinth of steep and narrow streets,

and of a more modern quarter to the north, which has grown up round the

new port. La Traverse, a fine boulevard, intersects the town from north

to south. Rising from the sea-shore like an amphitheatre, Bastia

presents an imposing appearance, which is enhanced by the loftiness of

its houses; it has, however, little of architectural interest to offer.

Its churches, of which the largest is San Giovanni Battista, are florid

in decoration, as are the law-court, the theatre and the hotel-de-ville.

The citadel, which dominates the old port, has a keep of the 14th

century. As capital of an arrondissement, Bastia is the seat of a

tribunal of first instance and a sub-prefect, while it is also the seat

of the military governor of Corsica, of a court of appeal for the whole

island, of a court of assizes, and of a tribunal and a chamber of

commerce, and has a lycee, a branch of the Bank of France, and a library

with between 30,000 and 40,000 volumes. The town has active commerce,

especially with Italy. The new port has 1100 ft. of quayage, served by a

railway, and with a depth alongside of 25 ft. The total number of

vessels entered in 1907 was 721 with a tonnage of 337,551, of which

203,950 were French. The chief exports are chestnut extract for tanning,

cedrates, citrons, oranges, early vegetables, fish, copper ore and

antimony ore. Imports include coal, grain, flour and wine. Industry

consists chiefly in fishing (sardines, &c., and coral), the manufacture

of tobacco, oil-distilling, tanning, and the preparation of preserved

citrons and of macaroni and similar provisions.

Bastia dates from the building of the Genoese fortress or "bastille" by

Lionello Lomellino in 1383. Under the Genoese it was long the principal

stronghold in the north of the island, and the residence of the

governor; and in 1553 it was the first town attacked by the French. On

the division of the island in 1797 into the two departments of Golo and

Liamone, Bastia remained the capital of the former; but when the two

were again united Ajaccio obtained the superiority. The city was taken

by the English in 1745 and again in 1794.

BASTIAN, ADOLF (1826- ), German ethnologist, was born at Bremen on the

26th of June 1826. He was educated as a physician, but from his early

years devoted himself to travel. Proceeding to Australia in 1851 as

surgeon on a vessel, he had visited almost every part of the world

before his return in 1859. In 1861 he made an expedition to the Far East

which lasted five years. Upon his return he commenced the publication of

his great work on _The Peoples of Eastern Asia_, an immense storehouse

of facts owing little to arrangement or style. He settled in Berlin,

where he was made professor of ethnology at the university and keeper of

the ethnological museum. He succeeded R. Virchow as president of the

Berlin Anthropological Society, and to him was largely due the formation

in 1878 of the German Africa Society of Berlin, which did much to

encourage German colonization in Africa. Later he undertook further

scientific travels in Africa, South America and India. The results of

these explorations were made public in a long series of separate

publications comprising several on Buddhism, and on the psychological

problems presented by native superstitions. Bastian also edited the

_Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie_ from 1869, in conjunction with Virchow and

Robert von Hartmann. On his seventieth birthday, 1896 (during which year

he started on an expedition to Malaysia), he was presented with a volume

of essays composed by the most distinguished ethnologists in celebration

of the event and dedicated to him. Among his more important works may be

mentioned:--_Der Mensch in der Geschichte_ (Leipzig, 1860); _Die Volker

des ostlichen Asien_ (Jena, 1866-1871); _Ethnologische Forschungen_

(Leipzig, 1871-1873); _Die Kulturlander des alten Amerika_ (Berlin,

1878); _Der Buddhismus in seiner Psychologie_ (Berlin, 1881);

_Indonesien_ (Leipzig, 1884); _Der Fetisch an der Kuste Guineas_

(Berlin, 1885); _Die mikronesischen Kolonien_ (1899-1900); _Die

wechselnden Phasen im geschichtlichen Sehkreis und ihre Ruckwirkung auf

die Volkerkunde_ (1900).

BASTIAT, FREDERIC (1801-1850), French economist, was the son of a

merchant of Bayonne, and was born in that town on the 29th of June 1801.

Educated at the colleges of Saint-Sever and of Soreze, he entered in

1818 the counting-house of his uncle at Bayonne. The practical routine

of mercantile life being distasteful to him, in 1825 he retired to a

property at Mugron, of which he became the owner on the death of his

grandfather. Here Bastiat occupied himself with farming, his leisure

being devoted to study and meditation. He welcomed with enthusiasm the

Revolution of 1830. In 1831 he became a _juge de paix_ of his canton,

and in 1832 a member of the _conseil general_ of the Landes. In 1834 he

published his first pamphlet, and between 1841 and 1844 three others,

all on questions of taxation affecting local interests. During this

period an accidental circumstance led him to become a subscriber to an

English newspaper, the _Globe and Traveller_, through which he was made

acquainted with the nature and progress of the crusade of the

Anti-Corn-Law League against protection. After studying the movement for

two years, he resolved to inaugurate a similar movement in France. To

prepare the way, he contributed in 1844 to the _Journal des Economistes_

an article "Sur l'influence des tarifs anglais et francais," which

attracted great attention, and was followed by others, including the

first series of his brilliant _Sophismes Economiques_.

In 1845 Bastiat came to Paris in order to superintend the publication of

his _Cobden et la Ligue, ou l'agitation anglaise pour la liberte des

echanges_, and was very cordially received by the economists of the

capital. From Paris he went to London and Manchester, and made the

personal acquaintance of Cobden, Bright and other leaders of the league.

When he returned to France he found that his writings had been exerting

a powerful influence; and in 1846 he assisted in organizing at Bordeaux

the first French Free-Trade Association (Association pour la Liberte des

Echanges). The rapid spread of the movement soon required him to abandon

Mugron for Paris.

