is the custom to postpone initiation until death, when the linga is
tied on the corpse by a Jangam before it is buried. Those who are
initiated during life wear the linga suspended from the neck. The
Viramushtis seem to have several sub-divisions, e.g., Naga Mallika
(Rhinacanthus communis), the roots of which are believed to cure
snake-bite, Puccha Kaya (Citrullus Colocynthis), Triputa (Ipomoea
Turpethum), and Ramadosa (Cucumis Melo).
Girls are married before or after puberty. The menarikam custom,
according to which a man should marry his maternal uncle's daughter,
is observed. A voli (bride-price) of sixteen rupees, or half a tola
of gold, in the form of jewelry, is given to the bride.
The Viramushtis are professional acrobats and mendicants, and are
attached to the Devangas and Komatis. The following legends are
current to account for their connection with these castes. In days
gone by, there was, in a big town, a great Lingayat mutt (monastery)
named Basavanna Mandiram, presided over by a Jangam priest named
Basavanna. The mutt contained three hundred crores of Lingayat priests,
and great wealth was stored in it. This the Viramushtis guarded against
thieves. A Telaga, Chikayya by name, who was a professional thief,
determined to plunder the mutt, in order to satisfy his mistress. One
night, when the Viramushtis were fast asleep, he entered the mutt,
but, when he saw a number of Jangams engaged in devout worship, he
abandoned his project, and determined to turn Lingayat. Accordingly,
at day-break, he advanced to the place where the head of the mutt
was seated, made known to him who he was, and informed him of his
resolution. Opinions were divided as to the fitness of receiving such
an applicant, but it was finally decided that, if a man repented,
he was a fit person to be received into the Lingayat fold, as the
linga recognises no caste. The linga was accordingly tied on his
neck. From that time Chikayya became a new man and a true Jangam,
and went from place to place visiting sacred shrines. One day he
happened to be at a place where lived a merchant prince, who never
dined except in the company of a Jangam. On the suggestion of his
wife Nilakuntaladevi, an invitation to dine was sent to Chikayya,
who accepted it. After dinner, the merchant went out on business,
and Nilakuntaladevi, noticing what a beautiful man Chikayya was, fell
in love with him. He, however, rejected her advances, and ran away,
leaving his knapsack behind him. Nilakuntaladevi cut off her golden
necklace, and, having placed it in the knapsack, ran after Chikayya,
and threw it at him, asking him to accept it. She then inflicted
several cuts on herself, and, as soon as her husband returned home,
complained that the Jangam had stolen her necklace, and attempted
to ravish her. Information was sent to Basayya, the head of the
mutt, and a council meeting summoned, at which it was decided that
Chikayya should have his head cut off. The order to carry out this
act was given to the Viramushtis, who went in search of him, and at
last found him beneath the shade of a tree overhanging the bank of
a river, engaged in worshipping his linga, which was in his hand. On
searching the knapsack, they found the necklace, and proceeded to cut
off Chikayya's head, which went several hundred feet up into the air,
and travelled towards the mutt, whither the headless trunk followed
on foot. On their return to the mutt, the Viramushtis found that the
three hundred crores of priests had been miraculously beheaded, and
the place was a vast pool of blood. As soon, however, as the head and
body of Chikayya approached, they became re-united, and Siva, appearing
on the scene, translated him to kylas (heaven). At the same time, he
restored the priests to life, and inflicted the following four curses
on the Viramushtis:--(1) they were not to build or use houses, and are
consequently found living under trees outside villages; (2) they were
not to sleep on a cot; (3) they were not to use the wild broom-stick;
(4) they were not to set up permanent ovens for cooking purposes,
but to make impromptu stoves out of three stones. Taking compassion
on them, the Devangas promised to give the Viramushtis a small sum
of money annually, and to contribute towards their marriage expenses.
The Viramushtis are said to have become attached to the Komatis
subsequent to the above incident. The story goes that some
Komatis asked them to delay for three and half hours the march
of Vishnuvardhana Raja, who was advancing with a view to marrying
the daughter of one of them, named Vasavakanya (now deified into
Kanyakamma). This the Viramushtis did by entertaining the Raja
with their acrobatic feats. Meanwhile, the Komatis made a number of
fire-pits, and put an end to themselves. Vishnuvardhana arrived too
late, and had his head cut off. The Viramushtis prayed to Vasavakanya,
inasmuch as they had lost both the Raja, who promised them a grant of
land in return for their performance, and herself, who had promised
to give a lump of gold to each gotra. The Komatis replied in a body
that each family of their caste would in future give the Viramushtis
an annual present of money, and help in defraying the expenses of
their marriages.
