match-making is carried out by the boy's parents, who, with his
other relations, pay two visits, one with and one without the boy,
to the parents of the girl. At the first visit a present of ragi,
and at the second of plantains, rice, and millet pudding is made. The
party must be received with due respect, which is shown by taking
hold of the walking-sticks of the guests on arrival, and receiving
them on a mat spread inside the house. The customary form of salute
is touching the feet with both hands, and raising them, with palms
opposed, to the forehead. Before taking their seats, the guests
salute a vessel of water, which is placed on the mat, surrounded by
betel leaves and nuts. A flower is placed on the top of the stone or
figure which represents the tribal goddess, and, after puja (worship)
has been done to it, it is addressed in the words "Oh, Swami! drop
the flower to the right if the marriage is going to be propitious,
and to the left if otherwise." Should the flower remain on the image,
without falling either way, it is greeted as a very happy omen. On
the occasion of the betrothal ceremony, if the bridegroom's party,
on their way to the bride's village, have to cross a stream, running
or dry, the bridegroom is not allowed to walk across it, but must
be carried over on the back of his maternal uncle. As they approach
the bride's home, they are met by the Kolkara and two other men, to
whom the Kolkara, after receiving the walking-sticks of the guests,
hands them over. Failure to do so would be an act of discourtesy,
and regarded as an insult to be wiped out by a heavy fine. When the
procession arrives at the house, entrance into the marriage booth
is prevented by a stick held across it by people of the bride's
village. A mock struggle takes place, during which turmeric water
is thrown by both sides, and an entrance into the house is finally
effected. After a meal has been partaken of, the bridal party proceed
to the village of the bridegroom, where the bride and bridegroom
are lodged in separate houses. In front of the bridegroom's house
a booth, supported by twelve posts arranged in four rows, has been
erected. The two pillars nearest the entrance to the house are
called murthi kamba. Into the holes made for the reception of these,
after a cocoanut has been broken, ghi (clarified butter), milk, and
a few copper coins are placed. The bridal pair, after an oil bath,
are led to the booth, decorated with jewels and wearing new cloths,
and made to sit on a plank. A cocoanut is broken, and they salute a
vessel placed on a plate. The bridal party then adjourn to a pond or
stream, and do puja to their god. On the return thence the bridal
couple must be accompanied by their maternal uncles, who should
keep on dancing, while cocoanuts are broken in front of them till
the house is reached. The contracting parties then again sit on
the plank with their little fingers linked, while the bride money
(theravu) is paid to the father-in-law, and the milk money (pal
kuli) to the mother-in-law. The tali (a golden disc) is then tied
on to the bride's neck by some female relation of the bridegroom,
and the bride and bridegroom, after saluting those assembled, enter
the house, where the young wife is at once told to cook some rice,
of which she and her husband partake from the same leaf plate.
There exists, among the Uralis, a kind of informal union called
kuduvali. A man and woman will, by mutual agreement, elope into
the jungle, and live there together, till they are discovered and
brought back by their relations. A panchayat (council) is held,
and they are recognised as man and wife if the bride money and fine
inflicted are paid. Failure to pay up would render them liable to
excommunication. To celebrate the event, a feast must be given by
the man; and, if he should die without having fed the community, any
children born to him are considered as illegitimate. In such a case,
the widow or her near relatives are asked to give food to at least
a few before the corpse is removed, so as to legitimatise the children.
The Uralis bury their dead, and the death ceremonies are, to a
certain extent, copied from those of the Badagas. As soon as a member
of the tribe dies, the corpse is anointed, washed, and dressed in
new clothes and turban. On the face three silver coins are stuck,
viz.:--a rupee on the forehead, and a quarter rupee outside each
eye. When all have assembled for the funeral, the corpse is brought
out and placed under a car (teru) of six storeys, made of bamboo and
sticks, covered with coloured cloths and flags, and having at the top
a kalasa (brass vessel) and umbrella. To the accompaniment of a band
a dance takes place around the car, and the procession then moves on
to the burial-ground, where a cow buffalo is brought near the car,
and a little milk drawn and poured three times into the mouth of the
corpse. A cow and one or two calves are taken round the car, and the
calves presented to the sister of the deceased. The car is then broken
up, after the decorations have been stripped off. The corpse is buried
either on the spot, or taken away to distant Nirgundi, and buried
there. On the eighth day after the funeral or return from Nirgundi,
the eldest son of the deceased has his head shaved, and, together
with his brother's wife, fasts. If the funeral has been at Nirgundi,
the son, accompanied by his relations, proceeds thither after tying
some cooked rice in a cloth. On arrival, he offers this to all the
memorial stones in the burial-ground (goppamane), and erects a stone,
which he has brought with him, in memory of the deceased. He then
anoints all the stones with ghi, which is contained in a green bamboo
measure. He collects the rice, which has been offered, and one of the
party, becoming inspired, gives vent to oracular declarations as to
the season's prospects, the future of the bereaved family, etc. The
collected rice is regarded as sacred, and is partaken of by all. Each
sept has its own goppamane, which is a rectangular space with mud
walls on three sides. In cases in which the corpse has been buried
close to the village, the grave is marked by a file of stones. Two
or three years afterwards, the body is exhumed, and the bones are
collected, and placed in front of the house of the deceased. All the
relations weep, and the son conveys the bones to Nirgundi, where he
buries them. On the eighth day he revisits the spot, and erects a
stone with the ceremonial already described.