During the eighteen months which followed this change his labours were

prodigious. He acted as secretary of the central committee of the

association, organized and corresponded with branch societies, waited on

ministers, procured subscriptions, edited a weekly paper, the

_Libre-Echange_, contributed to the _Journal des Economistes_ and to

three other periodicals, addressed meetings in Paris and the provinces,

and delivered a course of lectures on the principles of political

economy to students of the schools of law and of medicine. The cause to

which he thus devoted himself at the expense of his health and life

appeared for a time as if it would be successful; but the forces in its

favour were much weaker and those opposed to it were much stronger in

France than in England, and this became more apparent as the struggle

proceeded, until it was brought to an abrupt end by the Revolution of

February 1848. This event made the socialistic and communistic

principles, which had been gathering and spreading during the previous

thirty years, temporarily supreme. (See NATIONAL WORKSHOPS.) In this

grave crisis Bastiat nobly performed his duty. Although exhausted by the

far too heavy labours in which he had been engaged, although robbed of

his voice by the malady which was preying upon him, so that he could do

but little to defend the truth from the tribune of the Constituent

Assembly, he could still suggest wise counsels in the committee of

finance of which he was vice-president, and he could still use his pen

with a vigour and dexterity which made him capable of combating

single-handed many opponents.

He wrote in rapid succession a series of brilliant and effective

pamphlets and essays, showing how socialism was connected with

protection, and exposing the delusions on which it rested. Thus within

the space of two years there appeared _Propriete et Loi, Justice et

Fraternite, Propriete et Spoliation, L'Etat, Baccalaureat et Socialisme,

Protectionisme et Communisme, Capital et Rente, Maudit Argent,

Spoliation et Loi, Gratuite du Credit_, and _Ce qu'on voit et ce qu'on

ne voit pas_. While thus occupied he was meditating the composition of a

great constructive work, meant to renovate economical science by basing

it on the principle that "interests, left to themselves, tend to

harmonious combinations, and to the progressive preponderance of the

general good." The first volume of this work _Les Harmonies economiques_

was published in the beginning of 1850. In the autumn of that year, when

working on the second volume, the increase of his malady compelled him

to go to Italy. After lingering at Pisa and Florence he reached Rome,

but only to die there on the 24th of December 1850 in the fiftieth year

of his age.

The life-work of Bastiat, in order to be fairly appreciated, requires to

be considered in three aspects. (1) He was the advocate of free-trade,

the opponent of protection. The general principles of free-trade had, of

course, been clearly stated and solidly established before he was born,

but he did more than merely restate them. He showed, as no one before

him had done, how they were practically applicable to French

agriculture, trade and commerce; and in the _Sophismes Economiques_ we

have the completest and most effective, the wisest and the wittiest

exposure of protectionism in its principles, reasonings and consequences

which exists in any language. (2) He was the opponent of socialism. In

this respect also he had no equal among the economists of France. He

alone fought socialism hand to hand, body to body, as it were, not

caricaturing it, not denouncing it, not criticizing under its name some

merely abstract theory, but taking it as actually presented by its most

popular representatives, considering patiently their proposals and

arguments, and proving conclusively that they proceeded on false

principles, reasoned badly and sought to realize generous aims by

foolish and harmful means. Nowhere will reason find a richer armoury of

weapons available against socialism than in the pamphlets published by

Bastiat between 1848 and 1850. (3) He attempted to expound in an

original and independent manner political economy as a science. In

combating, first, the Protectionists, and, afterwards, the Socialists,

there gradually rose on his mind a conception which seemed to him to

shed a flood of light over the whole of economical doctrine, and,

indeed, over the whole theory of society, viz. the harmony of the

essential tendencies of human nature. The radical error, he became

always more convinced, both of protectionism and socialism, was the

assumption that human interests, if left to themselves would inevitably

prove antagonistic and anti-social, capital robbing labour, manufactures

ruining agriculture, the foreigner injuring the native, the consumer the

producer, &c.; and the chief weakness of the various schools of

political economy, he believed, he had discovered in their imperfect

apprehension of the truth that human interests, when left to themselves,

when not arbitrarily and forcibly interfered with, tend to harmonious

combination, to the general good.

His _OEuvres completes_ are in 7 vols. The first contains an

interesting _Memoir_ by M. Paillottet.

BASTIDE, JULES (1800-1879), French publicist, was born at Paris on the

22nd of November 1800. He studied law for a time, and afterwards engaged

in business as a timber merchant. In 1821 he became a member of the

French Carbonari, and took a prominent part in the Revolution of 1830.

After the "July Days" he received an artillery command in the national

guard. For his share in the _emeute_ in Paris (5th of June 1832) on the

occasion of the funeral of General Maximilien Lamarque, Bastide was

sentenced to death but escaped to London. On his return to Paris in 1834

he was acquitted, and occupied himself with journalism, contributing to

the _National_, a republican journal of which he became editor in 1836.

In 1847 he founded the _Revue nationale_ with the collaboration of P.J.

Buchez (q.v.), with whose ideas he had become infected. After the

Revolution of February 1848 Bastide's intimate knowledge of foreign

affairs gained for him a secretarial post in the provisional government,

and, after the creation of the executive commission, he was made

minister of foreign affairs. At the close of 1848 he threw up his

portfolio, and, after the _coup d'etat_ of December 1851, retired into

private life. He died on the 2nd of March 1879. His writings comprise

_De l'education publique en France_ (1847); _Histoire de l'assemblee

legislative_ (1847); _La Republique francaise et l'Italie en 1848_

(1858); _Histoire des guerres religieuses en France_ (1859).

BASTIDE (Provencal _bastida_, building), a word applied to the fortified

towns founded in south-western France in the middle ages, and

corresponding to the _villes neuves_ of northern France. They were

established by the abbeys, the nobles and the crown, frequently by two

of these authorities in co-operation, and were intended to serve as

defensive posts and centres of population for sparsely-inhabited

districts. In addition, they formed a source of revenue and power for

their founders, who on their part conceded liberal charters to the new

towns. They were built on a rectangular plan, with a large central

square and straight thoroughfares running at right angles or parallel to

one another, this uniformity of construction being well exemplified in

the existing _bastide_ of Monpazier (Dordogne) founded by the English in

1284. Mont-de-Marsan, the oldest of the bastides, was founded in 1141,

and the movement for founding them lasted during the 12th, 13th and 14th

centuries, attaining its height between 1250 and 1350.

