2. Al Imlaʾ ʾAla Mushkal al Ihya—(supplement to above).
3. AlʾArbaʾîn—(on the Koran).
4. Asma Allah al Husna—(on the names of God).
5. Al-Iqtasad fi Iʾtiqad—(Speculative Theology).
6. Iljam al ʾAwam ʾan ʾilm al Kalam—(Warning against scholasticism).
7. Asrar Muʾamalat id Din—(Mysticism).
8. Asrar al anwar al ilahiya—(on the Koran).
9. Akhlaq al abrar wa najat min al ashrar—(Ethics).
10. Asrar itbaʾa as sunna—(Tradition).
11. Asrar al huruf wa ’l kalimat—(Koran Mysteries).
12. Ayyuha ’l walad—(O child!—written in Persian originally—Ethics
and Manners).
13. Badayat al Hadaya—(Beginner’s book in religion).
14. Al Basit fi furuʾa al Madhhab—(Jurisprudence).
15. Bayan al Qaulain—(Creed).
16. Bayan Fadhaʾa al Abahiya—
17. Badaʾa as Saniya.
18. Tanbih al Ghafalîn.
19. Talbis Iblis.
20. At Takbir fi ʾilm al taʾabir—(Interpretation).
21. Tahafut al filasafa—(Against Philosophy).
22. Taʾliqa fi furuʾa al Madhhab—(Written at Jurjan against the
Ismailite heresy).
23. Tahsin al Maqsud—
24. Tahsin al Adilla—(Sources of Islam).
25. Tafsir al Quran al ʾAzim—(Brief Koran Commentary).
26. Al Tafriqa bain al iman wa ’l zindiqa—
27. Jawahir al Quran—(Beauties of the Koran).
28. Hujjat al Haqq—
29. Haqiqat al Ruh—(Mysticism).
30. Haqiqat al Qaulain—(on the Creed).
31. Al Durra al Fakhira—(The Precious Pearl).
32. Khulasat ar Rasaʾil—(Jurisprudence).
33. Khulasat al-tasanif fi l-tasawwuf.
34. Risalat al Qudsiya.
35. Risalat al Aqtab.
36. Al Risalat al Laduniya.
37. Risalat at Tair—(Parable on the Birds).
38. Sirr al Maʾsun—(on the magical use of the Koran text).
39. Sirr al-ʿalamain wa-kashf ma fi ’l-darain.
40. Sharh Daʾirat ʾAli ibn Talib.
41. Shifaʾ al Ghalil—(On Logic).
42. ʾAqidat al Misbah.
43. ʾAjaʾib Sanaʾa Allah.
44. ʾAnqud al Mukhtasar.
45. Ghayat al Ghur fi Misaʾil al daur—(On Divorce).
46. Ghaur al Daur—(also on Divorce) written in Bagdad 484 A. H.
47. Al Fatawa—(One hundred and ninety questions answered).
48. Fatihat al ʾUlum—(Encyclopædia of Sciences).
49. Al Qanun al Kulli.
50. Qanun ar Rasul.
51. Al Qurbat ila Allah—(On Nearness to God).
52. Al Qistas al Mustaqim—(Sources of Islam).
53. Al Qaul al jamil fi radd ʾala man ghaiyar al Injil—(On the
corrupting of the Gospel text).
54. Kimiya as Saaʾda—(The Alchemy of Happiness; written in Persian and
afterwards translated).
55. Kashf ʾUlum al Akhira—(Eschatology).
56. Al Kashf wa ’l tabyin fi ghurur al Khalk ajmaʾin—(Mysticism).
57. Kanz al ʾIdat.
58. Kitab al ʾarbaʾin.
59. Al Lubab al Muntaqal fi ’l Jadal—(On Controversy).
60. Al Mustasfa fi ʾUsul al Fiqh—(Jurisprudence). His most important
and largest work on this subject; several commentaries were
written on it later.
61. Al Manqul fi ’l ʾUsul.
62. Al Maksud fi Khilafiyat bain al Hanifiya wa ’sh Shafiʾya—(on
these two schools of jurisprudence).
63. Al Madadi wa ’l Ghayat fi asrar al Huruf al Maknumat.
64. Al Majalis al Ghazaliya—(Collection of his Bagdad sermons).
65. Maqasid al filasafa—(Philosophy).
66. Al Munqidh min adh-Dhalal—(His Confessions, Autobiographical).
67. Miʾyar al ʾIlm fi ’l Mantiq—(Logic).
68. Miʾyar al Nazir—(Logic).
69. Mahal al Nazir—
70. Mishkat al anwar fi lataʾif al akhyar—(Ethics).
71. Al Mustazhir fi radd ʾala ’l Batiniya—(Controversial).
72. Al-Madnun bihi ʾala ghairi ahlihi—Book to be kept from those
unfitted for it. (Esoteric.)
