Aristagoras arrived at Sparta, when Cleomenes held the government; and

he went to confer with him, as the Lacedæmonians say, carrying a bronze

tablet, on which was engraved the circumference of the whole earth, the

whole sea, and all rivers. "Wonder not, Cleomenes," said Aristagoras,

"at my eagerness in coming here, for it is a great sorrow to us that the

children of Ionians should be slaves instead of free, and above all

others it is a disgrace to you, inasmuch as you are at the head of

Greece. I adjure you by the Grecian gods, rescue the Ionians, who are of

your own blood, from servitude. It is easy for you to effect this, for

the barbarians are not valiant; whereas you, in matters relating to war,

have attained to the utmost height of glory; their mode of fighting is,

with bows and short spears, and they engage in battle wearing loose

trousers, and turbans on their heads, so that they are easy to be

overcome. Besides, there are treasures belonging to those who inhabit

that continent, such as are not possessed by all other nations together;

gold, silver, bronze, variegated garments, beasts of burden, and slaves;

all these you may have if you will. They live adjoining one another as I

will show you. Next to these Ionians are the Lydians, who inhabit a

fertile country, and abound in silver." As he said this he showed the

map of the earth, which he had brought with him, engraved on a tablet.

"Next to the Lydians," proceeded Aristagoras, "are these Phrygians to

the eastward, who are the richest in cattle and in corn of all with whom

I am acquainted. Next to the Phrygians are the Cappadocians, whom we

call Syrians; and bordering on them, the Cilicians, extending to this

sea in which the island of Cyprus is situated; they pay an annual

tribute of five hundred talents to the king. Next to the Cilicians are

these Armenians, who also abound in cattle; and next to the Armenians

are the Metienians, who occupy this country; and next them this

territory of Cissia, in which Susa is situated, on this river Choaspes,

and here the great king resides, and here are his treasures of wealth.

If you take this city, you may boldly contend with Jupiter in wealth. As

it is, you carry on war for a country of small extent, and not very

fertile, and of narrow limits, with the Messenians, who are your equals

in valor, and with the Arcadians and Argives, who have nothing akin to

gold or silver, the desire of which induces men to hazard their lives in

battle. But when an opportunity is offered to conquer all Asia with

ease, will you prefer any thing else?" "Milesian friend," said

Cleomenes, "I defer to give you an answer until the third day." They met

at the appointed time and place, and Cleomenes asked Aristagoras, how

many days' journey it was from the sea of the Ionians to the king.

Aristagoras, though he was cunning in other things, and had deceived him

with much address, made a slip in this; for he should not have told the

real fact, if he wished to draw the Spartans into Asia; whereas he told

him frankly that it was a three months' journey up there. Cutting short

the rest of the description which Aristagoras was proceeding to give of

the journey, Cleomenes said: "My friend, from Miletus, depart from

Sparta before sunset; for you speak no agreeable language to the

Lacedæmonians, in wishing to lead them a three months' journey from the

sea;" and Cleomenes went home. Aristagoras, nothing daunted, taking an

olive-branch in his hand, went to the house of Cleomenes, entered in, as

a suppliant, and besought Cleomenes to listen to him. The latter's

little child, a daughter, whose name was Gorgo, stood by him; she

happened to be his only child, and was about eight or nine years of age.

Cleomenes bade him say what he wished, and not mind the presence of the

little girl. Thereupon Aristagoras promised him ten talents, if he would

do as he desired; and as Cleomenes refused, Aristagoras went on

increasing his offers, until he promised fifty talents, when little

Gorgo cried out, "Papa, this stranger will corrupt you, if you don't

quickly depart." Cleomenes, pleased with the advice of the child,

retired to another apartment; and Aristagoras was forced to leave Sparta

altogether, without ever getting another opportunity to give further

particulars of the route to the city of the great king.

With respect to this road, the case is as follows: There are royal

stations all along, and excellent inns, and the whole road is through an

inhabited and safe country. There are twenty stations extending through

Lydia and Phrygia, and the distance is ninety-four parasangs and a half.

After Phrygia, the river Halys is met with, at which there are gates,

which it is absolutely necessary to pass through, and thus to cross the

river; there is also a considerable fort on it. When you cross over into

Cappadocia, and traverse that country to the borders of Cilicia, there

are eight and twenty stations, and one hundred and four parasangs; and

on the borders of these people, you go through two gates, and pass by

two forts. When you have gone through these and made the journey through

Cilicia, there are three stations, and fifteen parasangs and a half. The

boundary of Cilicia and Armenia is a river that is crossed in boats,

called the Euphrates. In Armenia there are fifteen stations for

resting-places, and fifty-six parasangs and a half; there is also a fort

at the stations. Four rivers that are crossed in boats flow through this

country, which it is absolutely necessary to ferry over. First, the

Tigris; then the second and third have the same name, though they are

not the same river, nor flow from the same source. For the first

mentioned of these flows from the Armenians, and the latter from the

Matienians. The fourth river is called the Gyndes, which Cyrus once

distributed into three hundred and sixty channels. As you enter from

Armenia into the country of Matiene, there are four stations; and from

thence as you proceed to the Cissian territory there are eleven

stations, and forty-two parasangs and a half, to the river Choaspes,

which also must be crossed in boats; on this Susa is built. All these

stations amount to one hundred and eleven,[21] as you go up from Sardis

to Susa. Now if the royal road has been correctly measured in parasangs,

and if the parasang is equal to thirty stades, as indeed it is, from

Sardis to the royal palace, called Memnonia, is a distance of thirteen

thousand five hundred stades, the parasangs being four hundred and

fifty; and by those who travel one hundred and fifty stades every day,

just ninety days are spent on the journey. So Aristagoras spoke

correctly when he stated the distance to Susa.

CHAPTER II.

THE IONIAN REVOLT.

Aristagoras the Milesian, having been expelled from Sparta by Cleomenes

the Lacedæmonian, repaired to Athens; for this city was much more

powerful than the rest. Presenting himself before the people, he said

the same that he had done at Sparta, respecting the wealth of Asia and

the Persian mode of warfare, how they used neither shield nor spear, and

could be easily conquered. He said also that the Milesians were a colony

of the Athenians, and it was but reasonable that they, having such great

power, should rescue them. And as there was nothing he did not promise,

being very much in earnest, at length he persuaded them. It appears to

be more easy to impose upon a multitude than one man; this schemer, you

see, was not able to impose upon Cleomenes the Lacedæmonian singly, but

did upon thirty thousand Athenians. Twenty ships were sent to succor the

Ionians, and Melanthius commander over them, a citizen who was

universally esteemed. These ships proved the source of calamities both

to Greeks and barbarians. Aristagoras sailed first, arrived at Miletus,

and had recourse to a project from which no advantage could result to

the Ionians; nor did he employ it for that purpose, but that he might

vex king Darius. He sent a man into Phrygia, to the Pæonians, who had

been carried away captive by Megabazus, from the river Strymon, and

occupied a tract in Phrygia, and a village by themselves. Arrived among

the Pæonians, the messenger spoke as follows: "Men of Pæonia,

Aristagoras, tyrant of Miletus, has sent me to suggest to you a mode of

deliverance, if you will take his advice. For all Ionia has revolted

from the king, and offers you an opportunity of returning safe to your

own country; as far as to the coast take care of yourselves, and we will

provide for the rest." When the Pæonians heard these words, they

considered it a very joyful event, and taking with them their children

and wives, fled to the coast; though some of them, through fear,

remained where they were. When the Pæonians reached the coast, they

crossed over to Chios, when a large body of Persian cavalry came on

their heels, and sent orders to Chios to the Pæonians, commanding them

to return. The Pæonians did not listen to the proposal; but the Chians

conveyed them to Lesbos, and the Lesbians forwarded them to Doriscus;

thence proceeding on foot they reached Pæonia.

The Athenians arrived with twenty ships, bringing with them five

triremes of the Eretrians, who engaged in this expedition out of

good-will to the Milesians, in order to repay a former obligation; for

the Milesians had formerly joined the Eretrians in the war against the

Chalcidians. When these had arrived, and the rest of the allies had come

up, Aristagoras resolved to make an expedition to Sardis. He himself did

not march with the army, but remained at Miletus, and appointed as

generals of the Milesians, his own brother Charopinus, and of the other

citizens Hermophantus. The Ionians arrived at Ephesus with this force,

left their ships at Coressus, in the Ephesian territory, and advanced

with a numerous army, taking Ephesians for their guides; and marching by

the side of the river Cayster, they crossed Mount Tmolus, and reached

and took Sardis without opposition; all except the citadel, for

Artaphernes with a strong garrison defended the citadel. The following

accident prevented them, after they had taken the city, from plundering

it. Most of the houses in Sardis were built with reeds; and such of them

as were built with brick, had roof of reeds. A soldier happened to set

fire to one of these, and immediately the flame spread from house to

house, and consumed the whole city. While the city was burning, the

Lydians, and as many of the Persians as were in the city, being enclosed

on every side, and having no means of escaping from the city, rushed

together to the market-place, and to the river Pactolus, which, bringing

down grains of gold from Mount Tmolus, flows through the middle of the

market-place, and then discharges itself into the river Hermus, and that

into the sea. The Lydians and Persians, being assembled on this Pactolus

and at the market-place, were constrained to defend themselves: and the

Ionians, seeing some of the enemy standing on their defence, and others

coming up in great numbers, retired through fear to the mountain called

Tmolus, and thence under favor of the night retreated to their ships.

Thus Sardis was burnt, and in it the temple of the native goddess

Cybebe; the Persians, making a pretext of this, afterwards burnt in

retaliation the temples of Greece. As soon as the Persians who had

settlements on this side the river Halys were informed of these things,

they drew together and marched to assist the Lydians; the Ionians were

no longer at Sardis; but following on their track they overtook them at

Ephesus, where the Ionians drew out in battle-array against them, and

coming to an engagement, were sorely beaten; and the Persians slew many

of them, among other persons of distinction, Eualcis, general of the

Eretrians, who had gained the prize in the contests for the crown, and

had been much celebrated by Simonides the Cean. Those who escaped from

the battle were dispersed throughout the cities.

Such was the result of the encounter. Afterward, the Athenians, totally

abandoning the Ionians, though Aristagoras urgently solicited them by

ambassadors, refused to send them any assistance. The Ionians, deprived

of the alliance of the Athenians, (for they had conducted themselves in

such a manner toward Darius from the first,) nevertheless prepared for

war with the king. And sailing to the Hellespont, they reduced Byzantium

and all the other cities in that quarter to their obedience. They then

sailed out of the Hellespont, and gained over to their alliance the

greater part of Caria; for the city of Caunus, which before would not

join their alliance, when they had burnt Sardis, came over to their side.