See E. Menault, _Les Villes Neuves, leur origine et leur influence

dans le mouvement communal_ (Paris, 1868); Curie-Seimbres, _Essai sur

les villes fondees dans le sud-ouest de la France sous le nom de

bastides_ (Toulouse, 1880).

BASTIEN-LEPAGE, JULES (1848-1884), French painter, was born in the

village of Damvillers, Meuse, France, on the 1st of November 1848 and

spent his childhood there. He first studied at Verdun, and prompted by a

love of art went in 1867 to Paris, where he was admitted to the Ecole

des Beaux-arts, working under Cabanel. After exhibiting in the Salons of

1870 and 1872 works which attracted no attention, in 1874 he made his

mark with his "Song of Spring," a study of rural life, representing a

peasant girl sitting on a knoll looking down on a village. His "Portrait

of my Grandfather," exhibited in the same year, was not less remarkable

for its artless simplicity and received a third-class medal. This

success was confirmed in 1875 by the "First Communion," a picture of a

little girl minutely worked up as to colour, and a "Portrait of M.

Hayem." In 1875 he took the second Prix de Rome with his "Angels

appearing to the Shepherds," exhibited again in 1878. His next endeavour

to win the Grand Prix de Rome in 1876 with "Priam at the Feet of

Achilles" was again unsuccessful (it is in the Lille gallery), and the

painter determined to return to country life. To the Salon of 1877 he

sent a full-length "Portrait of Lady L." and "My Parents"; and in 1878 a

"Portrait of M. Theuriet" and "The Hayfield." The last picture, now in

the Luxembourg, is regarded as a typical work from its stamp of

realistic truth. Thenceforth Bastien-Lepage was recognized in France as

the leader of a school, and his "Portrait of Mme Sarah Bernhardt"

(1879), painted in a light key, won him the cross of the Legion of

Honour. In 1880 he exhibited a small portrait of M. Andrieux and "Joan

of Arc listening to the Voices"; and in the same year, at the Royal

Academy, the little portrait of the "Prince of Wales." In 1881 he

painted "The Beggar" and the "Portrait of Albert Wolf"; in 1882 "Le Pere

Jacques"; in 1883 "Love in a Village," in which we find some trace of

Courbet's influence. His last dated work is "The Forge" (1884). The

artist, long ailing, had tried in vain to re-establish his health in

Algiers. He died in Paris on the 10th of December 1884, when planning a

new series of rural subjects. Among his more important works may also be

mentioned the portrait of "Mme J. Drouet" (1883); "Gambetta on his

death-bed," and some landscapes; "The Vintage" (1880), and "The Thames

at London" (1882). "The Little Chimney-Sweep" was never finished. An

exhibition of his collected works was opened in March and April 1885.

See A. Theuriet, _Bastien-Lepage_ (1885--English edition, 1892); L. de

Fourcaud, _Bastien-Lepage_ (1885). (H. Fr.)

BASTILLE (from Fr. _bastir_, now _batir_, to build), originally any

fortified building forming part of a system of defence or attack; the

name was especially applied to several of the principal points in the

ancient fortifications of Paris. In the reign of King John, or even

earlier, the gate of Saint Antoine was flanked by two towers; and about

1369 Hugues Aubriot, at the command of Charles V., changed it into a

regular bastille or fort by the addition of six others of massive

structure, the whole united by thick walls and surrounded by a ditch 25

ft. wide. Various extensions and alterations were afterwards effected;

but the building remained substantially what it was made by the vigorous

provost, a strong and gloomy structure, with eight stern towers. As the

ancient fortifications of the city were superseded, the use of the word

bastille as a general designation gradually died out, and it became

restricted to the castle of Saint Antoine, the political importance of

which made it practically, long before it was actually, the only

bastille of Paris. The building had originally a military purpose, and

it appears as a fortress on several occasions in French history. When

Charles VII. retook Paris from the English in 1436, his opponents in the

city took refuge in the Bastille, which they were prepared to defend

with vigour, but the want of provisions obliged them to capitulate. In

1588 the duke of Guise took possession of the Bastille, gave the command

of it to Bussy-Leclerc, and soon afterwards shut up the whole parlement

within its walls, for having refused their adherence to the League. When

Henry IV. became master of Paris he committed the command of the

Bastille to Sully, and there he deposited his treasures, which at the

time of his death amounted to the sum of 15,870,000 livres. On the 11th

of January 1649 the Bastille was invested by the forces of the Fronde,

and after a short cannonade capitulated on the 13th of that month. The

garrison consisted of only twenty-two men. The Frondeurs concluded a

peace with the court on the 11th of March; but it was stipulated by

treaty that they should retain possession of the Bastille, which in fact

was not restored to the king till the 21st of October 1651.

At a very early period, however, the Bastille was employed for the

custody of state prisoners, and it was ultimately much more of a prison

than a fortress. According to the usual account, which one is tempted to

ascribe to the popular love of poetical justice, the first who was

incarcerated within its walls was the builder himself, Hugues Aubriot.

Be this as it may, the duke of Nemours spent thirteen years there in one

of those iron cages which Louis XI. called his _fillettes_; and Jacques

d'Armagnac, Poyet and Chabot were successively prisoners. It was not

till the reign of Louis XIII. that it became recognized as a regular

place of confinement; but from that time till its destruction it was

frequently filled to embarrassment with men and women of every age and

condition. Prisoners were detained without trial on _lettres de cachet_

for different reasons, to avoid a scandal, either public or private, or

to satisfy personal animosities. But the most frequent and most

notorious use of the Bastille was to imprison those writers who attacked

the government or persons in power. It was this which made it so hated

as an emblem of despotism, and caused its capture and demolition in the

Revolution.