The Uralis worship a variety of minor deities, and sacrifice sheep
and goats to Palrayan. They observe two annual festivals, viz.:--(a)
Thai nombu, when the whole house is cleaned, and margosa (Melia
Azadirachta) twigs and spikes of Achyranthes aspera are tied together,
and placed in front of the house over the roof, or stuck into the roof
overhanging the entrance. A sumptuous repast is partaken of. This
ceremonial takes place in the month Thai (December-January). (b)
In the month Vyasi (March-April) a large trough is placed close to
a well, and filled with a mixture of salt and water. The cattle,
decorated with leaves and flowers, are brought, one by one, to the
trough, and made to drink the salt water.
Uril Parisha.--A class of Mussad.
Uru.--Ur, Uru, meaning village, is the name of a division of Bedar,
Boya, Golla, Korava, Kuruba, Madiga, and Odde. The Bedars and Boyas are
divided into two main divisions, Uru or those who dwell in villages,
and Myasa (grass-land or forest people) who live away from villages. In
like manner, the Uru Oddes are those who have abandoned a nomad life,
and settled in villages. Among some of the Tamil cultivating classes,
the headman is known as the Ur Goundan.
Ur-Udaiyan (lord of a village).--A synonym of Nattaman.
Urukathi (a kind of knife).--An exogamous sept of Toreva.
Urukkaran, a class of Muhammadan pilots and sailors in the Laccadive
islands. (See Mappilla.)
Urumikkaran.--The Urumikkarans, or those who play on the drum (urumi),
are said [83] to be "Tottiyans in Madura, and Parayans elsewhere." The
Kappiliyans say that they migrated with the Urumikkarans from the
banks of the Tungabadra river, because the Tottiyans tried to ravish
their women. At a Kappiliyan wedding, a Urumikkaran must be present
at the distribution of betel on the second day, and at the final
death ceremonies a Urumikkaran must also be present.
Usira (usirika, Phyllanthus Emblica).--A sept of Komati.
Utla.--Utla or Utlavadu has been recorded as an occupational sub-caste
of Yerukala, and an exogamous sept of Boya and Padma Sale. The name
is derived from utlam, a hanging receptacle for pots, made of palmyra
fibre, which some Yerukalas make and sell. [84]
Uttareni (Achyranthes aspera).--An exogamous sept of Boya.
Uyyala (a swing).--An exogamous sept of Mala, Mutracha, and
Yerukala. During the marriage ceremonies of Brahmans and some
non-Brahman castes, the bride and bridegroom are seated in a swing
within the marriage booth, and songs called uyyala patalu (swing songs)
are sung by women to the accompaniment of music.
V
Vada.--On the coast of Ganjam and Vizagapatam, the sea fishermen
are either Vadas or Jalaris, both of which are Telugu castes. The
fishing operations are carried on by the men, and the fish are sold
by the women in markets and villages. Various Oriya castes, e.g.,
Kevuto, Kondra, Tiyoro, etc., are employed as fishermen, but only in
fresh-water. The Vadas seem to be a section of the Palles, with whom
they will interdine and intermarry. They call themselves Vada Balijas,
though they have no claim to be regarded as Balijas. Sometimes they
are called Kalasis by Oriya people.
Socially the Vadas occupy a low position. Their language is a corrupt
and vulgar form of Telugu. The men wear a conical palm leaf cap, such
as is worn by the Pattanavan fishermen in the Tamil country. In the
presence of a superior, they remove their loin-cloth and place it round
their neck and shoulders as a mark of respect. Among many other castes,
this would, on the contrary, be regarded as an act of impertinence.