When it was told king Darius, that Sardis had been taken and burnt by

the Athenians and Ionians, and that Aristagoras the Milesian was the

chief of the confederacy and the contriver of that enterprise, it is

related that he took no account of the Ionians, well knowing that they

would not escape unpunished for their rebellion, but inquired where the

Athenians were; then having been informed, he called for a bow, put an

arrow into it, let it fly toward heaven, and as he shot it into the air,

exclaimed: "O Jupiter, grant that I may revenge myself on the

Athenians!" Then he commanded one of his attendants, every time dinner

was set before him, to say thrice: "Sire, remember the Athenians."

Summoning to his presence Histiæus the Milesian, whom he had already

detained a long time, Darius said: "I am informed, Histiæus, that your

lieutenant, to whom you intrusted Miletus, has attempted innovations

against me; for he has brought men from the other continent, and with

them Ionians, who shall give me satisfaction for what they have done;

and has deprived me of Sardis. Now, can it appear to you that this is

right? Could such a thing have been done without your advice? Beware

lest hereafter you expose yourself to blame." To this Histiæus answered:

"O king, what have you said? That I should advise a thing from which any

grief, great or little, should ensue to you! With what object should I

do so? What am I in want of? I, who have all things the same as you, and

am deemed worthy to share all your counsels? But if my lieutenant has

done any such thing as you mention, be assured he has done it of his own

contrivance. But I do not believe the account, that the Milesians and my

lieutenant have attempted any innovations against your authority. Yet if

you have heard the truth, consider, O king, what mischief you have done

in withdrawing me from the coast. For the Ionians seem, when I was out

of their sight, to have done what they long ago desired to do; and had I

been in Ionia not one city would have stirred. Suffer me therefore to go

with all speed to Ionia, that I may restore all things there to their

former condition, and deliver into your hands this lieutenant of

Miletus, who has plotted the whole. When I have done this according to

your mind, I swear by the royal gods, not to put off the garments which

I shall wear when I go down to Ionia, before I have made the great

island Sardinia tributary to you." His speaking thus deceived the king;

Darius was persuaded, and let him go, charging him to return to Susa, as

soon as he should have accomplished what he had promised.

While the news concerning Sardis was going up to the king, tidings were

brought to Onesilus the Salaminian, as he was besieging the Amathusians,

that Artybius, a Persian, leading a large Persian force on shipboard,

was to be expected in Cyprus. Onesilus accordingly sent heralds to the

different parts of Ionia, inviting them to assist him; and the Ionians,

without any protracted deliberation, arrived at Cyprus with a large

armament. The Persians crossed over in ships from Cilicia, and marched

by land against Salamis.

Then the kings of the Cyprians drew up their forces in line, and

stationed the best of the Salaminians and Solians against the Persians.

Onesilus voluntarily took up his position directly against Artybius, the

general of the Persians. Artybius used to ride on a horse, that had been

taught to rear up against an armed enemy. Onesilus had a shield-bearer,

a Carian, well skilled in matters of war, and otherwise full of courage,

to whom he said: "I am informed that the horse of Artybius rears up, and

with his feet and mouth attacks whomsoever he is made to engage with;

tell me which you will watch and strike, whether the horse or Artybius

himself." His attendant answered: "I am ready to do both, or either of

them, but a king and a general ought, I think, to engage with a king and

a general. If you vanquish one who is a general, your glory is great;

while if he should vanquish you, which may the gods avert, to fall by a

noble hand is but half the calamity. We servants should engage with

other servants, and also against a horse, whose tricks you need not fear

at all; for I promise you he shall never again rear up against any man."

Forthwith the forces joined battle by land and sea. Now, the Ionians

fought valiantly on that day, when the armies met in close combat; and

when Artybius, seated on his horse, bore down upon Onesilus. Onesilus,

as he had concerted with his shield-bearer, struck Artybius himself; and

as the horse was throwing his feet against the shield of Onesilus, the

Carian with a scythe cut off the horse's feet. So that Artybius, the

general of the Persians, fell together with his horse on the spot. While

the rest were fighting, Stesenor, of Curium, deserted with no

inconsiderable body of men, and the chariots of war belonging to the

Salaminians did the same as the Curians. Consequently the Persians

became superior to the Cyprians. The army was put to flight, many fell,

and amongst them Onesilus, and the king of the Solians, Aristocyprus,

son of the Philocyprus whom Solon the Athenian, when he visited Cyprus,

celebrated in his verses above all tyrants. The Amathusians cut off the

head of Onesilus, because he had besieged them, took it to Amathus, and

suspended it over the gates; and when the head had become hollow, a

swarm of bees entered it, and filled it with honey-comb. An answer was

given to the Amathusians, who consulted the oracle respecting it, "that

they should take down the head and bury it, and sacrifice annually to

Onesilus, as to a hero, and that it would turn out better for them."

Afterward, the Persians crossed the Mæander and engaged the Carians on

the banks of the river Marsyas. They fought an obstinate battle, and at

last overpowered them. Of the Persians there fell about two thousand,

and of the Carians ten thousand. The Carians, however, afterward

recovered from this wound, and renewed the contest. For hearing that the

Persians designed to invade their cities, they placed an ambuscade on

the way to Pedasus, into which the Persians, falling by night, were cut

in pieces, with their generals Daurises, Amorges, and Sisamaces.

Hymees, who was one of those who pursued the Ionians that had attacked

Sardis, bending his march toward the Propontis, took Cius of Mysia. When

he heard that Daurises had quitted the Hellespont, and was marching

against Caria, he abandoned the Propontis, and led his army on the

Hellespont. He subdued all the Æolians who inhabited the territory of

Ilium, and subdued the Gergithæ, the remaining descendants of the

ancient Teucrians. Just then, however, he died of disease in the Troad.

But Artaphernes, governor of Sardis, and Otanes, who were appointed to

invade Ionia and the neighboring territory of Æolia, took Clazomenæ and

Cyme.

Aristagoras the Milesian, for he was not, as it proved, a man of strong

courage, after he had thus thrown Ionia into confusion, and raised great

disturbances, thought of flight, when he saw these results. Besides, it

appeared to him impossible to overcome King Darius; so calling his

partisans together, he suggested "that it would be better for them to

have some sure place of refuge, in case they should be expelled from

Miletus." He asked, therefore, whether he should lead them to Sardinia,

to found a colony, or to Myrcinus of the Edonians, which Histiæus had

begun to fortify, having received it as a gift from Darius. However, the

opinion of Hecatæus the historian, son of Hegesander, was, that they

should set out for neither of these places, but should build a fortress

in the island of Leros, and remain quiet, if they were compelled to quit

Miletus. But Aristagoras himself was decidedly in favor of proceeding to

Myrcinus; he therefore intrusted Miletus to Pythagoras, a citizen of

distinction, and, taking with him all who were willing, sailed to

Thrace, and took possession of the region to which he was bound. But

both Aristagoras himself and all his army perished while he was laying

siege to a city in Thrace.

[21] The detail of stations above-mentioned gives only eighty-one

instead of one hundred and eleven. The discrepancy can only be accounted

for by a supposed defect in the manuscripts.

_BOOK VI. ERATO._

CHAPTER I.

THE SUPPRESSION OF THE IONIAN REVOLT.

Aristagoras thus induced the Ionians to revolt, and died; and Histiæus,

tyrant of Miletus, repaired to Sardis. When he arrived from Susa,

Artaphernes, Governor of Sardis, asked him for what reason he supposed

the Ionians had revolted. Histiæus said he did not know, and seemed

surprised at what had happened, as if he knew nothing of the present

state of affairs. But Artaphernes saw that he was dissembling, and being

aware of the exact truth as to the revolt, said: "Histiæus, the state of

the case is this: you made the shoe and Aristagoras has put it on."

Histiæus in alarm fled to the coast as soon as night came on, and

although he had promised to reduce the great island of Sardinia for

Darius, he insinuated himself into the command of the Ionians in the war

against him. At Chios he was taken and put in chains, being suspected by

the Chians of planning some new design against them in favor of Darius.

However, the Chians, being assured that he was an enemy to the king,

released him, and conveyed him to Miletus, at his own request; but the

Milesians, delighted at being rid of Aristagoras, were by no means

desirous to receive another tyrant into their country, as they had

tasted of freedom. Thereupon Histiæus, going down to Miletus by night,

endeavored to enter it by force, but was wounded in the thigh by one of

the Milesians. When he was repulsed from his own country, he went back

to Chios, and from there, since he could not persuade the Chians to help

him, he crossed over to Mitylene, and prevailed with the Lesbians to

furnish him with ships; they manned eight triremes, and sailed with

Histiæus to Byzantium. There taking up their station, they took all the

ships that sailed out of the Pontus, except such of them as said they

were ready to submit to Histiæus.

But a large naval and land-force was expected against Miletus itself.

For the Persian generals had united their forces and formed one camp to

march to Miletus, deeming the other cities of less consequence. The

Ionians, hearing of this, sent their respective deputies to the

Panionium, and determined not to assemble any land-forces to oppose the

Persians; but bade the Milesians themselves defend their walls, while

they should man their navy, without leaving a single ship behind, and

assemble as soon as possible at Lade, to fight in defence of Miletus.

Lade is a small island lying off the city of the Milesians. Soon the

Ionians came up with their ships manned, and formed their line, a fleet

three hundred and fifty-three triremes strong. On the side of the

barbarians the number of ships amounted to six hundred, and when they

arrived on the Milesian coast, and all their land-forces had come up,

the Persian generals began to fear they should not be strong enough to

overcome them, and so should be also unable to take Miletus, since they

were not masters at sea, and then might be in danger of receiving

punishment at the hands of Darius. Taking these things into

consideration, they summoned the tyrants of the Ionians, who had been

deprived of their governments by Aristagoras, and had fled to the Medes,

and who happened at that time to be serving in the army against Miletus.

"Men of Ionia," they said, "let each of you now show his zeal for the

king's house. For let each of you endeavor to detach his own countrymen

from the rest of the confederacy, and proclaim this, that they shall

suffer no hurt on account of their rebellion, nor shall their buildings,

whether sacred or profane, be burnt, nor shall they be treated with more

severity than they were before. But if they do not do this, and will at

all events come to the hazard of a battle, threaten that, when conquered

in battle, they shall all be enslaved." And the tyrants of the Ionians

sent each by night to his own countrymen, to make known the warning. But

the Ionians to whom these messages came, continued firm to their purpose

and would not listen to treachery; for each thought that the Persians

had sent this message.