Of the treatment of prisoners in the Bastille very various accounts have

been given even by those who speak from personal experience, for the

simple reason that it varied greatly in different cases. The prisoners

were divided into two main classes, those who were detained on grounds

of precaution or by way of admonitory correction, and those who lay

under presumption or proof of guilt. The former were subject to no

investigation or judgment, and the length of their imprisonment depended

on the will of the king; the latter were brought to trial in the

ordinary courts or before special tribunals, such as that of the

Arsenal--though even in their case the interval between their arrest and

their trial was determined solely by the royal decree, and it was quite

possible for a man to grow old in the prison without having the

opportunity of having his fate decided. Until guilt was established, the

prisoner was registered in the king's name, and--except in the case of

state-prisoners of importance, who were kept with greater strictness and

often in absolute isolation--he enjoyed a certain degree of comfort and

freedom. Visitors were admitted under restrictions; games were allowed;

and, for a long time at least, exercise was permitted in open parts of

the interior. Food was both abundant and good, at least for the better

class of prisoners; and instances were not unknown of people living

below their allowance and, by arrangement with the governor, saving the

surplus. When the criminality of the prisoner was established, his name

was transferred to the register of the "commission," and he became

exposed to numerous hardships and even barbarities, which however

belonged not so much to the special organization of the Bastille as to

the general system of criminal justice then in force.

Among the more distinguished personages who were confined in this

fortress during the reigns of Louis XIV., XV. and XVI., were the famous

_Man of the Iron Mask_ (see IRON MASK), Foucquet, the marshal Richelieu,

Le Maistre de Sacy, De Renneville, Voltaire, Latude, Le Prevot de

Beaumont, Labourdonnais, Lally, Cardinal de Rohan, Linguet and La

Chalotais. While no detestation is too great for that system of "royal

pantheism" which led to the unjust and often protracted imprisonment of

even men of great ability and stainless character, it is unnecessary to

give implicit credence to all the tales of horror which found currency

during the excitement of the Revolution, and which historical evidence,

as well as _a priori_ considerations, tends to strip of their more

dreadful features, and even in many cases to refute altogether. Much

light of an unexpected kind has in modern times been shed on the history

of the Bastille from the pages of its own records. These documents had

been flung out into the courts of the building by the revolutionary

captors, and after suffering grievous diminution and damage were finally

stored up and forgotten in the vaults of the library of the (so-called)

Arsenal. Here they were discovered in 1840 by Francois Ravaisson, who

devoted himself to their arrangement, elucidation and publication.

At the breaking out of the Revolution the Bastille was attacked by the

Parisians; and, after a vigorous resistance, it was taken and razed to

the ground on the 14th of July 1789. At the time of its capture only

seven prisoners were found in it. A very striking account of the siege

will be found in Carlyle's _French Revolution_, vol. i. The site of the

building is now marked by a lofty column of bronze, dedicated to the

memory of the patriots of July 1789 and 1830. It is crowned by a gilded

figure of the genius of liberty.

See the _Memoirs_ of Linguet (1783), and Latude (ed. by Thierry, tome

iii. 18mo, 1791-1793); also Francois Ravaisson, _Les Archives de la

Bastille_ (16 vols. 8vo, 1866-1886); Delort, _Histoire de la detention

des philosophes a la Bastille_ (3 vols., 1829); F. Bournon, _La

Bastille_ (1893); Fr. Funck-Brentano, _Les Lettres de cachet a Paris,

etude suivie d'une liste des prisonniers de la Bastille_ (1904); G.

Lecocq, _La Prise de la Bastille_ (1881).

BASTINADO (Span. _baston_, Fr. _baton_, a stick, cudgel), the European

name for a form of punishment common in the east, especially in Turkey,

Persia and China. It consists in blows with a light stick or lath of

bamboo upon the soles of the feet or on the buttocks. The terror of the

punishment lies not in the severity of the blows, which are on the

contrary scarcely more than tapping, but in its long continuation. A

skilful bastinadoist can kill his victim after hours of torture.

BASTION (through the Fr. from late Lat. _bastire_, to build), a work

forming part of a line of fortifications. The general trace of a bastion

is similar to an irregular pentagon formed by a triangle and a narrow

rectangle, the base of the triangle coinciding with the long side of the

rectangle. The two sides of the triangle form the "faces" of the

bastion, which join at the "salient" angle, the short sides of the

rectangle form the "flanks." Bastions were arranged so that the fire

from the flanks of each protected not only the front of the curtain but

also the faces of the adjacent bastions. A "tower bastion" is a

case-mated tower built in bastion form; a "demi-bastion" is a work

formed by half a bastion (bisected through the salient angle) and by a

parapet along the line of bisection; a "flat bastion" is a bastion built

on a curtain and having a very obtuse salient angle.

BASTWICK, JOHN (1593-1654), English physician and religious zealot, was

born at Writtle, in Essex, in 1593, and after a brief education at

Cambridge, wandered on the continent and graduated in medicine at Padua.

On his return he settled in Colchester. His celebrity rests on his

strong opposition to the Roman Catholic ceremonial. About 1633 he

printed in Holland two Latin treatises, entitled _Elenchus Religionis

Papisticae_, and _Flagellum Pontificis et Episcoporum Latialium_; and as

Laud and other English prelates thought themselves aimed at, he was

fined L1000 in the court of high commission, excommunicated and

prohibited from practising physic, while his books were ordered to be

burnt and the author himself consigned to prison. Instead of recanting,

however, he wrote _Apologeticus ad Praesules Anglicanos_, and another

book called _The Litany_, in which he exclaimed vehemently against the

proceedings of the court, and charged the bishops with being the enemies

of God and "the tail of the beast." William Prynne and Henry Burton

coming under the lash of the star-chamber court at the same time, they

were all censured as turbulent and seditious persons, and condemned to

pay a fine of L5000 each, to be set in the pillory, to lose their ears,

and to undergo imprisonment for life in remote parts of the kingdom,

Bastwick being sent to Scilly. The parliament in 1640 reversed these

proceedings, and ordered Bastwick a reparation of L5000 out of the

estates of the commissioners and lords who had sentenced him. He joined

the parliamentary army, but in later years showed bitter opposition to

the Independents. He died in the latter part of 1654.