In accordance with the above legends, the Viramushtis usually beg
only from Devangas and Komatis. When they approach a village, they
generally halt under a tree, and, early in the morning, dress up as
acrobats, and appear with daggers, sticks, etc., crying Good luck! Good
luck! They caper about as they advance, and, when they reach a Devanga
or Komati house, perform their acrobatic feats, and wind up with a
eulogium of the caste. Money and food are then doled out to them.
Whenever a Devanga, Lingayat Komati, or other Lingayat wants to make
a hero (vira) of a deceased member of his family, he sends for a
Viramushti (or hero-maker), and has a slab planted, with a recognised
ceremonial, at the spot where he is buried.
In a further note on the Viramushtis I am informed that they
correspond to the Virabhadra Kayakams of the Canarese Lingayats,
like whom they dress up, and adorn themselves with small lingams,
the figure of Virabhadra, a sword, a plate bearing a star, and heads
of Asuras (demons). Every important Saivite temple has one or two
Viramushtis attached to it, and they are supposed to be servants of
the god Siva. One of their chief duties is to guard the idol during
processions, and on other occasions. If, during a car procession, the
car will not move, the Viramushtis cut themselves with their swords
until it is set in motion. There is a Tamil proverb that the Siva
Brahman (temple priest) eats well, whereas the Viramushti hurts himself
with the sword, and suffers much. The custom is said to be dying out.
The principal occupation of the Viramushtis is begging from Beri
Chettis, Devangas, Komatis, and washermen. In former days, they are
said to have performed a ceremony called pavadam. When an orthodox
Lingayat was insulted, he would swallow his lingam, and lie flat
on the ground in front of the house of the offender, who had to
collect some Lingayats, who would send for a Viramushti. He had to
arrive accompanied by a pregnant Viramushti woman, pujaris (priests)
of Draupadi, Pachaiamman and Pothuraja temples, a Sembadava pujari,
Pambaikarans, Udukkaikarans, and some individuals belonging to the
nearest Lingayat mutt. Arrived at the house, the pregnant woman would
sit down in front of the person lying on the ground. With his sword the
Viramushti man then made cuts in his scalp and chest, and sprinkled
the recumbent man with the blood. He would then rise, and the lingam
would come out of his mouth. Besides feeding the people, the offender
was expected to pay money as pavadam to the Viramushtis and mutts.
Some Viramushtis style themselves Vastad, or athletes, in reference
to their professional occupation.
Viranattan.--The name denotes those who play on a drum called
viranam. It is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that the
Viranattans "were originally temple servants, but now do miscellaneous
day labour. Their females are prostitutes. Their titles are Mestri
and Mudali."
Viranollu.--Viranollu and Viththanollu are gotras of Ganigas, who
may not cut the wood-apple (Feronia elephantum).
Virasaiva.--A synonym for Lingayat. Some Lingayats claim to be
Virasaiva Brahmans.
Visalakshiamma.--Recorded, in the Manual of the North Arcot district,
as a sub-division of Vaniyan. Visalakshiamma is the goddess of Benares,
who is said to be the sister of Minakshi of Madura and Kamakshi of
Conjeeveram. Visalakshi means literally one with beautiful eyes,
and is a name of Parvati, who is described as possessing large and
beautiful eyes.
Viswakarma.--Viswakarma and Viswa Brahman are synonyms for Kammalan,
the members of which class claim descent from the five faces of
Viswakarma, the architect of the gods.
Vitugula-vandlu.--A fanciful name, meaning hunters or gallants,
adopted by Boyas.
Vodari.--See Odari.
Vodda.--See Odde.
Vodo.--A small caste of Oriya basket-makers and cultivators in the
Vizagapatam agency.
Vojali.--See Ojali.
Vokkiliyan (cultivator).--A sub-division of Kappiliyan, and Tamil
form of Vakkaliga. (See Okkiliyan.)
Vudupulavallu.--An occupational name for Balijas, Velamas, etc.,
who paint chintzes.
Vyadha (forest men).--A synonym of Myasa Bedars.
Vyapari.--A trading section of Nayar.
Vyasa (the name of a sage or rishi).--A sub-division of Balija.