73. Al-Madnun al-saghir—Book to be kept from those unfitted for
it. (Esoteric.)
74. Mishkat al-anwar—(Mysticism).
75. Mizan al ʾAmal—(A compendium of Ethics).
76. Mawahib al Batiniya—(similar to No. 71, but abbreviated).
77. Al Minhaj al Aʾali—
78. Miraj as Salikîn—
79. Mukashafat al qulub—
80. Mufasal al Khilaf fi ʾUsul al Qiyas—
81. Minhaj al ʾAbidin ila Janat Rab al ʾAlamîn—(His last work: a
popular epistle on the Mystic way).
82. Nasikhat al Muluk—(Written in Persian and called in the Arabic
translation Al Tibr al Masbuk; a book of counsel for kings
and princes).
83. Al Wajiz—(Jurisprudence). Several commentaries were written on
this work and it is much used.
84. Al Wasit—(a celebrated book in Jurisprudence). Several
commentaries.
85. Yaqut at Taʾwil fi Tafsir at Tanzil—(Commentary on the Koran in
40 vols.).
D. Comparative Table of Events
NORTH AFRICA
EUROPE AND SPAIN AL-GHAZALI A. D. A. H.
--------------------+-------------------+-----------------+------+------+
_Germany_— |Kingdoms of Castile|Al-Ghazali born. | 1058 | 450 |
Franconian | and Leon. | | | |
Dynasty. Henry |End of the | | | |
III, Henry IV. | Ommiades, 419. | | | |
--------------------+The Morabeths. |Al-Ghazali goes | | |
Struggle between +-------------------+ to Bagdad. | 1087 | 480 |
Emperors and |Advance of | | | |
the Popes. | Christians. | | | |
--------------------+The Moslems divided| | | |
_Italy_—Lombard | into small | | | |
Republics. | states. |Conversion of | | |
Gregory VII. +-------------------+ Al-Ghazali. | 1095 | 488 |
--------------------+Abdallah ben Tasfin| | | |
_France_—Reign of | founds Marakash. | | | |
Feudalism. +-------------------+ | | |
Philip, 1060. |Toledo taken, 1085.|His return to | | |
--------------------+The Almoravides. | active life. | 1104 | 498 |
_Russia_—Vladimir |Yusuf ibn Tasfin | | | |
the Great adopts | called to Spain, | | | |
Christianity. | 1086. | | | |
--------------------+-------------------+ | | |
_England_—Conquest |1086, Battle of | | | |
of William, Duke | Zalaca, defeat of|His death. | 1111 | 505 |
of Normandy, | Moslems. | | | |
1066. | | | | |
--------------------+ | | | |
Abelard born, 1079. | | | | |
--------------------+ | | | |
First Crusade, 1095.| | | | |
Anselm, 1093. | | | | |
Bernard, 1115. | | | | |
A. D. A. H. ARABIA AND SYRIA PERSIA—KHORASAN—INDIA
+------+------+------------------------+-------------------------
| 1058 | 450 |El Mostanser, |El Kaʿim Bʾamrillah
| | | 427-487 A. H. | invests Tughril with
| | | Proclaimed at Bagdad, | temporal authority.
| | | 451 A. H. +-------------------------
| | | |Tughril Bey subjects
| 1087 | 480 | | Persia.
| | |Seditions in Caliphate. +-------------------------
| | +------------------------+Tughril Bey invades
| | | | India. Firdausi,
| | | | author of Shah Nameh.
| | | |Death of Tughril Bey,
| 1095 | 488 | | 1063.
| | |Decline of the +-------------------------
| | | Fatimides. |
| | | |DOMINATION OF THE SELJUKS
| | | |
| 1104 | 498 | |Alp Arslan. Conquest of
| | | | Asia Minor.
| | |Jerusalem invaded by the+-------------------------
| | | sons of Ortok, 1076. |Malek Shah. His four sons
| | |1098, Siege of Antioch. | divide his empire,
| | |Jerusalem captured by | 1072.
| 1111 | 505 | the Crusaders, 1099. +-------------------------
| | | (492 A. H.) |The kingdom of Gazna
| | |1109, Tripoli taken by | overthrown by the
| | | the Crusaders. | Sultans Gourides of
| | | | Delhi.