BASUTOLAND (officially "The Territory of Basutoland"), an inland state

and British crown colony of S.E. Africa, situated between 28 deg. 35'

and 30 deg. 30' S. and 27 deg. and 29 deg. 25' E. It has an area of

10,293 sq. m., being somewhat smaller than Belgium, and is bounded S.,

S.E., and N.E. by the Drakensberg, N. and N.W. by the Caledon river,

S.W. by a range of low hills extending from the Caledon above Wepener to

the Orange river, and south of the Orange by the Telle or Tees river to

its source in the Drakensberg. Its greatest length S.W. to N.E. is 145

m.; its greatest breadth N. to S. 120 m. On every side it is surrounded

by British colonies, north by the Orange River Colony, south-west and

south by Cape Colony, and east by Natal.

Basutoland, or Lesuto (Lesotho) as the natives call it, forms the

south-eastern edge of the interior tableland of South Africa, and has a

rugged and broken surface with a mean elevation of 6000 ft. The

Drakensberg (q.v.) forming the buttress of the plateau seaward, attain

their highest elevation on the Basuto-Natal border. The frontier line

follows the crest of the mountains, three peaks some 10,000 or more ft.

high--Giant's Castle, Champagne Castle or Cathkin Peak and Mont aux

Sources--towering high above the general level. Mount Hamilton, which

lies north of the waterparting, is over 9000 ft. high. From Mont aux

Sources, table-shaped, and called by the Basutos _Potong_ (Antelope), a

second range of mountains, the Maluti, runs S.W. through the entire

length of Basutoland. The crest of the Maluti is in few places lower

than 7000 ft. whilst Machacha, the culminating point, is about 10,500

ft. From the tableland north of the Maluti several isolated hills rise,

the most noted being the almost inaccessible Thaba Bosigo--the rallying

place of the Basuto in many of their wars. Shut off from the adjacent

Indian Ocean by its mountain barrier, the drainage of the country is

westward to the distant Atlantic. As its name implies, the chief rivers

rise in Mont aux Sources. From the inner sides of that mountain descend

the Caledon and the Senku, whilst from its seaward face the Tugela flows

through Natal to the Indian Ocean. The Caledon runs north of the Maluti,

the Senku south of that range. From the slopes of the Maluti descend

many streams, the largest being the Kornet Spruit, which joins the Senku

and other torrents from the Drakensberg to form the upper Orange

(q.v.). The Caledon also, sweeping southward, unites with the Orange

beyond the frontiers of Basutoland. Ordinarily shallow, the rivers after

heavy rain fill with great rapidity, sweeping away everything in their

path. In the richer soil they cut deep channels; the denudation thus

caused threatens to diminish seriously the area of arable and pasture

land. The river beds contain dangerous quicksands.

The aspect of the country is everywhere grand, and often beautiful,

fully justifying the title, "The Switzerland of South Africa," often

applied to it. Viewed from a distance the mountains appear as dark

perpendicular barriers, quite impenetrable; but narrow paths lead round

the precipitous face of the hills, and when the inner side is gained a

wonderful panorama opens out. In every direction can be seen luxuriant

valleys through which rivers thread their silvery way, wild chasms,

magnificent waterfalls--that of Maletsunyane has an unbroken leap of

over 600 ft.--and, above all, hill crest after hill crest in seeming

endless succession. In winter the effect is heightened by the snow which

caps all the higher peaks.

_Geology._--Basutoland is entirely occupied by the upper division

(Stormberg series) of the Karroo formation. The highest strata (Volcanic

group) form the rugged elevated spurs of the Drakensberg mountains which

extend along the eastern territorial boundary. It has been suggested

that these spurs represent the sites of vents or fissures of eruption.

The upper part of the Maluti range consists of flows of melaphyres and

diabases belonging to the volcanic beds. Among these lavas is the "pipe"

amygdaloid of which many blocks have been transported great distances

down the Vaal river. The amygdales are three or four inches long and

about three-eighths of an inch in diameter. Heulandite, with thomsonite,

stilbite, scolecite, calcite and chalcedony, occur as infilling

minerals.

_Climate._--The climate is excellent, invigorating alike for Europeans

and natives. The mean annual temperature is about 60 deg. F. The four

seasons are distinctly marked, a rarity in South Africa, where the

transition from summer to winter is generally very rapid. The heat of

summer (December-March, which is the rainy season) is tempered by cool

breezes; winter (May-September, inclusive) is dry, cold and bracing, and

frost prevails for prolonged periods. The average annual rainfall is

about 30 in. The general health conditions are good. Malaria is almost

unknown and chest complaints are rare. Epidemics of smallpox and typhoid

occur; and leprosy, imported from the Orange River and Cape Colonies,

has taken firm hold on the Basuto, of whom about 91 per 1000 are

sufferers from this disease.

_Flora and Fauna._--A few kloofs are wooded, but of forest land there is

none. Along the upper courses of the rivers are willows and wild olive

trees; round the chief settlements the eucalyptus and the pine have been

planted. Heaths, generally somewhat rare in South Africa outside the

Cape peninsula, are abundant in Basutoland. The Alpine flora is very

beautiful. There are few wild animals; but the eland, hartebeest and

smaller antelopes are found, as well as the leopard and the jackal.