W
Wahabi.--The Wahabis are a sect of Muslim revivalists founded by
Muhammad ibn 'Abdu'l Wahhab, who was born in A.D. 1691. Wahabyism
has been defined as the Puritanism of Islam, "hated by the so-called
orthodox Musalmans, as the Lutherans were hated by Leo, and the
Covenanters by Claverhouse." [155] It is recorded, in the Manual of
North Arcot (1895), that since 1806 (the year of the Vellore mutiny)
"two alarms have been raised in the district, both at Vellore, which
is largely inhabited by Muhammadans. The last alarm occurred in
1869. Early in May of that year, anonymous petitions were received
by the Joint Magistrate and the Assistant Superintendent of Police,
stating that the Wahabi Muhammadans of Vellore were in league against
Government, and had arranged a plot for the massacre of all the
European residents, in which the 28th Regiment of Native Infantry, then
stationed at Vellore, was deeply implicated. An East Indian subordinate
of the Public Works Department also reported that he had overheard a
Muhammadan munshi of the Small Cause Court speaking to a shopman of his
faith about the seditious preaching of a certain Khazi. The munshi was
sent for, and described what he said had occurred in a certain mosque,
where sedition had been openly advocated by a Wahabi missionary who had
recently arrived from Hyderabad, as well as by others." It appeared,
from the investigations of the Inspector-General of Police, that the
whole affair had been nothing more than a conspiracy among the orthodox
Muhammadans to arouse alarm regarding the designs of the Wahabis,
and to prevent these sectarians from frequenting their mosques.
Wudder.--See Odde.
Wynad.--Returned, at times of census, as a territorial division
of Chetti. There are at Gudalur near the boundary between the
Nilgiri district and Malabar, and in the Wynad, two classes called,
respectively, Mandadan Chettis (q.v.) and Wynadan Chettis.
The following account of the Wynadan or Wynaadan Chettis is given
in the Gazetteer of the Nilgiris. "They speak Malayalam, and follow
marumakkatayam (inheritance in the female line). They say they were
originally Vellalas from Coimbatore, followed makkatayam (inheritance
from father to son), spoke Tamil, and wore the Tamil top-knot. In
proof of this, they point out that at their weddings they still
follow certain Tamil customs, the bridegroom wearing a turban and
a red cloth with a silver girdle over it and being shaved, and the
woman putting on petticoats and nose-rings. They have headmen called
Kolapallis, subordinate to whom are Mantiris, but these are liable
to be overruled by a nad council. No wedding may take place without
the headman's leave. Two forms of marriage are recognised. In one,
the couple exchange garlands after the Tamil fashion, and the father
(a relic of the makkatayam system) conducts the ceremony. Preliminaries
are arranged by go-betweens, and the chief of the numerous rites is
the placing of a bracelet on the girl's upper arm under a pandal
(booth) before the priest and the assembled relatives. The other
form is simpler. The bridegroom goes to the girl's house with some
men friends, and, after a dinner there, a go-between puts on the
bangle. Before marriage, a tali-kettu ceremony resembling that of
the Nayars is often gone through, all the girls of a family who are
of marriageable age having talis tied round their necks on the same
day by a maternal uncle. Married women are allowed intimacy with their
husbands' brothers. Widows are permitted to marry again. The dead are
usually burnt, but those who have met their deaths by accidents and
epidemics are buried. Water from a vessel containing rice and a gold
coin is poured into a dying person's mouth. Should the spirit of the
dead disturb the dreams of the relatives, a hut for it is built under
an astrologer's directions close to the house, and in this lights
are lit morning and evening, and periodical offerings of food are
made. The Wynaadan Chettis reverence the deities in the Ganapati,
Mahamari and Kalimalai Tambiran temples near Sultan's Battery,
Airu Billi of the Kurumbas, and one or two others. The women wear
in their distended ear-lobes gold discs which are so characteristic
of the Nayars, and many necklaces. They wear two white cloths, tying
one round the waist and another across their breasts."
It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that the Wynad or
Wynaadan Chettis "claim to be Sudras, and are in appearance and
customs very similar to the Nayars. They are polluted by all castes
below Nayars. Their marriage customs seem to be a mixture of east
and west coast practices. They follow the marumakkattayam system,
and perform the tali-kettu kalianam; but this is done on the tenth day
after puberty, and two talis have to be tied on the girl, one by her
maternal uncle, and one by the senior female of her house. They also
celebrate a regular marriage ceremony, at which a bracelet is put on
the bride's right arm, and bride and bridegroom garland each other;
while next morning a kanam or bride-price has to be paid to the
bride's karnavan (senior male in a family). They are bold shikaris
(sportsmen), and tiger spearing is a favourite pastime, closely
connected with their religion.