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
FOOTNOTES
[1] “Sketches from Eastern History,” Theodore Nöldeke. London, 1892, p.
98.
[2] “Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.”
[3] “The Assemblies of al-Hariri,” trans. by Thomas Chenery. London,
1867. Vol. I, Introduction, p. 5.
[4] Der Islam, Band V, Heft 2/3; C. H. Becker, Strassburg, 1914, pp. 239,
291.
[5] Mediæval India, in “The Story of the Nations Series,” Stanley
Lane-Poole, New York, 1903, p. 37.
[6] “The Caliphate, its Rise, Decline and Fall,” 1892, p. 578.
[7] That there was not only close social, but religious and polemical
contact between the learned men of Christian sects and those of Islam
long before this period, and especially during the life of Al-Ghazali
is well known. See especially the life and writings of Al-Kindi, John
of Damascus, and Theodor Abu Qurra as given by A. Keller in “Der
Geisteskampf des Christentums gegen den Islam bis zur Zeit der Kreuzzüge”
(Leipzig, 1896) and “Christliches Polemik und Islamische Dogmenbilding,”
by C. H. Becker (“Festschrift Ignaz Goldziher,” pp. 175-195). The latter
shows clearly that Islam borrowed considerably from Christianity, through
controversy, both in its dogma and ritual even as late as the tenth
century.
[8] Cf. “The Lesser Eastern Churches,” Adrian Fortescue, London, 1913.
[9] Cf. _The Moslem World_, Vol. VI, p. 385.
[10] See article on “The Arabic Bible” in _The Moslem World_, October,
1916.
[11] “Missionary Achievement:” A survey of world-wide Evangelization,
London, 1907, pp. 22, 26.
[12] “Minhaj et Talibin of An-Nawawi,” trans. from the French of L. W. C.
Van Den Berg by E. C. Howard, London, 1914, pp. 467 and 469.
[13] These badges of servitude, called _Ghayar_, are referred to as
obligatory in Al-Ghazali’s “_Wajiz_.” See the chapter on infidel-subjects.
[14] Richard Gottheil gives the contents of a _fatwa_ on the appointment
of _Dhimmis_ to office dated about A. D. 1126 and given by one Ahmad
ibn Al Husain. “To place an infidel in authority over a Moslem would
never enter the mind of one who had a sound heart. He who does so must
either be a godless fellow or be ignorant of Moslem law and practice. He
attempts to prove that a _Dhimmi_ (_i. e._ Jew or Christian) is not even
to be used as a scribe, a money-changer, or a butcher; citing passages
from the Koran and the Traditions” (“Festschrift Ignaz Goldziher von Carl
Bezold,” Strassburg, 1911, pp. 203-208).
[15] “The Early Development of Mohammedanism,” London, 1914, p. 131.
[16] Milner, “The History of the Church of Christ,” London, 1834, p. 531,
Vol. II.
[17] “The Pulse of Asia,” Houghton, Mifflin & Co., New York, 1907, p. 325.
[18] See however Gardner’s Al-Ghazali in the “Islam Series” (pp. 1-3)
where we have this note: “The district of Tus contained four towns,
Radkan, Tabaran, Bazdghur, and Nawqan, (Yaqut gives the spelling as
Nuqan) and more than 1,000 villages.” (See Yaqut, quoting Misʾar bin
Mukhalhil, vol. vi, p. 7. Ibn Khallikan, vol. i, p. 29. Jackson, _From
Constantinople to the Home of Omar Khayyam_, p. 267, 284 _ff._) Of these
four towns, Tabaran was the capital, while Nawqan was the most populous.
It was outside of Nawqan that ʿAli bin Musa ar-Rida and Haroun Ar-Rashid
were buried. Thus, the present Mashad represents the old Nawqan, and must
cover some at least of the site of that city; while the ruins now known
as Tus represent the old city of Tabaran, which, having been the capital
of the district, was commonly called by the name of the district. It was
outside Tabaran that Al-Ghazali and Firdausi were buried. It is a mistake
to regard Tus as having been a metropolis containing four boroughs. That
there ever existed a _city_ of Tus stretching thirty-five miles, from
Mashad to Radkan, is incredible. As-Samʾani, in the _Kitabu’l-Ansab_,
says that Tus contained two towns and over one thousand villages.
[19] “The Glory of the Shiah World,” London, 1910. In this book we have
an interesting picture of Mashad and Tus as they are to-day.
[20] “Kashf al-Mahjub,” pp. 173-174.
[21] “Hayat-ul-Hayawan,” by Damiri.