Like other Telugu castes, the Vadas have exogamous intiperus, some
of which seem to be peculiar to them, e.g., Mailapilli, Ganupilli,
Sodupilli, Davulupilli. Other intiperus are such as are common to many
Telugu castes. The caste headmen are entitled Kularaju and Pilla,
and the appointments are apparently held by members of particular
septs. At Chatrapur, for example, they belong to the Mailapilli and
Vanka septs. There is also a caste servant styled Samayanodu. The
headmen seem to have more power among the Vadas than among other
Telugu castes, and all kinds of caste matters are referred to them
for disposal. They receive a fee for every marriage, and arrange
various details in connection with the wedding ceremonial. This is
based on the Telugu type, with a few variations. When a young man's
relations proceed to the house of the girl whom it is proposed that he
should marry, the elders of her family offer water in a brass vessel
to their guests, if they approve of the match. During the marriage
rites, the bride and bridegroom sit within a pandal (booth), and the
men of the bridegroom's party exhibit to those assembled betel leaf,
areca nuts, oil, turmeric paste, etc., in which no foreign matter,
such as fragments of paper, rags, etc., must be found. If they are
discovered, a fine is inflicted.
There is exhibited in the Madras Museum a collection of clay figures,
such as are worshipped by fishermen on the Ganjam coast, concerning
which Mr. H. D'A. C. Reilly writes to me as follows. "I am sending
you specimens of the chief gods worshipped by the fishermen. The
Tahsildar of Berhampur got them made by the potter and carpenter,
who usually make such figures for the Gopalpur fishermen. I have found
fishermen's shrines at several places. Separate families appear to have
separate shrines, some consisting of large chatties (earthen pots),
occasionally ornamented, and turned upside down, with an opening
on one side. Others are made of brick and chunam (lime). All that I
have seen had their opening towards the sea. Two classes of figures
are placed in these shrines, viz., clay figures of gods, which are
worshipped before fishing expeditions, and when there is danger from a
particular disease which they prevent; and wooden figures of deceased
relations, which are quite as imaginative as the clay figures. Figures
of gods and relations are placed in the same family shrine. There are
hundreds of gods to choose from, and the selection appears to be a
matter of family taste and tradition. The figures, which I have sent,
were made by a potter at Venkatarayapalle, and painted by a carpenter
at Uppulapathi, both villages near Gopalpur. The Tahsildar tells
me that, when he was inspecting them at the Gopalpur travellers'
bungalow, sixty or seventy fisher people came and worshipped them,
and at first objected to their gods being taken away. He pacified
them by telling them that it was because the Government had heard of
their devotion to their gods that they wanted to have some of them
in Madras." The collection of clay figures includes the following:--
Bengali Babu wears a hat, and rides on a black horse. He blesses the
fishermen, secures large hauls of fish for them, and guards them
against danger when out fishing. It has been observed that "this
affinity between the Ganjam fishermen and the Bengali Babu, resulting
in the apotheosis of the latter, is certainly a striking manifestation
of the catholicity of hero-worship, and it would be interesting to
have the origin of this particular form of it, to know how long,
and for what reasons the conception of protection has appealed to the
followers of the piscatory industry. It was Sir George Campbell, the
Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, who compelled his Bengali officials,
much against their inclination, to cultivate the art of equitation."
Samalamma wears a red skirt and green coat, and protects the fishermen
from fever.
Rajamma, a female figure, with a sword in her right hand, riding on
a black elephant. She blesses barren women with children, and favours
her devotees with big catches when they go out fishing.
Yerenamma, riding on a white horse, with a sword in her right hand. She
protects fishermen from drowning, and from being caught by big fish.
Bhagirathamma, riding on an elephant, and having eight or twelve
hands. She helps fishermen when fishing at night, and protects them
against cholera, dysentery, and other intestinal disorders.
Nukalamma wears a red jacket and green skirt, and protects the fishing
community against small-pox.
Orusandi Ammavaru prevents the boats from being sunk or damaged.
Bhagadevi rides on a tiger, and protects the community from cholera.
Veyyi Kannula Ammavaru, or goddess of a thousand eyes, represented
by a pot pierced with holes, in which a gingelly (Sesamum) oil light
is burnt. She attends to the general welfare of the fisher folk.