When the Ionians had assembled at Lade, a council was held, and the

Phocæan general Dionysius spoke as follows: "Our affairs are in a

critical[22] state, O Ionians; we are to be freemen or slaves, and that

too run-away slaves. But if you are willing to undergo hardships, for

the present you will have to toil, but will be enabled, by overcoming

your enemies, to be free; on the other hand, if you abandon yourselves

to ease and disorder, I have no hope that you will escape punishment at

the hands of the king for your revolt. But be persuaded by me, and

entrust yourselves to my guidance, and I promise you, that if the gods

are impartial, either our enemies will not fight us at all, or if they

do fight with us, they will be completely beaten." The Ionians intrusted

themselves to the guidance of Dionysius without hesitation who daily led

out the ships into a line, exercised the rowers, by practising the

manœuvre of cutting through one another's line, put the marines under

arms, and kept the ships at anchor for the rest of the day. For seven

days they continued to obey, but on the eighth the Ionians, unaccustomed

to such toil, and worn down by hardships and the heat of the sun,

grumbled to each other in such terms as these: "What deity have we

offended to fill up this measure of affliction? we who were so beside

ourselves, as to have intrusted ourselves to the guidance of a

presumptuous Phocæan, who, all told, contributed only three ships, but

having got us under his control, afflicts us with intolerable hardships.

Many of us have already fallen into distempers, and many more must

expect to meet with the same fate. Instead of these evils, it would be

better for us to suffer anything else, and to endure the impending

servitude, be it what it may, than be oppressed by the present, Come,

let us no longer obey him." And from that moment no one would obey; but,

pitching their tents on the island, they continued under the shade, and

would not go on board the ships, or perform their exercise. When the

generals of the Samians observed what was passing among the Ionians, and

saw great disorder among them, they accepted the proposal of Æaces, son

of Syloson, which he had before sent them at the desire of the Persians,

exhorting them to abandon the confederacy of the Ionians. Besides, it

was clearly impossible for them to overcome the power of the king,

because they were convinced, that if they should overcome Darius with

his present fleet, another five times as large would come against them.

So laying hold of this pretext, as soon as they saw the Ionians refusing

to behave well, they deemed it for their advantage to preserve their own

buildings, sacred and profane.

When therefore the Phœnicians sailed against them, the Ionians drew out

their ships in line to oppose them; but when they came near and opposed

each other, I am unable to affirm with certainty who of the Ionians

proved themselves cowards, or brave men, in this sea-fight; for they

mutually accuse each other. The Samians however are said at that moment

to have hoisted sail, in pursuance of their agreement with Æaces, and

steered out of the line to Samos, with the exception of eleven ships;

the captains of which stayed and fought, refusing to obey their

commanders; and for this action the commonwealth of the Samians

conferred upon them the honor of having their names and ancestry

engraved on a column, as those who had proved themselves valiant men;

and this column now stands in the forum. The Lesbians also, seeing those

stationed next them flee, did the same as the Samians; and most of the

Ionians followed their example. Of those that persisted in the battle,

the Chians were most roughly handled, as they displayed signal proofs of

valor, and would not act as cowards. They had contributed one hundred

ships, and on board each of them forty chosen citizens served as

marines; and though they saw most of the confederates abandoning the

common cause, they disdained to follow the example of their treachery;

but choosing rather to remain with the few allies, they continued the

fight, cutting through the enemies' line, until, after they had taken

many of the enemies' ships, they lost most of their own. The Chians then

fled to their own country with the remainder of their fleet. Those

Chians whose ships were disabled in the fight, took refuge in Mycale,

ran their ships aground, and left them there, and marched over-land

across the continent. On their return they entered the territory of

Ephesus, and arrived near the city by night, at a time when the women

were celebrating the Thesmophoria; thereupon, the Ephesians, not having

before heard how it had fared with the Chians, and seeing an army enter

their territory, thinking they were certainly robbers, and had come to

seize their women, rushed out in a body, and slew the Chians. When

Dionysius the Phocæan perceived that the affairs of the Ionians were

utterly ruined, he took three of the enemies' ships and sailed away, not

indeed to Phocæa, well knowing that it would be enslaved with the rest

of Ionia, but directly to Phœnicia; and there having disabled some

merchantmen, and obtained great wealth, he sailed to Sicily, where he

established himself as a pirate, attacking none of the Greeks, but only

Carthaginians and Tyrrhenians.

When the Persians had conquered the Ionians in the sea-fight they

besieged Miletus by land and sea, undermined the walls, and bringing up

all kinds of military engines against it, took it completely, in the

sixth year after the revolt of Aristagoras. They reduced the city to

slavery, so that the event coincided with the oracle delivered

concerning Miletus. For when the Argives consulted the oracle at Delphi

respecting the preservation of their city, a double answer was given;

part concerning themselves, and the addition concerning the Milesians.

The part relating to the Argives I will mention when I come to that part

of the history; the words the Pythian uttered relative to the Milesians,

who were not present, were these: "Then Miletus, contriver of wicked

deeds, thou shalt become a feast and a rich gift to many: thy wives

shall wash the feet of many long-haired masters, and our temple at

Didymi shall be tended by others." These things befell the Milesians at

that time; for most of the men were killed by the Persians, who wear

long hair, their women and children were treated as slaves, and the

sacred enclosure at Didymi, both the temple and the shrine, were

pillaged and burnt. Of the riches in this temple I have frequently made

mention in other parts of my history. Such of the Milesians as were

taken alive were afterward conveyed to Susa; and King Darius did them no

harm, but settled them on the Red Sea, in the city of Ampe, near by

which the Tigris falls into the sea. Of the Milesian territory, the

Persians themselves retained the parts round the city and the plain; the

mountainous parts they gave to the Carians of Pedasus to occupy. When

the Milesians suffered this at the hands of the Persians, the Sybarites,

who inhabited Laos and Scydrus, did not show equal sympathy. But when

Sybaris was taken by the Crotonians, all the Milesians of every age had

shaved their heads and displayed marks of deep mourning: for these two

cities had been more strictly united in friendship than any others we

are acquainted with. The Athenians behaved in a very different manner;

for the Athenians made it evident that they were excessively grieved at

the capture of Miletus, both in many other ways, and more particularly

when Phrynichus had composed a drama of the capture of Miletus, and

represented it, the whole theatre burst into tears, and fined him a

thousand drachmas[23] for renewing the memory of their domestic

misfortunes; and they gave order that henceforth no one should act this

drama.

[Illustration: AMPHITHEATRE AT POLA.]

While Histiæus the Milesian was near Byzantium, intercepting the trading

ships of the Ionians that sailed out of the Pontus, news was brought him

of what had taken place at Miletus; he therefore intrusted his affairs

on the Hellespont to Bisaltes, son of Apollophanes, of Abydos, and with

the Lesbians sailed to Chios, and engaged with a garrison of Chians,

that would not admit him, at a place called Cœli in the Chian territory,

and killed great numbers of them. The deity is wont to give some

previous warning when any great calamities are about to befall city or

nation, and before these misfortunes great warnings happened to the

Chians. For in the first place, when they sent to Delphi a band of one

hundred youths, two only of them returned home, for a pestilence seized

and carried off the remaining ninety-eight. In the next place, a little

before the sea-fight, a house in the city fell in upon some boys, as

they were learning to read, so that of one hundred and twenty boys one

only escaped. After this, the sea-fight following, threw the city

prostrate; and after the sea-fight Histiæus with the Lesbians came upon

them; and as the Chians had been much shattered, he easily reduced them

to subjection. From there Histiæus proceeded to attack Thasus with a

large body of Ionians and Æolians; and while he was besieging Thasus,

Harpagus, the Persian, general of a considerable army, who, happening to

be in those parts, engaged with him after his landing, took Histiæus

himself prisoner, and destroyed the greater part of his army.

Now if, when Histiæus was taken prisoner, he had been conducted to king

Darius, in my opinion, he would have suffered no punishment, and the

king would have forgiven him his fault. But for this very reason, lest

by escaping he should again regain his influence with the king,

Artaphernes, Governor of Sardis, and Harpagus, who received him as soon

as he was conducted to Sardis, impaled his body on the spot, and

embalmed the head and sent it to Darius at Susa. Darius blamed those

that had done it, because they had not brought him alive into his

presence, and gave orders that they should wash and adorn the head of

Histiæus, and inter it honorably, as the remains of a man who had been a

great benefactor to himself and the Persians.

The naval force of the Persians wintered near Miletus. In the second

year it set sail for the islands lying near the continent, Chios,

Lesbos, and Tenedos, which it easily subdued. When they took any one of

these islands, the barbarians netted the inhabitants in this manner:

Taking one another by the hand, they would extend from the northern to

the southern sea, and so march over the island, hunting out the

inhabitants. They also took the Ionian cities on the continent with the

same ease; but did not net the inhabitants, for that was impossible.

Thus the Ionians were for the third time reduced to slavery; first by

the Lydians, then twice successively by the Persians. The naval force,

departing from Ionia, reduced all the places on the left of the

Hellespont as one sails in; and all the cities of the Chersonese, except

Cardia, they subdued.

Till that time Miltiades, son of Cimon, was tyrant of these cities,

Miltiades, son of Cypselus, having formally acquired this government in

the following manner: The Thracian Dolonci possessed this Chersonese;

these Dolonci, being pressed in war by the Apsynthians, sent their kings

to Delphi to consult the oracle concerning the war; the Pythian answered

them, "that they should take that man with them to their country to

found a colony, who after their departure from the temple should first

offer them hospitality." Accordingly the Dolonci, going by the sacred

way, went through the territories of the Phocians and Bœotians, and when

no one invited them, turned out of the road toward Athens. At that time

Pisistratus had the supreme power at Athens; but Miltiades, son of

Cypselus, had considerable influence; he was of a family that maintained

horses for the chariot-races, and was originally descended from Æacus

and Ægina, but in later times was an Athenian, Philæus, son of Ajax,

having been the first Athenian of that family. This Miltiades, being

seated in his own portico, and seeing the Dolonci passing by, wearing a

dress not belonging to the country, and carrying javelins, called out to

them: and upon their coming to him, he offered them shelter and

hospitality. They, grateful for their entertainment, made known to him

the whole oracle, and entreated him to obey the deity. Their words

persuaded Miltiades as soon as he heard them, for he was troubled with

the government of Pisistratus, and desired to get out of his way. He

therefore immediately set out to Delphi to ask the oracle whether he

should do that which the Dolonci requested of him. The Pythian having

bade him do so, Miltiades took with him all such Athenians as were

willing to join in the expedition, and set sail with the Dolonci, and

took possession of the country; and they who introduced him appointed

him tyrant. He, first of all, built a wall on the isthmus of the

Chersonese, from the city of Cardia to Pactya, in order that the

Apsynthians might not be able to injure them by making incursions into

their country. The width of this isthmus is thirty-six stades; and from

this isthmus the whole Chersonese inward is four hundred and twenty

stades in length. Miltiades next made war upon the Lampsacenians, who

laid an ambush and took him prisoner. But Miltiades was well known to

Crœsus, who, on hearing of this event, sent and commanded the

Lampsacenians to release Miltiades; if not, he threatened that he would

destroy them like a pine-tree. The Lampsacenians, uncertain as to what

was the meaning of this saying, discovered, with some difficulty, from

one of the elders, that the pine alone of all trees, when cut down, does

not send forth any more shoots, but perishes entirely: whereupon the

Lampsacenians, dreading the power of Crœsus, set Miltiades at liberty.