[22] Referred to in his “Life of Al-Ghazzali.”
[23] _Ibn Khallikan_ (Vol. I, p. 29, Cairo, 1310) leaves little doubt
that Samaʾani spells it with one “z,” _Ghazali_. So also is the spelling
of German Orientalists including Brockelmann. He writes (Vol. I, p.
419) “_So_, als Nisbe zu Gazala, einem kleinen Orte bei Tus, nach dem
ausdrücklichen Zeugnis des Samʾanis, jenes ausgezeichneten Kenners
iranischer Namen, (s. o. p. 330) b. j. Hall, nr. 37; die von Gosche 1,
1, nr. 3 auf Grund später, persischer Quellen verteidigte Schreibung
‘Gazzali’ verdankt offenbar einer Volksetymologie ihr Dasein in Anlehnung
an die nach al Samʾani in Hwarizm gebräuchlichen Nisben, wie al Qassari
für al Qassar. Sujuti den Gosche citiert bestätigt keineswegs seine
auffassung, sondern gibt seine Quelle als Samʾani genau wieder.” Clement
Huart (“History of Arabic Literature,” p. 265) gives the preference
to _Ghazali_; so do the French Orientalists in the _Revue du Monde
Mussulman_, Goldziher in his latest work _Vorlesungen über den Islam_
(1910), and the well-known Dutch Arabist, Snouck Hurgronje. Yet in spite
of all this those who prefer “Ghazzali” may appeal to the highest Moslem
authority, namely, Mohammed the Prophet who is said to have declared to
some one in a dream that this was the correct spelling. (See “Murtadha,”
Vol. I, p. 18.) I have a _fatwa_ from the Sheikhs of Al-Azhar, Cairo,
however, stating that the true spelling is now agreed on by Moslems as
_Ghazali_ with one middle radical.
[24] Macdonald.
[25] From the Biography given at the end of Miskat-ul-Anwar, Cairo
edition (1322).
[26] “The Confessions of Al-Ghazali,” trans. by Claud Field, London, 1909.
[27] Cf. Appendix VII in Macdonald’s “Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and
Constitutional Theology.”
[28] I follow here the contents of Ghazali’s own _Wajiz_.
[29] D. B. Macdonald, “Life of Al-Ghazzali,” Journal of the American
Oriental Society, Vol. XX, p. 76.
[30] Huart, “Arabic Literature.”
[31] “Lalla Rookh.”
[32] “Baghdad under the Abbasside Caliphate,” G. Le Strange, Oxford,
1900, p. 298.
[33] Several of these are given at length by Murtadha.
[34] Macdonald, p. 88.
[35] Macdonald, p. 90, and see Bibliography.
[36] “The Maqamat.”
[37] “Manuel d’Art Musulman,” Vol. I, Paris, 1907.
[38] Compare on the chronology the first chapters of Gardner’s
“Al-Ghazali,” 1919 (Christian Lit. Soc. for India).
[39] Quoted in Klein’s “Islam,” page 87, from the _Ihya_, IV: 320.
[40] For the significance of these terms consult Hughes’ “Dictionary of
Islam.”
[41] That this method of seeking God is still a refuge for the most
earnest and sincere among Moslems is clear from such books as “The
Autobiography of Imad-ud-Din the Indian Convert” (C. M. S., London).
[42] Gardner finds evidence that the book mentioned was _not_ written
there.
[43] “The Jewish Encyclopædia,” article “Machpelah.”
[44] A recent traveller says: “There is a hole in the wall which is
supposed to communicate with the cave below. Jews write letters to
Abraham and place them in this hole, to tell him how badly they are
being treated by the Moslems. But the Moslem boys are said to know that
the hole has no great depth, and to collect these letters and burn them
before Abraham has seen them.”
[45] Cf. his “Ihya” and also his “Al-Wajiz.”
[46] M. J. De Goeje, “Memoire sur les Carmathes du Bahrain et Les
Fatimides,” (Leiden, 1886) pp. 104-114.
[47] In the _Ihya_ Al-Ghazali gives the prayer to be offered when kissing
the Black Stone.
[48] “Mekka,” Dr. C. Snouck Hurgronje, Vol. I, den Haag, 1888.
[49] Burton’s “Pilgrimage,” Vol. II, Appendix, pp. 323-324.
[50] Macdonald, “The Life of Al-Ghazzali,” pp. 97-98.
[51] Burton’s “Pilgrimage to Al-Medinah and Meccah,” Vol. I, p. 12.
[52] Macdonald’s “Life of Al-Ghazzali,” pp. 105, 107-108, quoted from
Murtadha.