The chief sea goddess of the Vadas seems to be Orusandiamma, whose
image must be made out of the wood of the nim (Melia Azadirachta)
tree. She is supposed to have four arms. Many of the pot temples
set up on the sea-shore are her shrines. On no account should she
be provoked, lest the fishing boat should be upset. She is regarded
as constantly roaming over the sea in a boat at night. Associated
with her is a male deity, named Ramasondi, who is her brother. His
vahanam (vehicle) is an elephant. Orusandi is worshipped separately
by each family. At the time of worship, flowers, two cloths, a fowl,
a goat, and a bottle of toddy or arrack, are carried in procession
to the sea-shore. Before the procession starts, people collect in
front of the house of the person who is doing the puja (worship),
and tie him and the goat to a long post set up in front thereof. A
toy boat is placed before the post, and Ramasondi is invoked by a
person called Mannaru, who becomes inspired by the entrance of the
deity into him. A fowl is sacrificed, and, with the boat on his head,
the Mannaru proceeds towards the shore. Orusandi is then invoked,
but does not come so easily as Ramasondi. Repeated invocations
are necessary before some one becomes inspired. The goat, post,
and a pot shrine for the goddess are taken to the shore. A small
platform is erected there, on which the shrine, smeared with chunam
(lime), is placed, and in it the image is deposited. Worship is then
performed, and the goat sacrificed if it crawls along on all fours
and shivers. If it does not do so, another goat is substituted for
it. As every family sets up its own pot shrine, the number of these
is considerable, and they extend over several furlongs.
The sea goddess Marulupolamma is housed in a small shed made of date
palm leaves. A goddess who is very much feared, and worshipped at the
burial-ground, is Bulokamma. Her worship is carried out at noon or
midnight. She is represented by a pot, of which the neck is removed. In
the sides of the pot four holes are made, into each of which a twig
is inserted. The ends of the twigs are tied together with thread, so
that they represent a miniature pandal (booth). The pot is carried
by a Mannaru, dressed up like a woman in black and white cloths,
together with another pot representing Enuga Sakthi. The former
is carried in the bend of the left elbow, and the latter on the
head. The pots are accompanied in procession to the burial-ground,
and on the way thither some one becomes inspired, and narrates the
following legend:--"I am Bulokasakthi. Ages ago I was in an egg,
of which the upper half became the sky and the lower half the earth,
and was released. The moon was the mark on my forehead, and the sun
was my mirror. Seven gadhis (a measure of time) after my birth,
a west wind arose. By that time I had grown into an adult woman,
and so I embraced the wind, which impregnated me, and, after nine
gadhis, Brahma was born. He grew into a young man, and I asked him to
embrace me, but he refused, and, as a curse, I caused him to become a
stone. Vishnu underwent the same fate, but Siva promised to satisfy
me, if I gave him my third eye, shoulder-bag, and cane. This I did,
and lost my power. Then all the water disappeared, and I was covered
with mud. Siva again caused water to appear, and of it I took three
handfuls, and threw them over my body. The third handful consumed
me, and reduced me to ashes. From these were created Sarasvati,
Parvati, and Bulokamma. I am that Bulokamma. I asked a favour of
Siva. He made me remain within this earth, and, drawing three lines,
said that I should not come out, and should receive offerings of
fowls and goats." At this stage, a chicken is given to the Mannaru,
who bites, and kills it. At the burial-ground worship is performed,
and a goat sacrificed. The goddess being confined within the earth,
no shrine is erected to her, and she is not represented by an image. A
small pandal is erected, and the pot placed near it.
The goddess Kalimukkamma is represented by a paper or wooden mask
painted black, with protruding tongue. With her is associated her
brother Baithari. She is believed to be one of the sisters created
by Brahma from his face at the request of Iswara, the others being
Polamma, Maridipoli, Kothapoli, Jungapoli, Nukapoli, Runjamma, and
Kundamma. The shrine of Kalimukkamma is a low hut made of straw. At
the time of worship to her, a Mannaru, dressed up as a woman, puts on
the mask, and thus represents her. A stone slab, containing a figure
of Kalimukkamma, is carried by a woman. She is the only goddess who
may be represented by a stone. To her pigs are offered.
Peddamma or Polamma is represented by a wooden effigy. Along with
her, Maridiamma is also worshipped. The offerings to Peddamma
consist of a goat or sheep, and a pot of milk. A pig is sacrificed
to Maridiamma. When the people proceed in procession to the place of
worship, a toy cart is tied to the person representing Maridiamma,
and some one must carry a toy boat. At a distance from the house,
the cart is detached, and a pig is killed by an abdominal incision.
Samalamma is a mild goddess, with vegetarian propensities, to whom
animal food must not be offered. She is associated with the aforesaid
Bengali Babu riding on a horse. Her image may only be carried by
young girls, and grown-up women may not touch it.