He accordingly escaped by means of Crœsus, and afterward died childless,

having bequeathed the government and his property to Stesagoras, his

brother by the same mother. When he was dead the Chersonesians

sacrificed to him, as is usual to a founder, and instituted equestrian

and gymnastic exercises, in which no Lampsacenian is permitted to

contend. The war with the Lampsacenians still continuing, it also befell

Stesagoras to die childless; being struck on the head with an axe in the

prytaneum, by a man who in pretence was a deserter, but was in fact an

enemy, and a very vehement one.

Upon the death of Stesagoras, the Pisistratidæ sent Miltiades, son of

Cimon, and brother of Stesagoras who had died, with one ship to the

Chersonese, to assume the government; they had also treated him with

kindness at Athens, as if they had not been parties to the death of his

father Cimon. Miltiades having arrived in the Chersonese, kept himself

at home under color of honoring the memory of his brother Stesagoras,

and the principal persons of all the cities assembled together from

every quarter, and came in a body with the intention of condoling with

him, whereupon they were all thrown into chains by him. Thus Miltiades

got possession of the Chersonese, maintaining five hundred auxiliaries,

and married Hegesipyle, daughter of Olorus, King of the Thracians. This

Miltiades, son of Cimon, had lately arrived in the Chersonese, but

having heard that the Phœnicians were at Tenedos, he loaded five

triremes with the property he had at hand, and sailed away for Athens.

But when he had set out from the city of Cardia, he sailed through the

gulf of Melas, and as he was passing by the Chersonese, the Phœnicians

fell in with his ships. Miltiades himself escaped with four of the ships

to Imbrus, but the fifth the Phœnicians pursued and took; of this ship,

Metiochus, the eldest of the sons of Miltiades, happened to be

commander, whom the Phœnicians took together with the ship. When they

heard that he was son of Miltiades, they took him up to the king,

thinking that they should obtain great favor for themselves, because

Miltiades had given an opinion to the Ionians advising them to comply

with the Scythians, when the Scythians requested them to loose the

bridge and return to their own country. But Darius did the young man no

injury, but many favors; for he gave him a house and an estate, and a

Persian wife, by whom he had children, who were reckoned among the

Persians. Meantime Miltiades arrived safely at Athens.

CHAPTER II.

EXPEDITION OF MARDONIUS.

In the beginning of the spring, the other generals were dismissed by the

king, but Mardonius, son of Gobryas, went down to the coast, taking with

him a very large land-army, and a numerous naval force: he was young in

years, and had lately married king Darius' daughter, Artazostra. When he

arrived in Cilicia, and had gone in person on board ship, he proceeded

with the rest of the fleet, while the other generals led the land-army

to the Hellespont. When Mardonius reached Ionia, he did a thing, which,

when I mention it, will be a matter of very great astonishment to those

Greeks, who cannot believe that Otanes, one of the seven Persians, gave

an opinion that it was right for the Persians to be governed by a

democracy; for Mardonius deposed the tyrants of the Ionians, and

established democracies in the cities.

After this, Darius made trial of what were the intentions of the Greeks,

whether to make war with him or to deliver themselves up. He therefore

despatched heralds, appointing different persons to go to different

parts throughout Greece, with orders to ask earth and water for the

king, the Persian method of demanding submission. These he sent to

Greece, and despatched other heralds to the tributary cities on the

coast, with orders to build ships of war and transports for horses. To

the heralds who came to Greece many of the inhabitants of the continent

gave what the Persian demanded, as did all the islanders also, and

moreover the Æginetæ, whereupon the Athenians forthwith threatened them,

thinking that the Æginetæ had given earth and water out of ill-will

toward themselves, in order that they might make war on them in

conjunction with the Persian. And the Athenians laying hold of the

pretext, sent to Sparta to accuse the Æginetæ of what they had done as

betraying Greece.

The Spartans say, that once upon a time there lived in Lacedæmon one

Glaucus, son of Epicydes. This man attained to the first rank in all

respects, and bore the highest character for justice of all who at that

time dwelt at Lacedæmon. In the course of time a certain Milesian came

to Sparta and wished to have a conference with him, and said: "I am a

Milesian, and have come, Glaucus, with the desire of profiting by your

justice, of which, throughout all the rest of Greece, and particularly

in Ionia, there is great talk. Ionia is so continually exposed to great

dangers, while with us one can never see the same persons retaining

property. Having, therefore, reflected and deliberated on these things,

I determined to change half of my whole substance into silver and

deposit it with you, being well assured that with you, it would be safe.

Do you, then, take this money, and preserve these tokens; and whosoever

possessing these shall demand it back again, restore it to him." So

spoke the stranger who came from Miletus, and Glaucus received the

deposit, on the condition mentioned. After a long time had elapsed, the

sons of this man who had deposited the money came to Sparta, and

addressed themselves to Glaucus, showed the tokens, and demanded back

the money. Glaucus repulsed them, answering as follows: "I don't

remember the matter, nor any of the circumstances you mention; but if I

can recall it to my mind, I am willing to do every thing that is just;

if I really received it, I wish to restore it correctly; but if I have

not received it at all, I shall have recourse to the laws of the Greeks

against you. I therefore defer settling this matter with you for four

months from the present time." The Milesians in disappointment departed,

taking greatly to heart the loss of their money. But Glaucus went to

Delphi to consult the oracle; and, when he asked the oracle whether he

should make a booty of the money by an oath, the Pythian assailed him in

the following words: "Glaucus, son of Epicydes, thus to prevail by an

oath, and to make a booty of the money, will be a present gain. But

there is a nameless son of Perjury, who has neither hands nor feet; he

pursues swiftly, until he has seized and destroyed the whole race, and

all the house of him who has falsely sworn. But the race of a man who

keeps his oath is afterward more blessed." Glaucus, hearing this,

entreated the god to pardon the words he had spoken. But the Pythian

said, that to tempt the god, and to commit the crime, were the same

thing. So Glaucus sent for the Milesian strangers, and restored them the

money. There is at present not a single descendant of Glaucus, nor any

house which is supposed to have belonged to Glaucus; but he is utterly

extirpated from Sparta. Thus it is right to have no other thought

concerning a deposit, than to restore it when it is demanded.

[Illustration: RUINS OF AN ANCIENT TEMPLE IN CORINTH.]

The Æginetæ, offended at what they considered a great affront, prepared

to revenge themselves on the Athenians: and as the Athenians happened to

have a five-benched galley at Sunium, they formed an ambuscade and took

the ship "Theoris"[24] filled with the principal Athenians, and put the

men in chains. The Athenians, thus treated by the Æginetæ, no longer

delayed to devise all sorts of plans against them. Now there was in

Ægina an eminent man named Nicodromus, son of Cnœthus; incensed against

the Æginetæ on account of his former banishment from the island, and now

hearing that the Athenians were preparing to do a mischief to the

Æginetæ, he entered into an agreement with the Athenians for the

betrayal of Ægina, mentioning on what day he would make the attempt, and

on what it would be necessary for them to come to his assistance.

Nicodromus, according to his agreement, on the appointed day seized that

which is called the old town. The Athenians, however, did not arrive at

the proper time, for they happened not to have a sufficient number of

ships to engage with the Æginetæ; and while they were entreating the

Corinthians to furnish them with ships, their plan was ruined. The

Corinthians, for they were then on very friendly terms with them, at

their request supplied the Athenians with twenty ships, hiring them out

at a nominal price of five drachmæ each; because by their laws they were

forbidden to give them for nothing. The Athenians, taking these and

their own, manned seventy ships in all, sailed to Ægina, and arrived one

day after that agreed upon. When the Athenians did not arrive at the

proper time, Nicodromus embarked on shipboard and made his escape from

Ægina; and others of the Æginetæ accompanied him, to whom the Athenians

gave Sunium for a habitation; and they, sallying from thence, plundered

the Æginetæ in the island. This, however, happened subsequently. In the

meantime the most wealthy of the Æginetæ overpowered the common people,

who, together with Nicodromus, had revolted against them, and led them

out to execution. On this occasion they incurred a guilt, which they

were unable to expiate by any contrivance, as they were ejected out of

the island before the goddess became propitious to them. For having

taken seven hundred of the common people prisoners, they led them out to

execution; and one of them, who escaped from his bonds, fled to the

porch of Ceres the lawgiver, and seizing the door-handle, held it fast;

when they were unable by dragging to tear him away, they cut off his

hands, and so took him away; and the hands were left sticking on the

door-handles. So did the Æginetæ treat their own people. But when the

Athenians arrived with their seventy ships, they came to an engagement,

and being conquered in the sea-fight, they called upon the same persons

as before for assistance, that is, on the Argives. They, however, would

not any longer succor them, but complained that the ships of the

Æginetæ, having been forcibly seized by Cleomenes, had touched on the

territory of Argos, and the crews had disembarked with the

Lacedæmonians. Some men had also disembarked from Sicyonian ships in the

same invasion; and a penalty was imposed upon them by the Argives, to

pay a thousand talents, five hundred each. The Sicyonians, acknowledging

that they had acted unjustly, made an agreement to pay one hundred

talents, and be free from the rest; but the Æginetæ would not own

themselves in the wrong, and were very obstinate. On this account,

therefore, none of the Argives were sent by the commonwealth to assist

them; but, on their request, volunteers went to the number of a

thousand; a general, whose name was Eurybates, and who had practised for

the pentathlon, led them. The greater number of these never returned

home, but were slain by the Athenians in Ægina. The general, Eurybates,

engaging in single combat, killed three several antagonists in that

manner, but was slain by the fourth, Sophanes of Decelea. But the

Æginetæ attacked the fleet of the Athenians when they were in disorder,

and obtained a victory, and took four of their ships with the men on

board.

CHAPTER III.

EXPEDITION OF DATIS AND ARTAPHERNES; THE BATTLE

OF MARATHON.

War was accordingly kindled between the Athenians and Æginetæ. But the

Persian pursued his own design, for the servant continually reminded him

to remember the Athenians, and the Pisistratidæ constantly importuned

him and accused the Athenians; and at the same time Darius was desirous

of subduing those people of Greece who had refused to give him earth and

water. He therefore dismissed Mardonius from his command, because he had

succeeded ill in his expedition; and appointed other generals, whom he

sent against Eretria and Athens, namely, Datis, who was a Mede by birth,

and Artaphernes, son of Artaphernes, his own nephew; and he despatched

them with strict orders to enslave Athens and Eretria, and bring the

bondsmen into his presence. When these generals who were appointed left

the king, and reached the Aleian plain of Cilicia, bringing with them a

numerous and well-equipped army, they encamped there until the whole

naval force required from each people came up: the horse-transports were

also present, which Darius in the preceding year had commanded his

tributaries to prepare. They put the horses on board of these, and

embarked the land-forces in the ships, and sailed for Ionia with six

hundred triremes. From there they did not steer their ships along the

continent direct to the Hellespont and Thrace; but parting from Samos

they bent their course across the Icarian sea, and through the islands,

dreading the circumnavigation of Athos, because in the preceding year,

in attempting a passage that way, they had sustained great loss.