Mountain hares, partridges and quails afford good sport; baboons and

great hawks live in the mountains. The few fish include the barbel.

Swarms of locusts occasionally visit the country; the locusts are eaten

by the Basuto.

_Population and Towns._--Considering the extensive area of uninhabitable

mountain land it contains, the Territory supports a large population.

The inhabitants increased from 128,206 in 1875 to 348,848 in 1904. The

females outnumber the males by about 20,000, which is, however, about

the number of adult males away from the country at any given period. The

majority live in the district between the Maluti mountains and the

Caledon river. The great bulk of the people are Basuto, but there are

some thousands of Barolong and other Kaffirs. The Basuto proper are a

branch of the Bechuana family of Bantu-Negroids. The white inhabitants

in 1904 numbered 895, and there were 222 coloured persons other than

natives. The seat of government is Maseru, on the left bank of the

Caledon, with a population of about 1000 including some 100 Europeans.

Mafeteng, in the N.W. near the Cape frontier, is a thriving agricultural

centre, as is Butha Buthe in the N.E. Morija, some 16 m. S.E. of Maseru,

is the oldest mission station in the Territory, having been founded by

the Paris Society about 1833. Three miles from Morija is Matsieng, the

kraal of the paramount chief Lerothodi (who died in August 1905). There

are numerous mission stations throughout Basutoland, to several of which

Biblical names have been given, such as Shiloh, Hermon, Cana, Bethesda,

Berea.

_Agriculture and Trade._--Basutoland is one of the greatest

grain-growing countries of South Africa. The richest tract of land is

that between the Maluti mountains and the Caledon river. In summer the

country appears as one waving field of wheat, millet and mealies; whilst

on the mountain slopes and on their flat tops are large flocks of sheep,

cattle and goats, and troops of ponies. The Basuto ponies, said to be

descended from Shetland ponies which, imported to the Cape in 1840,

strayed into the mountains, are short-legged, strong-bodied,

sure-footed, and noted for their hardiness. Improvements in the breed

have been effected by the introduction of Arab stallions. Nearly every

Basuto is an agriculturist; there are no manufactories, and the

minerals, in accordance with the desire of the people, are not worked.

The land is wholly in the possession of the natives, who hold it on the

communal system. Whites and Indians are allowed to establish trading

stations on obtaining special permits from the government, and the

Indians absorb much of the retail trade. The chief exports are wheat,

mealies, Kaffir corn, wool, mohair, horses and cattle. The great bulk of

the imports are textiles. The value of the trade depends on regular

rains, so that in seasons of drought the exports seriously diminish. The

average annual value of trade for the five years ending the 30th of June

1905 was:--Exports L215,668, imports L203,026. Trade is almost entirely

with Orange River Colony and Cape Colony. The Territory is a member of

the South African Customs Union. Some 60,000 Basuto (annual average)

find employment outside the Territory, more than half of whom seek farm

and domestic service. A small proportion go to the Johannesburg gold

mines, and others obtain employment on the railways.

Communication over the greater part of the Territory is by road; none of

the rivers is navigable. A state-owned railway, 16-1/2 m. long, starting

from Maseru crosses the Caledon river and joins the line connecting

Bloemfontein and Ladysmith. This railway follows, N.E. of Maseru, the

right bank of the Caledon, and affords a ready means of transport for

the cereals raised on the left or Basuto side of the river. Highroads,

maintained by the government, traverse every part of the country, and

bridges have been built across the Caledon. The usual mode of conveyance

is by ox-waggon or light cart. Several passes through the Drakensberg

into Griqualand East and Natal exist, but are little used. There is a

complete postal and telegraphic service and a telephone line connects

all government stations.

_Government and Finance._--Basutoland is a crown colony, of which the

high commissioner for South Africa is governor. In him resides the

legislative power, exercised by proclamation. The Territory is

administered, under the direction of the governor, by a resident

commissioner, who is also the chief judicial officer. He is aided by a

government secretary and by assistant commissioners. Under the British

officials the country is governed by hereditary native chiefs, over whom

is a paramount chief. The chiefs have jurisdiction in cases affecting

natives, but there is a right of appeal to the courts of the

commissioners, who try all cases in which any of the parties are

European. A national council (_pitso_), representative of all the native

tribes, meets annually for the free discussion of public affairs. For

administrative purposes the Territory is divided into the seven

districts of Maseru, Leribe, Mohales Hoek, Berea, Mafeteng, Quthing and

Qacha's Nek, each of which is subdivided into wards presided over by

Basuto chiefs.

Revenue is obtained from a hut tax of L1 per hut; the sale of licences

to trade; customs and post office receipts. Seven-eighths of the revenue

comes from the hut tax and customs. The average annual revenue for the

five years 1901-1905 was L96,880; the average annual expenditure

L69,559. Basutoland has no public debt.

_Education and Social Condition._--Education is given in schools founded

by missionary societies, of which the chief is the Societe des Missions

Evangeliques de Paris. A large proportion of the people can read and

write Sesuto (as the Basuto language is called) and English, and speak

Dutch, whilst a considerable number also receive higher education. Many

Basuto at the public examinations take higher honours than competitors

of European descent. There are over 200 schools, with an average

attendance exceeding 10,000. Nine-tenths of the scholars are in the

schools of the French Protestant Mission, which are conducted by

English, or English-speaking, missionaries. A government grant is made

towards the cost of upkeep. A government industrial school (opened in

1906) is maintained at Maseru, and the Paris Society has an industrial

school at Leloaleng. The social condition of the people is higher than

that of the majority of South African natives. Many Basuto profess

Christianity and have adopted European clothing. Serious crime is rare

among them and "deliberate murder is almost unknown." [1] They are, like

mountaineers generally, of a sturdy, independent spirit, and are given

to the free expression of their views, generally stated with good sense

and moderation. These views found a new medium of publicity in 1904 when

an independent native newspaper was started, called _Naledi ea Lesotha_

(Star of Basutoland). The publication of this paper was followed in 1906

by the adoption of a uniform system of Sesuto orthography. A book on

national customs, the first work in the vernacular by a South African

native, was published in 1893. The brandy-drinking habit, which, when

the imperial government assumed control of the administration in 1884,

threatened the existence of the nation, has been very largely checked. A

strong beer, brewed from Kaffir corn, is a favourite drink.