Of the Sakthis worshipped by the Vadas, the chief is Koralu Sakthi. The
man who performs the worship is tied to a country cart, to which a
central stake, and a stake at each corner are attached. Dressed up in
female attire, he drags the cart, with which he makes three rounds. A
chicken is then impaled on each of the corner stakes, and a pig on
the central stake.
In former times, the images of the deities were made in clay, but it
has been found by experience that wooden images are more durable,
and do not require to be replaced so often. Along with the images
of gods and goddesses, the Vadas place figures representing deceased
relatives, after the peddadinam (final death ceremony).
The Mannarus are very important individuals, for not only do they
perform worship, but are consulted on many points. If a man does not
secure good catches of fish, he goes to the Mannaru, to ascertain the
cause of his bad luck. The Mannaru holds in his hand a string, to which
a stone is tied, and invokes various gods and goddesses by name. Every
time a name is mentioned, the stone either swings to and fro like
a pendulum, or performs a circular movement. If the former occurs,
it is a sign that the deity whose name has been pronounced is the
cause of the misfortune, and must be propitiated in a suitable manner.
Vadakkupurattu.--A synonym, meaning belonging to the north side of
the temple, of Marans in Travancore.
Vadra.--Vadra, Vadrangi, or Vadla is a name of a sub-division of Telugu
Kamsalas, the professional calling of which is carpentering. It is
noted, in the Gazetteer of Tanjore, that "wood-carving of a very
fair quality is done at several places in the Tanjore district by
a class of workmen called car carpenters, from the fact that their
skill is generally exercised in carving images on temple cars. They
are found at Tanjore, Mannargudi, Tiruvadaturai and Tiruvadi, and
perhaps elsewhere. The workmen at the last-named place are Vaddis. The
Vaddis of the Godavari district are also found to do wood-carving,
sometimes with great skill."
Vadugan.--At the census, 1891, 180,884 individuals were returned as
Vadugan, which is described as meaning "a native of the northern or
Telugu country, but in ordinary usage it refers to the Balijas." I
find, however, that 56,380 Vadugars have returned their sub-division
as Kammavar or Kammas, and that the term has been used to denote many
Telugu castes. At the census, 1901, the number of people returning
themselves as Vadugan dropped to 95,924, and the name is defined by
the Census Superintendent as a "linguistic term meaning a Telugu man,
wrongly returned as a caste name by Kammas, Kapus and Balijas in the
Tamil districts." In the Salem Manual, Vaduga is noted as including
all who speak Telugu in the Tamil districts, e.g., Odde, Bestha, etc.
It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that "of the same
social standing as the Kammalans are the Vadugans (northerners),
a makkattayam caste of foreigners found in Palghat and the adjoining
part of Waluvanad. They are divided into two exogamous classes, one of
which is regarded as inferior to the other, and performs purificatory
ceremonies for the caste. They cut their hair close all over the head,
and have no kudumis (hair knot)."
It is noted by Mr. L. Moore [85] that "Xavier, writing in 1542 to
1544, makes frequent references to men whom he calls Badages, who are
said to have been collectors of royal taxes, and to have grievously
oppressed Xavier's converts among the fishermen of Travancore." [86]
Dr. Caldwell, alluding to Xavier's letters, says [87] that these
Badages were no doubt Vadages or men from the North, and is of
opinion that a Jesuit writer of the time who called them Nayars
was mistaken, and that they were really Nayakans from Madura. I
believe, however, that the Jesuit rightly called them Nayars,
for I find that Father Organtino, writing in 1568, speaks of these
Badages as people from Narasinga, a kingdom north of Madura, lying
close to Bishnaghur. Bishnaghur is, of course, Vijayanagar, and the
kingdom of Narasinga was the name frequently given by the Portuguese
to Vijayanagar. There is a considerable amount of evidence to show
that the Nayars of Malabar are closely connected by origin with the
Nayakans of Vijayanagar." (See Nayar.)
Vadugayan (Telugu shepherd).--A Tamil synonym for Golla.
Vagiri or Vagirivala.--See Kuruvikkaran.
Vagiti (doorway or court-yard).--An exogamous sept of Jogi.
Vaguniyan.--See Vayani.
Vaidyan.--Vaidyon or Baidya, meaning physician or medicine-man, occurs
as a title of Kshaurakas, Billavas, and Pulluvans, and, at times of
census, has been returned as an occupational sub-division of Paraiyans.