While they were doing this, the Delians also, abandoning Delos, fled to

Tenos; but as the fleet was sailing down toward it, Datis would not

permit the ships to anchor near the island, but further on, off Rhenea;

and he, having ascertained where the Delians were, sent a herald and

addressed them as follows: "Sacred men, why have you fled, forming an

unfavorable opinion of me? For both I myself have so much wisdom, and am

so ordered by the king, that in the region where the two deities[25]

were born, no harm should be done either to the country itself or its

inhabitants. Return, therefore, to your houses, and resume possession of

the island." This message he sent to the Delians by means of a herald;

and afterward heaped up three hundred talents of frankincense upon the

altar, and burnt it. Then Datis sailed with the army first against

Eretria, taking with him both Ionians and Æolians. But after he had put

out to sea from there, Delos was shaken by an earthquake, as the Delians

say, the first and last time that it was ever so affected. And the deity

assuredly by this portent intimated to men the evils that were about to

befall them. For during the three successive reigns of Darius, son of

Hystaspes, of Xerxes, son of Darius, and of Artaxerxes, son of Xerxes,

more disasters befell Greece than during the twenty generations that

preceded the time of Darius, partly brought upon it by the Persians, and

partly by the chief men amongst them contending for power. So that it is

not at all improbable that Delos should be moved at that time, though

until then unmoved; and in an oracle respecting it, it had been thus

written: "I will move even Delos, although hitherto unmoved." And in the

Greek language these names mean: Darius, "one who restrains"; Xerxes, "a

warrior"; and Artaxerxes, "a mighty warrior."

After the barbarians had parted from Delos, and touched at the islands,

they took with them men to serve in the army, and carried away the sons

of the islanders for hostages. Having subdued Eretria, and rested a few

days, they sailed to Attica, pressing the inhabitants very close, and

expecting to treat them in the same way as they had the Eretrians. Now

as Marathon was the spot in Attica best adapted for cavalry, and nearest

to Eretria, they gathered their forces there. When the Athenians heard

of this, they also sent their forces to Marathon: and ten generals led

them, of whom the tenth was Miltiades, whose father, Cimon, had been

banished from Athens by Pisistratus. During his exile, it was his good

fortune to obtain the Olympic prize in the four-horse chariot race, the

honor of which victory he transferred to Miltiades, his brother by the

same mother; afterward, in the next Olympiad, being victorious with the

same mares, he permitted Pisistratus to be proclaimed victor, and

returned home under terms. But after he had gained a third Olympic prize

with the same mares, it happened that he died by the hands of the sons

of Pisistratus, when Pisistratus himself was no longer alive; they slew

him near the Prytaneum, having placed men to waylay him by night. Cimon

was buried in front of the city, beyond that which is called the road to

Cœla, and opposite him these same mares were buried, which won the three

Olympic prizes. Stesagoras, the elder son of Cimon, was at that time

being educated by his uncle in the Chersonese, but the younger by Cimon

himself at Athens, and he had the name of Miltiades, from Miltiades, the

founder of the Chersonese. At that time, then, this Miltiades, coming

from the Chersonese, and having escaped a twofold death, became general

of the Athenians; for in the first place, the Phœnicians pursued him as

far as Imbros, exceedingly desirous of seizing him and carrying him up

to the king; and in the next, when he had escaped them, and had returned

to his own country, and thought himself in safety, his enemies attacked

him, and brought him before a court of justice, to prosecute him for

tyranny in the Chersonese. These also he escaped, and was at length

appointed general of the Athenians by the choice of the people.

And first, while the generals were yet in the city, they despatched a

herald to Sparta, one Phidippides, an Athenian, a courier by profession,

who arrived in Sparta on the following day after his departure from the

city of the Athenians, and on coming in presence of the magistrates,

said: "Lacedæmonians, the Athenians entreat you to assist them, and not

to suffer the most ancient city among the Greeks to fall into bondage to

barbarians; for Eretria is already reduced to slavery, and Greece has

become weaker by the loss of a renowned city." He delivered the message

according to his instructions, and they resolved to assist the

Athenians; but it was out of their power to do so immediately, as they

were unwilling to violate the law; for it was the ninth day of the

current month; and they said they could not march out until the moon's

circle should be full.

Meanwhile the traitor Hippias, son of Pisistratus, had guided the

barbarians to Marathon. He first of all landed the slaves from Eretria

on the island of the Styreans, called Ægilia; and next he moored the

ships as they came to Marathon, and drew up the barbarians as they

disembarked on land. But as he was busied in doing this, it happened

that he sneezed and coughed more violently than he was accustomed; and

as he was far advanced in years, several of his teeth were loose, so

that through the violence of his cough he threw out one of these teeth.

It fell on the sand, and he used every endeavor to find it; but when the

tooth could nowhere be found, he drew a deep sigh, and said to the

bystanders: "This country is not ours, nor shall we be able to subdue

it; whatever share belongeth to me, my tooth possesses."

When the Athenians were drawn up in a place sacred to Hercules, the

Platæans came to their assistance with all their forces. For the

Platæans had given themselves up to the Athenians, as the Athenians had

already undergone many toils on their account.

The opinions of the Athenian generals were divided: one party not

consenting to engage, "because they were too few to engage with the army

of the Medes"; and the others, among whom was Miltiades, urging them to

give battle. There was an eleventh voter who was appointed minister of

war among the Athenians, who had an equal vote with the generals, and at

that time Callimachus of Aphidnæ was minister of war. To him Miltiades

came and spoke as follows: "It now depends on you, Callimachus, either

to enslave Athens, or, by preserving its liberty, to leave a memorial of

yourself to every age, such as not even Harmodius and Aristogeiton have

left. For the Athenians were never in so great danger from the time they

were first a people. If they succumb to the Medes, it has been

determined what they are to suffer when delivered up to Hippias; but if

the city survives, it will become the first of the Greek cities. How,

then, this can be brought to pass, and how the power of deciding the

matter depends on you, I will now proceed to explain. The opinions of us

generals, who are ten, are equally divided; the one party urging that we

should engage, the other that we should not. Now, if we do not engage, I

expect that some great dissension arising amongst us will shake the

minds of the Athenians so as to induce them to a compliance with the

Medes. But if we engage before any dastardly thought arises in the minds

of some of the Athenians, if the gods are impartial, we shall be able to

get the better in the engagement. All these things now entirely depend

on you. For if you will support my opinion, your country will be free,

and the city the first in Greece; but if you join with those who would

dissuade us from an engagement, the contrary of the advantages I have

enumerated will fall to your lot." Miltiades, by these words, gained

over Callimachus, and it was determined to engage. Afterward the

generals whose opinions had been given to engage, as the command for the

day devolved upon each of them, gave it up to Miltiades; but though he

accepted it, he would not come to an engagement before his own turn to

command came.

The war-minister, Callimachus, commanded the right wing, for the law at

that time was so settled among the Athenians; the Platæans were drawn

out last of all, occupying the left wing. Now, ever since that battle,

when the Athenians offer sacrifices and celebrate the public festivals

which take place every five years, the Athenian herald prays, saying:

"May blessings attend both the Athenians and the Platæans." Their line

was equal in extent to the Medic line, but the middle of it was but few

deep, and there the line was weakest, while each wing was strong in

numbers. When they were drawn up, and the victims were favorable, the

Athenians, at the order to charge, advanced against the barbarians in

double-quick time; and the space between them was not less than eight

stades. The Persians, seeing them charging at full speed, prepared to

receive them, laughing at their madness when they saw that they were so

few in number, and that they rushed on at full speed without cavalry or

archers. The Athenians, however, when they engaged in close ranks with

the barbarians, fought in a manner worthy of record. For they, the first

of all the Greeks whom we know of, charged the enemy at full speed, and

first endured the sight of the Medic garb and the men that wore it; for

until that time the very name of the Medes was a terror to the Greeks.

The battle at Marathon lasted a long time: and in the middle of the

line, where the Persians themselves and the Sacæ were arrayed, the

barbarians were victorious, and having broken the line, pursued to the

interior; but in both wings the Athenians and the Platæans were

victorious. Here they allowed the defeated portion of the barbarians to

flee; and having united both wings, they fought with those who had

broken their centre until at last the Athenians were victorious. They

followed the Persians in their flight, cutting them to pieces, till,

reaching the shore, they called for fire and attacked the ships.

In this battle the brave war-minister, Callimachus, was killed, and

among the generals, Stesilaus, son of Thrasylas, perished; Cynægeirus,

son of Euphorion, laid hold of a ship's stern and had his hand severed

by an axe and fell; and besides, many other distinguished Athenians were

slain. In this manner the Athenians made themselves masters of seven

ships: but with the rest the barbarians rowed rapidly back, and after

taking off the Eretrian slaves from the island in which they had left

them, sailed round Sunium, wishing to anticipate the Athenians in

reaching the city. But the Athenians marched with all speed to the

assistance of the city, and reached it before the barbarians arrived;

and as they had come from the precinct of Hercules at Marathon, they

took up their station in another precinct of Hercules at Cynosarges. The

barbarians, having laid to with their fleet off Phalerum for a time,

soon sailed away for Asia. In this battle at Marathon there died of the

barbarians about six thousand four hundred men; and of the Athenians,

one hundred and ninety-two. An Athenian, Epizelus, son of Cuphagoras,

while fighting in the medley, and behaving valiantly, was deprived of

sight, though wounded in no part of his body, nor struck from a

distance; and he continued to be blind from that time for the remainder

of his life. I have heard that he used to give the following account of

his loss. He thought that a large heavy-armed man stood before him,

whose beard shaded the whole of his shield; that this spectre passed by

him, and killed the man that stood by his side, smiting him with this

loss as it passed.

King Darius, before the Eretrians were made captive, harbored a deep

resentment against them, as the Eretrians had been the first to begin

acts of injustice: but when he saw them brought into his presence, and

subject to his power, he did them no other harm, but settled them in the

Cissian territory at a station of his own, the name of which is

Ardericca; it is two hundred and ten stades distant from Susa, and forty

from the well which produces three different substances; for asphalt,

salt, and oil are drawn up from it, in the following manner. It is

pumped up by means of a swipe, and, instead of a bucket, half of a

wine-skin is attached to it; having dipped down with this, a man draws

it up and then pours the contents into a receiver; and being poured from

this into another, it assumes three different forms: the asphalt and the

salt immediately become solid, but the oil they collect, and the

Persians call it rhadinace; it is black and emits a strong odor. Here

king Darius settled the Eretrians; who, even to my time, occupied this

territory, retaining their ancient language. Two thousand of the

Lacedæmonians came to Athens after the full moon, making such haste to

be in time, that they arrived in Attica on the third day after leaving

Sparta. Too late for the battle, they, nevertheless, proceeded to

Marathon, saw the slain, commended the Athenians and their achievement,

and returned home.