Moshesh forms the Basuto nation.

_History._--Until the beginning of the 19th century Basutoland appears

to have been uninhabited save by wandering Bushmen, whose rude rock

pictures are to be found in several parts of the Drakensberg. About 1800

the country was occupied by various tribes of Bechuana, such as Batau,

Basuto, Baputi, who then possessed the greater part of what is now

Orange River Colony. They appear to have recognized the paramount

authority of a family descended from a chief named Monaheng. By the wars

of the Zulu chiefs Chaka, Matiwana and Mosilikatze, these tribes were

largely broken up and their power destroyed. One tribe, living in the

Maluti mountains, was reduced to cannibalism. From their chief Machacha

mountain takes its name. At this period a young man named Moshesh (born

about 1790), who was of the family of Monaheng and already noted as

hunter and warrior, gathered round him the remnants of several broken

clans, out of which he welded the existing Basuto nation. He established

himself in 1824 on the rock-fortress of Thaba Bosigo, where, in 1831, he

successfully defended himself against Mosilikatze; and thereafter became

second only to that chief among the natives north of the Orange River.

In 1833 Moshesh invited the missionaries of the Societe des Missions

Evangeliques of Paris to settle in his country, and from that day until

his death proved their firm friend. A few years later, in 1836-1837,

large parties of emigrant Boers settled north of the Orange, and before

long disputes arose between them and Moshesh, who claimed a great part

of the land on which the white farmers had settled. The Basuto acquired

an unenviable notoriety as a race of bold cattle lifters and raiders,

and the emigrant Boers found them extremely troublesome neighbours. At

the same time, if the Basuto were eager for cattle, the Boers were eager

for land; and their encroachments on the territories of the Basuto led

to a proclamation in 1842 from Sir George Napier, the then governor of

Cape Colony, forbidding further encroachments on Basutoland. In 1843 a

treaty was signed with Moshesh on the lines of that already arranged

with Waterboer, the Griqua chief (see GRIQUALAND), creating Basutoland a

native state under British protection.

Annexation to Great Britain.

To the quarrels between Basuto and Boers were added interminable

disputes between the Basuto and other Bechuana tribes, which continued

unabated after the proclamation of British sovereignty over the Orange

river regions by Sir Harry Smith in 1848. In 1849, however, Moshesh was

unwillingly induced by Sir Harry to surrender his claims to part of the

territory recognized as his by the Napier treaty. The British continued

to intervene in the inter-tribal disputes, and in 1851 Major H.D. Warden

led against the Basuto a commando composed of British soldiers, farmers

and a native contingent. This commando was defeated at Viervoet, near

Thaba Nchu, by the Basuto, who thereafter raided and plundered the

natives opposed to them and the farmers who had helped the British.

Attempts were made to come to terms with Moshesh and the justice of many

of his complaints was admitted. The efforts at accommodation failed, and

in 1852 General Sir George Cathcart, who had succeeded Sir Harry Smith

as governor of Cape Colony, decided to take strong measures with the

tribe, and proceeded with three small divisions of troops against

Moshesh. The expedition was by no means a success, but Moshesh, with

that peculiar statecraft for which he was famous, saw that he could not

hope permanently to hold out against the British troops, and followed up

his successful skirmishes with General Cathcart by writing him a letter,

in which he said: "As the object for which you have come is to have a

compensation for Boers, I beg you will be satisfied with what you have

taken. You have shown your power, you have chastised; I will try all I

can to keep my people in order in the future." General Cathcart accepted

the offer of Moshesh and peace was proclaimed, the Basuto power being

unbroken. Fourteen months later (February 1854) Great Britain renounced

sovereignty over the farmers settled beyond the Orange, and Moshesh

found himself face to face with the newly constituted Free State.

Boundary disputes at once arose but were settled (1858) by the mediation

of Sir George Grey, governor of Cape Colony. In 1865 a fresh feud

occurred between the Orange Free State Boers and the Basuto. The latter

applied to Sir Philip Wodehouse at the Cape for protection, but he

declined to interfere. The Boers proved more successful than they had

been in the past, and occupied several of the Basuto strongholds. They

also annexed a certain fertile portion of Basuto territory, and finally

terminated the strife by a treaty at Thaba Bosigo, by which Moshesh gave

up the tract of territory taken by the Boers and professed himself a

subject of the Free State. Seeing that the struggle against the Boers

was hopeless, no fewer than 2000 Basuto warriors having been killed,

Moshesh again appealed for protection to the British authorities,

saying: "Let me and my people rest and live under the large folds of the

flag of England before I am no more." In response to this request, the

British authorities decided to take over Basutoland, and a proclamation

of annexation was issued on the 12th of March 1868. At the same time the

Boer commandoes were requested to leave the country. The Free State

strongly resented the British annexation of Basutoland, but much

negotiation the treaty of Aliwal North was concluded (1869) between the

Free State and the high commissioner. This treaty defined the boundary

between the Free State and Basutoland, whereby the fertile strip of

country west of the Caledon river, known as the Conquered Territory, was

finally transferred to the Free State, and the remainder of Basutoland

was recognized as a portion of the British dominions.

Moshesh, who for nearly fifty years had led his people so skilfully and

well, died in 1870. He was one of the rare instances among the Kaffirs

of a leader endowed with intellectual gifts which placed him on a level

with Europeans, and his life-work has left a permanent mark on South

African history. In diplomacy he proved fully the equal of all--white or

black--with whom he had to deal, while he ruled with a rare combination

of vigour and moderation over the nation which he had created.