"The tiger is encircled by a wall of netting six feet high, which is
gradually closed up, and then speared. The carcass is not skinned,
but is stretched on a pole, and hung up as a sacrifice to their deity."
Y
Yadava.--Yadava, meaning descendants of king Yadu, from whom Krishna
was descended, has been recorded as a synonym or title of Idaiyan,
and a sub-division of Golla and Koracha. There is a tradition among
the Idaiyans that Krishna was brought up by their caste.
Yakari.--See Ekari.
Yanadi.--The Yanadis are a dark-skinned, platyrhine tribe, short
of stature, who inhabit the Telugu country. The name has been the
subject of much etymological speculation. Some derive it from a
(privative) and nathu (lord or protector), and it may mean those
who are not included in the ruling or principal caste. Again, it has
been derived from yanam (boat) and adi (means). But the Yanadis are
not known to have plied, nor do they now ply boats at Sriharikota,
their chief place of residence, which is on the coast. The word would
seem to be derived from the Sanskrit anadi, or those whose origin is
not traceable. The people perhaps elongated the vowel-sound, so that
it became Yanadi. In like manner, the Native graduate of the Madras
University talks of himself as being, not a B.A. or M.A., but B.Ya. or
M.Ya. And a billiard-marker will call the game yeighty-yeight instead
of eighty-eight.
The tradition of the Yanadis as to their origin is very vague. Some
call themselves the original inhabitants of the wilds in the
neighbourhood of the Pulicat lake, where they hunted and fished
at will, until they were enslaved by the Reddis. Others say that
the Reddi (or Manchi?) Yanadis were originally Chenchus, a small
but superior class, and that they fled from oppression and violence
from the mountains in the west, and amalgamated themselves with the
common Yanadis. The common deity of both Chenchus and Manchi Yanadis
is Chenchu Devudu. Between the Yanadi and the Chenchu, however,
there is no love lost. They can be seen living close together, but
not intermingling, on the Nallamalais, and they differ in their
social customs. Yanadi Chenchu is said to be the name given by
Brahmans to the Chenchus. [156] The following legend concerning the
Yanadis is narrated by Mackenzie. [157] "Of old, one named Raghava
brought with him sixty families from Pacanatti district, locating
himself with them at Sriharicotta, and, clearing the country, formed
Raghavapuram. The people by degrees spread through a few adjoining
districts. A rishi, who came from Benares, and was named Ambikesvarer,
resided in Mad'hyaranya (or the central wilderness), and there, daily
bathing in a river, paid homage to Siva. These wild people of their
own accord daily brought him fruits and edibles, putting them before
him. At length he inquired of them the reason. They replied that
their country was infested by a terrible serpent, and they wished to
be taught charms to destroy it, as well as charms for other needful
purposes. He taught them, and then vanished away."
It is an advantage for a European to have a Yanadi as a camp servant,
as he can draw water from any caste well. The Yanadi can also wash,
and carry water for Brahmans.
The animistic nature of their religion; the production of fire by
friction; the primitive hunting and fishing stage in which a number
remain; the almost raw animal food which they eat, after merely
scorching or heating the flesh of the game they kill, indicate that the
Yanadis have not yet emerged from a primitive stage of culture. They
make fire by friction with sticks from the following trees:--
Protium caudatum (konda ragi).
Bauhinia racemosa (aree chettu).
Ficus. sp. (kallu jeevee chettu).
Ptereospermum suberifolium (tada).
A tree belonging to the Nat. Order Laurineæ.
Cordia monoica (female tree).
Two sticks are prepared, one short, the other long. In the former a
square cavity is scooped out, and it is held firmly on the ground,
while the long stick is twisted rapidly to and fro in the cavity. No
charcoal powder is used, but a rag, or even dried leaves are set
fire to.