After the defeat of the Persians at Marathon, Miltiades, asked of the

Athenians seventy ships, and troops, and money, without telling them

what country he purposed to invade, but saying that he would make them

rich if they would follow him, for he would take them to a country, from

which they would easily bring an abundance of gold, and the Athenians,

elated by these hopes, granted the ships. Miltiades, accordingly took

the troops and sailed against Paros, alleging as a pretext, that the

Parians had first begun hostilities by sending a trireme with the

Persians to Marathon. But his real reason was that he had a grudge

against the Parians on account of Lysagoras, son of Tisias, who was a

Parian by birth and who had calumniated him to Hydarnes the Persian.

Miltiades arrived with his forces and besieged the Parians, who were

driven within their walls; and sent a herald to them to demand a hundred

talents, saying, that if they did not furnish him that sum, he would not

draw off his army until he had destroyed them. The Parians never

entertained the thought of giving Miltiades any money; but devised means

by which they might defend the city; and in several parts where the wall

was most exposed to attack, they raised it, during the night, to double

its former height. Up to this point of the story all the Greeks agree;

but after this the Parians themselves say that it happened as follows.

That when Miltiades was in a state of perplexity, a captive woman, by

birth a Parian, and named Timo, conferred with him; she was an inferior

priestess of the infernal goddesses. When she came into the presence of

Miltiades, she advised him, if he deemed it of great consequence to take

Paros, to act as she should suggest. Following out her suggestions he

came to the mound before the city and leaped over the fence of Ceres

Thesmophora, as he was unable to open the door; and went to the temple,

for the purpose either to move some of the things that may not be moved,

or to do something or other, I know not what. He was just at the door,

when suddenly a thrill of horror came over him, and he went back by the

same way; and in leaping over the fence his thigh was dislocated, or his

knee was hurt. Miltiades, in a bad plight, sailed back home, neither

bringing money to the Athenians, nor having reduced Paros, but having

besieged it for six and twenty days, and ravaged the island. When the

Parians were informed that Timo, the priestess of the goddesses, had

directed Miltiades, they desired to punish her, and sent deputies to the

oracle at Delphi, as soon as they were relieved from the siege, to

inquire whether they should put to death the priestess of the goddesses,

for having made known to the enemy the means of capturing the country,

and for having discovered to Miltiades sacred things, which ought not to

be revealed to the male sex. But the Pythian did not allow them, but

said, "that Timo was not to blame for this, but that it was fated

Miltiades should come to a miserable end, and she had appeared to him as

a guide to misfortune." When Miltiades returned from Paros, the

Athenians were loud in their complaints against him, especially

Xanthippus, son of Ariphron, who brought a capital charge against

Miltiades before the people, and prosecuted him for deception.

Miltiades, though present in person, made no defence, through inability,

as his thigh had begun to mortify. But while he lay on a couch his

friends made a defence for him, dwelling much on the battle that had

been fought at Marathon, and on the capture of Lemnos; since he had

taken Lemnos, and inflicted vengeance on the Pelasgians, and had given

it up to the Athenians. The people so far favored him as to acquit him

of the capital offence, but fined him fifty talents for the injury he

had done. Miltiades soon after ended his life by the mortification of

his thigh, and his son Cimon paid the fifty talents.

[22] The Greek words, literally translated, mean "on a razor's edge."

[23] There is very good reason to believe that this fine was really

imposed for the adoption of a modern theme by Phrynichus, when hitherto

only the gods and heroes had been permissible subjects.

[24] The "Theoris" was a vessel which was sent every year to Delos to

offer sacrifice to Apollo.

[25] Apollo and Diana.

_BOOK VII. POLYMNIA._

CHAPTER I.

DEATH OF DARIUS AND REIGN OF XERXES.

When the news of the battle fought at Marathon reached Darius, who was

before much exasperated with the Athenians on account of the attack upon

Sardis, he grew still more eager to prosecute the war against Greece. He

therefore immediately sent messengers to the several cities, and bade

them prepare an army much greater than they had furnished before, and

ships, horses, corn, and transports. Asia was thrown into agitation

during the space of three years, the bravest men being enrolled and

prepared for the purpose of invading Greece. In the fourth year the

Egyptians, who had been subdued by Cambyses, revolted from the Persians;

whereupon Darius only became the more eager to march against both. Just

then a violent dissension arose between the sons of Darius concerning

the sovereignty; for by the customs of the Persians he was obliged to

nominate his successor before he marched out on any expedition. Before

Darius became king, he had three sons born to him by his former wife,

the daughter of Gobryas; and after his accession to the throne, four

others by Atossa, daughter of Cyrus. Of the former, Artabazanes was the

eldest; of those born after, Xerxes: and these two, not being of the

same mother, were at variance. Artabazanes urged that he was the eldest

of all the sons, and that it was the established usage among all men

that the eldest son should succeed to the sovereignty: on the other

hand, Xerxes alleged that he was son of Atossa, daughter of Cyrus, and

that it was Cyrus who had acquired freedom for the Persians. At this

very juncture, when Darius had not yet declared his opinion, Demaratus,

son of Ariston, happened to come up to Susa, deprived of his kingly

office at Sparta, and having imposed on himself a voluntary exile from

Lacedæmon. This man went to Xerxes, as report has it, and advised him to

say in addition to what he had already said, that "he was born after his

father Darius had become king, and was possessed of the empire of the

Persians; whereas Artabazanes was born while he was yet a private

person; wherefore it was not reasonable or just that any other should

possess that dignity in preference to himself." "Since in Sparta also,"

Demaratus continued to suggest, "this custom prevailed, that if some

children were born before their father became king, and one was born

subsequently, when he had come to the throne, this last-born son should

succeed to the kingdom." Darius acknowledged this point, and declared

Xerxes king. But it appears to me that even without this suggestion

Xerxes would have been made king, for Atossa had unbounded influence. So

Darius appointed Xerxes to be king over the Persians, and prepared to

march. But just at this juncture, and in the year after the revolt of

Egypt, Darius himself, while making preparations, died, having reigned

thirty-six years in all; nor was he able to avenge himself either on the

Egyptians, who had revolted, or on the Athenians; and when Darius was

dead, the kingdom devolved on his son Xerxes.

Xerxes was at first by no means inclined to make war against Greece, but

he levied forces for the reduction of Egypt. Mardonius, son of Gobryas,

who was cousin to Xerxes, and son of Darius' sister, and who had the

greatest influence with him of all the Persians, constantly held the

following language: "Sire, it is not right that the Athenians, who have

already done so much mischief to the Persians, should go unpunished?

However, for the present, finish the enterprise you have in hand; and

when you have quelled the insolence of Egypt, lead your army against

Athens; that you may acquire a good reputation among men, and any one

for the future may be cautious of marching against your territory." This

language was used by him for the purpose of revenge, but he frequently

made the following addition to it, that "Europe was a very beautiful

country, and produced all kinds of cultivated trees,—and was very

fertile, and worthy to be possessed by the king alone of all mortals."

Mardonius was desirous of new enterprises, and wished to be himself

governor of Greece, and in time he persuaded Xerxes to do as he advised.

Xerxes, in the second year after the death of Darius, reduced all Egypt

to a worse state of servitude than ever under Darius, and committed the

government to Achæmenes, his brother.

He then convoked an assembly of the principal Persians, that he might

hear their opinions, and make known his intentions to them all. "Men of

Persia," said Xerxes, "I learn from older men that we have never

remained inactive since we wrested the sovereign power from the Medes,

and Cyrus overthrew Astyages; but the deity has led the way, and we have

followed his guidance to our advantage. What deeds Cyrus and Cambyses

and my father Darius have achieved, and what nations they have added to

our empire, no one need mention to you who know them well. But since I

have succeeded to the throne, I have carefully considered how I may not

fall short of my predecessors in honor, nor acquire less additional

power to the Persians."

"I have now called you together, that I may communicate to you what I

purpose to do. I intend to throw a bridge over the Hellespont, and to

march an army through Europe against Greece, that I may punish the

Athenians for the injuries they have done to the Persians and to my

father. You have already seen Darius preparing to make war against those

people; but he died, and had it not in his power to avenge himself. But

I, in his cause and that of the other Persians, will not rest till I

have taken and burnt Athens; for they began by doing acts of injustice

against my father and me. First they came to Sardis, with Aristagoras

the Milesian, our servant, and burnt down the groves and the temples.

You all know well enough how they treated us on our making a descent on

their territory, when Datis and Artaphernes led our forces. For these

reasons, therefore, I have resolved to make war upon them. And I am sure

that if we subdue them, and their neighbors, who inhabit the country of

Pelops the Phrygian, we shall make the Persian territory co-extensive

with the air of heaven, for the sun will not look down upon any land

that borders on ours. When I shall have informed you of the time, it

will be the duty of each of you to come promptly. And whosoever shall

appear with the best-appointed troops, to him I will give such presents

as are accounted most honorable in our country."

After this, when Xerxes had resolved to undertake the expedition, a

vision appeared to him in his sleep, which the magi interpreted to

signify that all mankind should serve him. Xerxes imagined that he was

crowned with the sprig of an olive tree, whose branches covered the

whole earth; and that afterward the crown that was placed on his head

disappeared. After the magi had given this interpretation, all the

Persians who were assembled departed immediately to their own

governments, and used all diligence to execute what had been ordered,

every man hoping to obtain the proposed reward; Xerxes thus levied his

army, searching out every region of the continent. He was employed four

whole years in assembling his forces and providing things necessary for

the expedition. In the fifth he began his march with a vast multitude of

men. For this was by far the greatest of all the expeditions with which

we are acquainted. What nation did not Xerxes lead out of Asia against

Greece? what stream, except that of great rivers, did not his army drink

dry? Some supplied ships; others were ordered to furnish men for the

infantry, others cavalry, some transports for horses, together with men

to serve in the army; others had to furnish long ships for the bridges,

and others provisions and vessels.