[53] Quoted in Hayat-ul-Hayawan.
[54] An exposition of the Creed of the People of the Sunna on the two
Words of Witnessing (_kalimatai ’sh-shahada_) which form one of the
foundations of Islam. This creed is intended to be committed to memory
by children. It forms the first section of the second book of Ghazali’s
Ihya, Vol. II, pp. 17-42 of edit. of Cairo with commentary of the Sayyid
Murtadha. We are indebted for the translation to Professor Macdonald
(_Muslim Theology and Jurisprudence_).
[55] For the process see pp. 170 et seq. of “_Mafatih Al-Ghaib_” (Cairo,
1327) by Ahmed Al-Zarkawi, a contemporary Egyptian magician, and on the
subject in general, the sixth and seventh _Risalas_ in that volume.
[56] Cf. Al-Faidh al Mutawalli of Ahmed Damanhuri, Cairo, 1331.
[57] “Encyclopædia of Islam,” article _Buduh_.
[58] See a paper on this subject by Ali Bey Bargat, Sur Deux Bronzes du
Musée Arabe—“Bulletin de l’Inst. Egypt.,” IV: 7.
[59] For critical notes on his works see R. Gosche, pp. 249-300, also
Gardner’s remarks and list.
[60] “The Mystics of Islam.”
[61] Macdonald, p. 72.
[62] Compare the two statements facing this chapter; also the references
to “The Gospel,” in Chapter IX.
[63] “Jewish Encyclopædia,” article “Ghazali.”
[64] Macdonald.
[65] In regard to the influence of Al-Ghazali’s writings, R. Gosche
remarks: “It is characteristic how his influence has spread. The later
mystical portions of his _Ihya_ have especially influenced Mohammedan
circles in India. His two works on philosophy exerted influence in Spain
and among later Jewish writers, for the best manuscripts of the Tahafut
are found in Maghrabi character.”
[66] Adolf Wuttke, “Christian Ethics,” Vol. I, p. 172.
[67] Macdonald, pp. 118-119.
[68] “Ihya,” Vol. II, pp. 32-33, “Mizan al ʿAmal,” pp. 126-128, etc.
[69] “Alchemy of Happiness,” pp. 94-96.
[70] “Alchemy of Happiness.”
[71] “Mizan al ʿAmal.”
[72] “The Mystics of Islam.”
[73] “The Way of a Mystic,” _The Moslem World_, Vol. II, p. 171.
[74] “Mystics of Islam,” p. 18.
[75] Yet strange to say there was often an utter divorce between these
high ideals and practical morality. A surprising statement is made by
Al-Ghazali regarding Junaid in this connection. “Ihya,” Vol. II, p. 19.
[76] “Essays on Islam,” by Rev. E. Sell, Madras, 1901, p. 13.
[77] “Mohammedanism,” C. Snouck Hurgronje, New York and London, 1916.
[78] “Der Islam,” Band V, Heft 2/3 article, “Al-Ghazali’s Mishkat
Al-Anwar and the Ghazali Problem,” by Canon W. H. T. Gairdner.
[79] “Development of Mohammedanism,” pp. 143-144.
[80] “_Ihya_,” chapter on Repentance.
[81] One of the texts he uses is (Surah 2, verse 222), “Verily, God loves
those who repent and loves those who are purified.” The context is in
relation to the infamous statement “Your wives are your tillage, etc.,”
which many Moslem commentators interpret as a license for immorality. No
wonder that Al-Ghazali was led in this connection to begin to speak on
the text “all have sinned” although he does not quote St. Paul’s first
chapter to the Romans.
[82] “Al-Badajet,” Cairo Edition, p. 41.
[83] Zwemer, “The Moslem Christ.”
[84] Goldziher, in “Z. D. M. G.,” XXXII, 344.
[85] “Jewish Encyclopædia,” Art. Bible Versions.
[86] After completing this research I found a fuller account of all
references to Jesus Christ in Moslem Literature, especially the _Ihya_ as
given by Michaël Asin et Palacios in _Logia et Agrapha Domini Jesus apud
Moslemicos, etc._, in _Patrologia Orientalis_, Tome XIII fascicule 3.
Paris 1917.
[87] The story is repeated in Vol. III, p. 206; cf. Matt. 6: 16-18.
[88] These last quotations are from the translation by Homes which was
from the Turkish. There seem to be several editions of the “Alchemy of
Happiness” and the text varies as well as the number of chapters.
[89] “The Development of Metaphysics in Persia,” p. 75.
_Printed in the United States of America_