The head-quarters of the Yanadis is the island of Sriharikota in the
Nellore district. Their primitive condition attracted notice in 1835,
when the island came into the possession of the Government, which
endeavoured to ameliorate their position by supplying them with a
liberal allowance of grain, clothing, tobacco, and money, in return
for the jungle produce, which they collected. The demand for labour
naturally rose, and the Government offered to pay to parents 2 annas
6 pies on the birth of a male, and 1 anna 3 pies on the birth of a
female child--a bounty on productivity justified by special local
causes. In 1858, the Government opened a school for the teaching of
Telugu, which was rendered attractive by offers of rice and clothing
to those who attended it. An industrial department gave lessons in
basket-making, and land was assigned for the cultivation of chay-root
(Oldenlandia umbellata), which yields the beautiful red dye formerly
much employed in the dyeing of cotton fabrics, but has had its nose
put out of joint by the introduction of aniline and alizarin dyes. But
the industries proved unsuccessful, and the strength of the school
gradually declined, so that it was abolished in 1877.
At the census, 1891, the Yanadis returned as many as 89 sub-divisions,
of which the two most important numerically were Chenchu and Manchi. A
division into classes exists according to dietary, occupation,
residence, etc. There are, for example, the Reddi Yanadis, the
Challa (refuse-eating), Adavi, and Kappala (frog-eaters). The Reddi
Yanadis are a settled class, employed chiefly as cooks by the Panta
Reddis. They do not mingle with the Challa and Adivi sections,
whom they regard as out-castes. If a Reddi Yanadi woman's husband
dies, abandons, or divorces her, she may marry his brother, and,
in the case of separation or divorce, the two brothers will live on
friendly terms with each other. The Challas are also known as Garappa
(dry-land) or Chatla (tree). They reside in huts on the borders of
villages in the service of the community, and live on jungle produce,
and by snaring and hunting game. The Reddi and Challa Yanadis are
occasionally employed as kavalgars, or village watchmen, in the Kistna
and Godavari districts. In the Venkatagiri Zemindari the Yanadis are
among the recognised servants of the village community as procurers
of charcoal for the blacksmith. The Adavi Yanadis are, as the name
implies, jungle-men. The Manchi or good Yanadis are a small superior
class. The Yanadis of the North Arcot district, it may be noted, are
Chenchu worshippers, and go by that name. They are non-frog-eaters,
and do not permit the Kappala, or frog-eaters, even to touch their
pots. Some Yanadis of the Nellore district feed on the refuse of the
table. The Somari, or idle Yanadis, live in the Kavali taluk of that
district. They do scavenging work, and eat the refuse food thrown
away by people from the leaf plate after a meal.
The following are some of the house-names of families living in
Nellore, Sriharikota, Tada, and Kambakam:--
(a) Manchi Yanadis--
Bandi, cart.
Chembetti, hammer.
Chilakala, paroquet.
Dhoddi, sheep-fold.
Igala, house-fly.
Enthodu, a village.
Illa, of a house.
Kathtlula, sword.
Kanur, a village.
Kotlu, cow-shed.
Mekala, goat.
Manikala, measure.
Pamula, snake.
Tenkayala, cocoanut.
Totla, garden.
Tupakala, gun.
Udamala, water-lizard.
Jandayi, flag.
Marrigunta, pond near a fig-tree.
(b) Challa Yanadi--
Nerigi Mekala, a kind of goat.
Elugu, bear.
Thirlasetti, name of a Balija Chetti.
All these names represent exogamous septs. In every case, the
house-name was known only to old men and women, and they, as a rule,
did not know the house-names of their neighbours or relations. Many
of the names are derived from villages, or persons of other castes,
on whose land they may live, and are probably new names adopted
instead of the original ones. For the purpose of their register,
Forest officers invent prefixes by which Yanadis with the same family
name can be distinguished, e.g., Kee Chenchugadu, Permadu Budthagadu,
to distinguish them from other Chenchugadus, and Budthagadus. The
same practice is resorted to by planters, who give "estate names"
to their coolies.
Yanadis will not eat with Madigas or Paraiyans, and observe some
principle in partaking of the refuse of the table. Thus, for a Chinna
Yanadi to eat the refuse of the Mondis, Oddes, or Yerukalas, would
involve excommunication, which is always pronounced by a Balija
Chetti, whose decision is final and binding. Restoration to caste
can be secured by undergoing a personal ordeal, by giving a feast,
and promising good behaviour in the future. The ordeal takes the form
of scalding of the tongue with hot gold by the Balija Chetti. It is
curious that there has recently grown up a tendency for members of
other castes to join the Yanadi community. There are instances of
barbers, weavers, fishermen, and even Komatis being admitted into
the Yanadi fold.