And first of all, as those who had first attempted to double Mount Athos

had met with disaster, preparations were made for nearly three years to

cut Athos off by a canal. Triremes were stationed at Eleus in the

Chersonese, and from there men of every nation from the army dug under

the lash. They went in succession; and the people who dwelt round Athos

dug also. Bubares, son of Megabazus, and Artachæus, son of Artæus, both

Persians, presided over the work. Athos is a vast and celebrated

mountain, stretching into the sea, and inhabited by men. Where the

mountain terminates toward the continent, it is in the form of a

peninsula connected with the continent by an isthmus of about twelve

stades; this is a plain with hills of no great height from the sea of

the Acanthians to the sea which is opposite Torone. On this isthmus

stands Sana, a Grecian city; and on Athos itself are the cities of Dion,

Olophyxus, Acrothoon, Thyssus, and Cleonæ. To make the excavation the

barbarians divided the ground among the several nations, having drawn a

straight line near the city of Sana. When the trench was deep, some

stood at the bottom and continued to dig, and others handed the soil

that was dug out to men who stood above on ladders; they again in turn

handed it to others, until they reached those that were at the top; the

last carried it off and threw it away. In the case of all, except the

Phœnicians, the brink of the excavation fell in and gave double labor,

for as they made the upper and the lower opening of equal dimensions,

this must necessarily happen. But the Phœnicians, who show their skill

in other works, did so especially in this; for they dug the portion that

fell to their share, making the upper opening of the trench twice as

large as it was necessary for the trench itself to be; and as the work

proceeded they contracted it gradually, so that when they came to the

bottom the work was equal in width to the rest; near adjoining is a

meadow, where they had a market and bazaar, and great abundance of meal

was brought to them from Asia. According to my deliberate opinion,

Xerxes ordered this excavation to be made from motives of ostentation,

wishing to display his power, and to leave a memorial of himself. For

though it was possible, without any great labor, to have drawn the ships

over the isthmus, he commanded them to dig a channel for the sea of such

a width that two triremes might pass through rowed abreast. And the same

persons, to whom the excavation was committed, were ordered also to

throw a bridge over the river Strymon. He also caused cables of papyrus

and of white flax to be prepared for the bridges, and ordered the

Phœnicians and Egyptians to lay up provisions for the army, that neither

the men nor the beasts of burden might suffer from famine on their march

toward Greece, conveying them to various quarters in merchant-ships and

transports from all parts of Asia.

While these men were employed in their appointed task, the whole

land-forces marched with Xerxes to Sardis, setting out from Critalla in

Cappadocia, where it had been ordered that all the troops throughout the

continent should assemble. They crossed the river Halys, entered

Phrygia, and arrived at Celænæ, where rise the springs of the Mæander,

and of another river not less than the Mæander, which is called the

Catarractes, which, springing up in the very forum of the Celænians,

discharges itself into the Mæander; in this city the skin of Silenus

Marsyas is suspended, which, as the Phrygians report, was stripped off

and suspended by Apollo. In this city Pythius, son of Atys, a Lydian,

being in waiting, entertained the whole army of the king, and Xerxes

himself, with most sumptuous feasts; and he offered to contribute money

toward the expense of the war. Xerxes asked the Persians near him who

this Pythius was, and what riches he possessed, that he made such an

offer. They answered: "O king, this is the person who presented your

father Darius with the golden plane tree and the vine; and he is now the

richest man we know of in the world, next to yourself." Xerxes in

surprise next asked Pythius what was the amount of his wealth. He said:

"O king, as soon as I heard you were coming down to the Grecian sea,

wishing to present you with money for the war, I made inquiry, and found

by computation that I had two thousand talents of silver, and of gold

four millions of Doric staters, lacking seven thousand. These I freely

give you; for myself I have sufficient subsistence from my slaves and

lands." Xerxes, delighted with his offer, replied: "My Lydian friend,

since I left the Persian country I have met with no man to the present

moment who was willing to entertain my army, or who, having come into my

presence, has voluntarily offered to contribute money toward the war.

But you have entertained my army magnificently, and have offered me vast

sums; in return for this, I make you my friend. Keep what you have

acquired, and I will myself make up to you the seven thousand staters

which you lack of four millions. Be careful always to continue such as

you are, and you shall never repent hereafter."

[Illustration: TRIPOLITZA.]

From Phrygia he entered Lydia, crossed the river Mæander, and passed by

the city of Callatebus, in which confectioners make honey with tamarisk

and wheat. Xerxes, by the way, met with a plane-tree, which, on account

of its beauty, he presented with golden ornaments, and having committed

it to the care of one of the Immortals,[26] on the next day he arrived

at Sardis, the capital of the Lydians.

In the meanwhile those who were appointed had joined the Hellespont from

Asia to Europe. There is in the Chersonese on the Hellespont, between

the city of Sestos and Madytus, a craggy shore extending into the sea,

directly opposite Abydos. From this shore to Abydos, they had

constructed two bridges, the Phœnicians one with white flax, and the

Egyptians the other with papyrus. The distance is seven stades. When the

strait was thus united, a violent storm arose and broke in pieces and

scattered the whole work. When Xerxes heard of this, exceedingly

indignant, he commanded that the Hellespont should be stricken with

three hundred lashes with a scourge, and that a pair of fetters should

be let down into the sea. I have moreover heard that with them he

likewise sent branding instruments to brand the Hellespont. He certainly

charged those who flogged the waters to utter these barbarous and

impious words: "Thou bitter water! thy master inflicts this punishment

upon thee, because thou hast injured him, although thou hadst not

suffered any harm from him. And king Xerxes will cross over thee,

whether thou wilt or not; it is with justice that no man sacrifices to

thee, because thou art both a deceitful and briny river!" He accordingly

commanded them to chastise the sea in this manner, and to cut off the

heads of those who had to superintend the joining of the Hellespont.

They on whom this thankless office was imposed, carried it into

execution; and other engineers constructed bridges in the following

manner. They connected together penteconters and triremes, under the

bridge toward the Euxine sea, three hundred and sixty; and under the

other, three hundred and fourteen, obliquely to the Pontus, but in the

direction of the current of the Hellespont, that it might keep up the

tension of the cables. They then let down very long anchors, some on the

bridge toward the Pontus, on account of the winds that blew from it

within; others on the other bridge toward the west and the Ægean, on

account of the south and southeast winds. They left an opening as a

passage through between the penteconters, in three places, that any one

who wished might be able to sail into the Pontus in light vessels, and

from the Pontus outward. Having done this, they stretched the cables

from the shore, twisting them with wooden capstans, not as before using

the two kinds separately, but assigning to each two of white flax and

four of papyrus. The thickness and quality was the same, but those of

flax were stronger in proportion, every cubit weighing a full talent.

When the passage was bridged over, they sawed up trunks of trees, equal

in length to the width of the bridge, and laid them upon the extended

cables in regular order, fastening them securely together. They put

brush-wood on the top, and earth over the whole; and having pressed down

the earth, they drew a fence on each side, that the beasts of burden and

horses might not be frightened by looking down upon the sea.

At last the works at the bridges and Mount Athos were completed, as well

as the mounds at the mouths of the canal which had been made on account

of the tide in order that the mouths of the trench might not be choked

up. News was brought that all was ready, and the army, fresh from their

winter at Sardis, set out fully prepared at the beginning of the spring

toward Abydos. But just as they were on the point of starting, the sun

quit his seat in the heavens and disappeared, though there were no

clouds, and the air was perfectly serene, and night ensued in the place

of day. This occasioned Xerxes much uneasiness; but the magi said "The

deity foreshows to the Greeks the extinction of their cities; the sun is

the portender of the future to the Greeks, and the moon to the

Persians." Xerxes, at this, was much delighted, and set out upon his

march. As he was leading his army away, Pythius the Lydian, terrified by

the prodigy in the heavens, and emboldened by the gifts of Xerxes, went

to the king and spoke thus: "Sire, would you indulge me by granting a

boon I wish to obtain, which is easy for you to grant, and of much

importance to me." Xerxes, expecting that he would wish for anything

rather than what he did ask, said that he would grant his request, and

bade him declare what he wanted. "Sire," said he, "I have five sons; and

it happens that they are all attending you in the expedition against

Greece. But pity me, O king, who am advanced in years, and release one

of my sons from the service, that he may take care of me and my

property. Take the other four with you, accomplish your designs, and

return home." Xerxes was highly incensed, and answered: "Base man! hast

thou dared, when I am marching in person against Greece, and taking with

me my children, and brothers, and kinsmen, and friends to make mention

of thy son? thou who art my slave, and who wert bound in duty to follow

me with all thy family, even with thy wife. But I promise to grant your

request; I will leave your dearest son." When he had given this answer,

he immediately commanded to find out the eldest of the sons of Pythius,

and to cut his body into two halves, and to stand one on the right of

the road, and the other on the left, while the army should pass between

them.

This done the army passed between. The baggage-bearers and beasts of

burden first led the way; after them came a host of all nations. When

more than one half of the army had passed, an interval was left that

they might not mix with the king's troops. Before him a thousand

horsemen led the van, chosen from among all the Persians; and next to

them a thousand spearmen, these also chosen from among all, carrying

their lances turned downwards to the earth. After these, ten immense

sacred horses, gorgeously caparisoned, called Nisæan, from the plain in

the Medic territory, which produces them; then came the sacred chariot

of Jupiter, drawn by eight white horses, followed by a charioteer on

foot, holding the reins; for no mortal ever ascends this seat. Behind

this came Xerxes himself on a chariot drawn by Nisæan horses; and a

charioteer walked at his side, whose name was Patiramphes. In this

manner Xerxes marched out of Sardis, and whenever he thought right, he

used to pass from the chariot to a covered carriage. Behind him marched

a thousand spearmen, the bravest and noblest of the Persians, carrying

their spears in the usual manner; and after them another body of a

thousand horse, chosen from among the Persians; then ten thousand chosen

Persian infantry. Of these, one thousand had golden pomegranates on

their spears instead of ferrules, and they enclosed the others all

round; the nine thousand within had silver pomegranates. Those also that

carried their spears turned to the earth had golden pomegranates, and

those that followed nearest to Xerxes had golden apples. Behind the ten

thousand foot were placed ten thousand Persian cavalry; and after the

cavalry was left an interval of two stades; then the rest of the throng

followed promiscuously.

Once when the army halted during the night under Mount Ida, thunder and

lightning fell upon them, and destroyed a considerable number of the

troops on the spot. At the Scamander, the first river on their march

from Sardis, the stream failed and did not afford sufficient drink for

the army and beasts of burden. Here Xerxes went up to the Pergamus or

citadel of Priam, and sacrificed a thousand oxen to the Ilian Minerva,

and the magi poured out libations in honor of the heroes of the Trojan

War. At Abydos, Xerxes wished to behold the whole army. And there had

been previously erected on a hill at this place, for his use, a lofty

throne of white marble; the people of Abydos had made it, in obedience

to an order of the king. Seated there, he beheld both the land army and

the fleet; he desired also to see a contest take place between the

ships, in which the Sidonian Phœnicians were victorious. Exceedingly

gratified he was, both with the contest and the army. But while he was

viewing the whole Hellespont covered by the ships, and all the shores

and the plains of Abydos full of men, he suddenly burst into tears.