The "gun" war.

In 1871 Basutoland was annexed to Cape Colony, the area at that time

being given as 10,300 sq. m. The turbulent Basuto warriors did not

remain quiet for any length of time, and in 1879 Moirosi, a chief

residing in the southern portion of Basutoland, openly repudiated

colonial rule. An expedition was despatched from Cape Colony and severe

fighting followed. Moirosi's stronghold was captured and the chief

himself was killed. Immediately after the war, strife occurred among the

Basuto themselves over the question of the partition of Moirosi's

territory, which had been decided on as one of the results of the war.

In 1880 the Cape government felt sufficiently strong to extend to

Basutoland the Cape Peace Preservation Act of 1878. This act provided

for the disarmament of natives, and had already been put in force

successfully among some of the Kaffir tribes on the Cape eastern

frontier. Its execution in Basutoland, however, proved an extremely

difficult task, and was never entirely accomplished. Desultory warfare

was carried on between the colonial troops and the Basuto until 1881,

when the intervention of the high commissioner, Sir Hercules Robinson

(afterward Lord Rosmead), was asked for. Peace in Basutoland was not

announced until the end of 1882. In the following year a form of

self-government was established, but was once more followed by internal

strife among the petty chieftains.

A crown colony.

The subjection of Basutoland to the control of the Cape government had

by this time proved unsatisfactory, both to the Basuto and to Cape

Colony. The Cape government therefore offered no opposition to the

appeal made by the Basuto themselves to the imperial government to take

them over, and, moreover, Cape Colony undertook to pay towards the cost

of administration an annual contribution of L18,000. Consequently, in

1884, Basutoland ceased to be a portion of the Cape Colony and became a

British crown colony. Native laws and customs were interfered with as

little as possible and the authority of the chiefs--all members of the

Moshesh family--was maintained. Moshesh had been succeeded as paramount

chief by his son, Letsie, and he in turn was succeeded in 1891 by

Lerothodi (c. 1837-1905). These chieftains acted in concert with the

British representative in the country, to whom was given the title of

resident commissioner. The first commissioner was Sir Marshall Clarke,

to whose tact and ability the country owed much. The period of warfare

over, the Basuto turned their attention more and more to agricultural

pursuits and also showed themselves very receptive of missionary

influence. Trade increased, and in 1891 Basutoland was admitted to the

customs union, which already existed between Orange Free State, Cape

Colony and British Bechuanaland. When Lord (then Sir Alfred) Milner

visited Basutoland in 1898, on his way to Bloemfontein, he was received

by 15,000 mounted Basuto. The chiefs also attended a large meeting at

Maseru, and gave expression to their gratitude for the beneficent

character of Queen Victoria's rule and protection. On the outbreak of

the Boer War in 1899, these same chiefs, at a great meeting held in the

presence of the resident commissioner, gave a further protestation of

their loyalty to Her Majesty. They remained passive throughout the War

and the neutrality of the country was respected by both armies. One

chief alone sought to take advantage of the situation by disloyal

action, and his offence was met by a year's imprisonment. The conversion

of Basutoland into a crown colony contributed alike to the prosperity of

the Basuto, the security of the property of neighbouring colonists and a

peaceful condition among the natives of South Africa generally. In

pursuance of the policy of encouraging the self-governing powers of the

Basuto, a national council was instituted and held its first sitting in

July 1903. In August 1905 the paramount chief Lerothodi died. In early

life he had distinguished himself in the wars with the Boers, and in

1880 he took an active part in the revolt against the Cape government.

Since 1884 he had been a loyal supporter of the imperial authorities,

being unwavering in his adherence in critical times. Fearless and

masterful he also possessed high diplomatic gifts, and though on

occasion arbitrary and passionate he was neither revengeful nor cruel.

On the 19th of September following Lerothodi's death, the national

council, with the concurrence of the imperial government, elected his

son Letsie as paramount chief. The completion in October 1905 of a

railway putting Maseru in connexion with the South African railway

system proved a great boon to the community. During the rebellion of the

natives in Natal and Zululand in 1906 the Basuto remained perfectly

quiet.

AUTHORITIES.--_The Basutos_ (2 vols., London, 1909), a standard

history, and "Basutoland and the Basutos" in _Jnl. Ryl. Col. Inst._

1901, both by Sir G. Lagden, resident-commissioner, 1893-1901; E.

Jacottet, "Moeurs, coutumes et superstitions des Ba-Souts," in _Bull.

Soc. neuchateloise Geog._, vol. ix. pp. 107-151, 1897; G.M. Theal,

_Basutoland Records_ (Cape Town, 1883); E. Casalis, _Les Bassutos_

(Paris, 1859), a description of exploration, manners and customs, the

result of twenty-three years' residence in the country; Minnie Martin,

_Basutoland: its Legends and Customs_ (London, 1903); Mrs F.A. Barkly,

_Among Boers and Basutos_ (new ed., London, 1897), a record, chiefly,

of the Gun War of 1880-1882; C.W. Mackintosh, _Coillard of the

Zambesi_ (London, 1907). For geology consult E. Cohen,

"Geognostisch-petrographische Skizzen aus Sud-Afrika," _Neues Jahrb.

f. Min._, 1874, and _N. Jahrb. Beil._, Bd. v., 1887; D. Draper, "Notes

on the Geology of South-eastern Africa," _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._,

vol. 1., 1894; Hatch-Corstorphine. _The Geology of South Africa_

(London, 1905). For current information see the annual report on

Basutoland (Colonial Office, London). Many books dealing with South

Africa generally have chapters relating to Basutoland, e.g. A.P.

Hillier, _South African Studies_ (London, 1900); James Bryce,

_Impressions of South Africa_ (3rd ed., London, 1899). Consult also

Theal's _History of South Africa_ (1908-9 ed.).

(F. R. C.; A. P. H.)