Artabanus, his paternal uncle, observed him, and exclaimed: "O king, a

moment ago you pronounced yourself happy, but now you weep." "Alas," he

answered: "Commiseration seized me, when I considered how brief all

human life is, since of these, numerous as they are, not one will be

alive in a hundred years!"

That day they made preparations for the passage over; and on the

following they waited for the sun, as they wished to see it rising, in

the mean time burning all sorts of perfumes on the bridges, and strewing

the road with myrtle branches. When the sun rose, Xerxes poured a

libation into the sea out of a golden cup, and offered up a prayer to

the sun, that no such accident might befall him as would prevent him

from subduing Europe, until he had reached its utmost limits. After the

prayer, he threw the cup into the Hellespont, and a golden bowl, and a

Persian sword, which they call acinace. But I cannot determine with

certainty, whether he dropped these things into the sea as an offering

to the sun, or whether he repented of having scourged the Hellespont,

and presented these gifts to the sea as a compensation. These ceremonies

finished, the infantry and all the cavalry crossed over by that bridge

which was toward the Pontus; and the beasts of burden and the attendants

by that toward the Ægean. I have heard that Xerxes crossed over last of

all. In seven days and seven nights without a halt his army crossed. On

this occasion it is related, that when Xerxes had crossed over the

Hellespont, a certain Hellespontine said: "O Jupiter, why, assuming the

form of a Persian, and taking the name of Xerxes, do you wish to subvert

Greece, bringing all mankind with you? since without them it was in your

power to do this."

[Illustration: THE TOMB OF JONAH, KONYUNJIK, AND THE RUINS OPPOSITE

MOSUL.]

Doriscus is a shore and extensive plain of Thrace. Through it flows a

large river, the Hebrus. A royal fort had been built, and a Persian

garrison had been established in it by Darius, from the time that he

marched against the Scythians. At Doriscus Xerxes numbered his army. The

whole land forces were found to be seventeen hundred thousand. They were

computed in this manner: having drawn together ten thousand men in one

place, and crowded them as close together as it was possible, they

traced a circle on the outside; removed the ten thousand, threw up a

stone fence on the circle, a yard high, and made others enter within the

enclosed space, until they had in this manner computed all.

The Persians were equipped as follows: On their heads they wore loose

coverings, called tiaras; on the body various-colored sleeved

breastplates, with iron scales like those of fish; and on their legs,

loose trousers; instead of shields they had bucklers made of osiers; and

under them their quivers were hung. They had short spears, long bows,

and arrows made of cane, besides daggers suspended from the girdle on

the right thigh. They had for their general, Otanes, father of Amestris,

wife of Xerxes. They were formerly called Cephenes by the Grecians, but

by themselves and neighbors, Artæans. But when Perseus, son of Danae and

Jupiter, came to Cepheus, son of Belus, and married his daughter

Andromeda, he had a son to whom he gave the name of Perses; and from him

they derived their appellation. The Medes marched equipped in the same

manner as the Persians; for the above is a Medic and not a Persian

costume. The Medes had for their general, Tigranes, of the family of the

Achæmenidæ: they were formerly called Arians by all nations; but when

Medea of Colchis came from Athens to these Arians, they also changed

their names. The Assyrians who served in the army had helmets of bronze,

twisted in a barbarous fashion, not easy to describe; and shields and

spears, with daggers similar to those of the Egyptians, besides wooden

clubs knotted with iron, and linen cuirasses. By the Greeks they were

called Syrians, but by the barbarians, Assyrians. Among them were the

Chaldeans; and Otaspes, son of Artachæus commanded them. The Bactrians

had turbans on their heads, very much like those of the Medes, and bows

made of cane peculiar to their country, and short spears. The Sacæ, who

are Scythians, had on their heads caps, which came to a point and stood

erect: they also wore loose trousers, and carried bows peculiar to their

country, and daggers, and also battle-axes, called sagares. The Indians,

clad with garments made of cotton, had bows of cane, and arrows of cane

tipped with iron.

The Arabians wore cloaks fastened by a girdle; and carried on their

right sides long bows which bent backward. The Ethiopians were clothed

in panthers' and lions' skins, and carried long bows, not less than four

cubits in length, made from branches of the palm-tree; and on them they

placed short arrows made of cane, instead of iron, tipped with a stone,

which was made sharp, and of the sort on which they engrave seals.

Besides, they had javelins, and at the tip was an antelope's horn, made

sharp, like a lance; they had also knotted clubs. When they were going

to battle, they smeared one half of their body with chalk, and the other

half with red ochre. The Arabians and Ethiopians who dwell above Egypt

were commanded by Arsames, son of Darius and Artystone, daughter of

Cyrus, whom Darius loved more than all his wives, and whose image he had

made of beaten gold. The Ethiopians from the sun-rise (for two kinds

served in the expedition) were marshalled with the Indians, and did not

at all differ from the others in appearance, except in their language

and their hair. For the eastern Ethiopians are straight-haired; but

those of Libya have hair more curly than that of any other people. These

Ethiopians from Asia were accoutred almost the same as the Indians; but

they wore on their heads skins of horses' heads, as masks, stripped off

with the ears and mane; and the mane served instead of a crest, and the

horses' ears were fixed erect; and as defensive armor they used the

skins of cranes instead of shields. The Libyans marched, clad in

leathern garments, and made use of javelins hardened by fire. They had

for their general, Massages, son of Oarizus. The Paphlagonians joined

the expedition, wearing on their heads plated helmets, and carried small

shields, and not large spears, besides javelins and daggers: and on

their feet they wore boots, peculiar to their country, reaching up to

the middle of the leg. The Thracians wore fox-skins on their heads, and

tunics around their bodies, and over them they were clothed with

various-colored cloaks, and on their feet and legs they had buskins of

fawn-skin, and carried javelins, light bucklers, and small daggers.

These people having crossed over into Asia, were called Bithynians; but

formerly, as they themselves say, were called Strymonians, as they dwelt

on the river Strymon.

These, with very many others, were the nations that marched on the

continent and composed the infantry. Over these and the whole infantry

was appointed as general, Mardonius, son of Gobryas. But of the ten

thousand chosen Persians, Hydarnes was general. These Persians were

called Immortal, for the following reason: If any one of them made a

deficiency in the number, compelled either by death or disease, another

was ready chosen to supply his place; so that they were never either

more or less than ten thousand. The Persians displayed the greatest

splendor of all, and were also the bravest; their equipment was such as

has been described; but besides this, they were conspicuous from having

a great profusion of gold. They also brought with them covered chariots

and a numerous and well-equipped train of attendants. Camels and other

beasts of burden conveyed their provisions, apart from that of the rest

of the soldiers.

[Illustration: BRIDGE OVER THE GORTYNIUS.]

All these nations have cavalry; they did not, however, all furnish

horse, but only the following. First, the Persians, equipped in the same

manner as their infantry, except that on their heads some of them wore

bronze and wrought-steel ornaments. There is a certain nomadic race,

called Sagartians, of Persian extraction and language, who wear a dress

fashioned between the Persian and the Pactyan fashion; they furnished

eight thousand horse, but they are not accustomed to carry arms either

of bronze or iron, except daggers: they use lassos made of twisted

thongs. The mode of fighting of these men is as follows: When they

engage with the enemy they throw out the ropes, which have nooses at the

end, and whatever any one catches, whether horse or man, he drags toward

himself; and they that are entangled in the coils are put to death. The

Arabians had the same dress as their infantry, but all rode camels not

inferior to horses in speed. The number of the horse amounted to eighty

thousand, besides the camels and chariots. All the rest of the cavalry

were marshalled in troops; but the Arabians were stationed in the rear,

as horses cannot endure camels. Armamithres and Tithæus, sons of Datis,

were generals of the cavalry. Their third colleague in command,

Pharnuches, had been left at Sardis sick. For as they were setting out

from Sardis he met with a sad accident. When he was mounted, a dog ran

under the legs of his horse, and the horse, frightened, reared and threw

Pharnuches, who vomited blood, and the disease turned to a consumption.

With respect to the horse, his servants immediately led him to the place

where he had thrown his master, and cut off his legs at the knees.

The number of the triremes amounted to twelve hundred and seven.

Persians, Medes, and Sacæ served as marines on board all the ships. Of

these the Phœnicians furnished the best sailing ships, and of the

Phœnicians the Sidonians. The admirals of the navy were: Ariabignes, son

of Darius; Prexaspes, son of Aspathines; Megabazus son of Megabates; and

Achæmenes, son of Darius. Of the other captains I make no mention, as I

deem it unnecessary, except of Artemisia, whom I most admire, as having,

though a woman, joined this expedition against Greece. Her husband was

dead, but, holding the sovereignty while her son was under age, she

joined the expedition from a feeling of courage and manly spirit, though

there was no necessity for her doing so. Her name was Artemisia, and she

was the daughter of Lygdamis, by birth of Halicarnassus on her father's

side, and on her mother's a Cretan. She commanded the Halicarnassians,

the Coans, the Nisyrians, and the Calyndians, having contributed five

ships: and of the whole fleet, next to the Sidonians, she furnished the

most renowned ships, and of all the allies, gave the best advice to the

king. The cities which I have mentioned as being under her command, I

pronounce to be all of Doric origin; the Halicarnassians being

Trœzenians, and the rest Epidaurians.

When Xerxes had numbered his forces, and the army was drawn up he

desired to pass through and inspect them in person. Accordingly he drove

through in a chariot, by each separate nation, made inquiries, and his

secretaries wrote down the answers; until he had gone from one extremity

to the other, both of the horse and foot. When he had finished this, and

the ships had been launched into the sea, Xerxes, in a Sidonian ship,

under a gilded canopy, sailed by the prows of the ships, asking

questions of each, as he had done with the land-forces, and having the

answers written down.

When Xerxes arrived at Therma, he ordered his army to halt. And seeing

from Therma the Thessalonian mountains, Olympus and Ossa, which are of

vast size, and having learnt that there was a narrow pass between them,

through which the river Peneus runs, and hearing that at that spot there

was a road leading to Thessaly, very much wished to sail and see the

mouth of the Peneus. When Xerxes arrived, and beheld its mouth, he was

struck with great astonishment. For several rivers, five of them greatly

noted, the Peneus, the Apidanus, the Onochonus, the Enipeus, and the

Pamisus, meeting together in this plain from the mountains that enclose

Thessaly, discharge themselves into the sea through one channel, and

that a narrow one; but as soon as they have mingled together, from that

spot the names of the other rivers merge in that of the Peneus.[27] The

Thessalians say, that Neptune made the pass through which the Peneus

flows; and their story is probable. For whoever thinks that Neptune

shakes the earth, and that rents occasioned by earthquakes are the works

of this god, on seeing this, would say that Neptune formed it. For it

appears evident to me, that the separation of these mountains is the

effect of an earthquake.

CHAPTER II.

BATTLE OF THERMOPYLÆ.