rewarding and punishing according to desert; but that with which he
himself was most pleased and the best of the Romans, I will relate. When
Pompeius Magnus landed in Egypt at Pelusium, what time he fled after
being completely defeated by Cæsar, the guardians of the king, who was
still a youth, being in counsel with their friends, were not inclined
the same way in their opinions. Some were for receiving and others for
driving the man from Egypt. But one Theodotus[552] of Chios, who was
hired to teach the king rhetoric, and was then thought worthy of a place
in the council for want of better men, attempted to show that both were
in error, those who advised to receive and those who advised to send
away Pompeius, for there was one thing in the present circumstances
that was useful, and that was to receive him and put him to death. And
he added, at the end of his speech, that a corpse does not bite. The
council assented to his opinion, and Pompeius Magnus fell, an instance
of things passing belief and expectation, and the result of the
rhetorical skill and eloquence of Theodotus, as the sophist himself used
to say boastingly. When Cæsar arrived shortly after, some of them paid
the penalty of their guilt and perished miserably; and Theodotus, who
borrowed from fortune a short period for an inglorious and poor and
rambling life, did not escape Brutus when he came into Asia, but he was
carried before him and punished, and thus he gained a greater name by
his death than by his life.
XXXIV. Brutus invited Cassius to Sardis[553] and met him with his
friends on his approach; and the whole force under arms saluted both of
them as Imperatores. Now as it is wont to happen in the midst of great
affairs, and among many friends and commanders, causes of difference had
arisen between Brutus and Cassius, and suspicions; and before they did
anything else, immediately on their arrival at Sardis they entered into
a room by themselves and closed the door, and no one being present they
began with blaming one another, and then fell to proofs and charges.
From this they came to tears and passionate expressions without
restraint, so that their friends, wondering at the roughness and
violence of their anger, feared lest something should happen; but it was
forbidden to approach them. But Marcus Favonius, who had been a lover of
Cato, and was a philosopher not so much from reason as a certain impulse
and mad passion, went in to them though the slaves attempted to hinder
him. But it was a hard thing to check Favonius when he had put himself
in motion towards any object, for he was impetuous in all things and
impatient. He made no account of being a Roman senator, but by his
cynical freedom of speech he often took away the harshness and
unseasonableness of his behaviour, the hearers receiving all as jest. On
this occasion forcing his way against those who tried to stop him, he
entered, and with mock solemnity uttered the words which Homer[554] has
made Nestor use:
"Obey: ye both are younger far than I,"
and what follows. At which Cassius laughed, but Brutus turned him out,
calling him true dog and false cynic. However, they forthwith became
reconciled, and this was the end of their difference for the time.
Cassius gave an entertainment to which Brutus invited his friends.[555]
As they were just reclining, Favonius came from the bath; and, on Brutus
declaring that he came without invitation and bidding him withdraw to
the highest couch,[556] he forced his way to the central couch and
reclined there; and they made merry over the banquet, and the mirth was
not without its zest nor unseasoned with philosophy.
XXXV. On the following day Lucius Pella,[557] a Roman who had been
prætor and trusted by Brutus, was charged by the people of Sardis with
taking money unlawfully, and he was publicly condemned and declared
infamous by Brutus. This affair gave Cassius no small pain. For a few
days before, two of his friends who were convicted of the same offence,
he privately admonished and publicly acquitted, and he still continued
to employ them. Accordingly he blamed Brutus as being too strict an
observer of law and justice at a time which required politic conduct and
conciliatory measures. But Brutus told him to remember the Ides of
March on which they killed Cæsar, who was not himself oppressing and
plundering everybody, but supported others who did it, so that if there
was any specious pretext for overlooking justice, it would have been
better to bear with Cæsar's friends than to allow their own friends to
do wrong. For they, he said,[558] have the imputation of cowardice, but
we of injustice, and that too joined to danger and toil. Such were the
principles of Brutus.
XXXVI.[559] When they were going to cross over from Asia, it is said
that Brutus had a great sign. The man was naturally wakeful, and by
discipline and temperance he contracted his sleep into a small space of
time, never reposing in the daytime, and by night only so long as he was
unable to do anything or to speak to any one because people were
resting. But at that time when the war was on foot, having on his hands
the general management of everything, and his thoughts being on the
stretch with regard to the future, when he had taken a short repose
after eating, he employed the rest of the night on affairs of urgency.
And when he had finished and arranged everything that was necessary
about such matters, he would read a book till the third watch, at which
time the centurions and tribunes were used to come to him. Being then
about to convoy his army over from Asia, it happened to be dead of night
and the lamp in his tent was not very bright; and the whole camp was in
deep silence. As Brutus was considering and reflecting with himself, he
thought that he heard some one come in, and looking towards the entrance
he saw a terrible and strange vision of a huge and frightful figure
standing by him in silence. He had the courage to ask, "What man or god
art thou, or with what purpose dost thou come to us?" The phantom
replied to him, "I am thy evil dæmon, Brutus, and thou shalt see me at
Philippi." And Brutus without being disturbed, said, "I shall see."
XXXVII.[560] When the phantom disappeared, Brutus called the slaves,
and as they said that they had neither heard any voice nor seen
anything, Brutus still kept awake; and at daybreak he betook himself to
Cassius and told him his vision. Cassius, who followed the doctrines of
Epicurus, and was accustomed to dispute about them with Brutus, said,
"Our opinion, Brutus, is this, that we do not in fact feel all things
nor see them, but perception is a certain flexible and deceitful thing,
and the intellect is still quicker to move and change it, without there
being any real thing, into all forms. For the fashioning of the form is
like unto wax, and as the soul of man possesses both the thing to be
fashioned and that which fashions, being the same, it has of itself the
power of most easily varying itself and assuming different forms. And
this is shown by the changes of our dreams in sleep, which changes the
phantastic power undergoes, from slight causes assuming every kind of
effect and image. It is the nature of the phantastic power to be always
in motion, and motion is to it a certain phantasy or perception. In you
the body being troubled naturally excites and perverts the mind. But it
is neither probable that there are dæmons, nor that, if there are, they
have the form of men or the voice, or that their power reaches to us;
and indeed I wish it were so, that we might not put trust only in arms
and horses and so many ships, but also in the help of the gods being the
leaders in most upright and noble undertakings." By such arguments as
these Cassius attempted to calm Brutus. When the soldiers were
embarking, two eagles descended on the first standards and were carried
along with them, and accompanied the soldiers, who fed them, as far as
Philippi. And there, one day before the battle, they flew away.
XXXVIII. Now Brutus had subjected to him most of the nations that lay in
his way: and if any city or ruler had been passed by, they then brought
over all in their progress as far as the sea opposite to Thasos. In
those parts Norbanus[561] and his troops happened to be encamped in the
Straits and about Symbolum; but Brutus and Cassius getting round them
compelled them to withdraw and desert the posts. They also came very
near taking his force, Cæsar staying behind on account of illness; and
they would have done it, if Antonius had not come to their aid with such
wonderful expedition that Brutus could scarce believe it. Cæsar arrived
ten days later, and pitched his camp opposite to Brutus: Antonius took
his station opposite to Cassius. The plain which lay between the armies,
the Romans called the Campi Philippi; and it was on this occasion that
the largest Roman armies were matched against one another. Now in
numbers they were not a little inferior to those of Cæsar, but in show
and splendour of arms the forces of Brutus outshone the enemy. For most
of their armour was of gold, and silver had been unsparingly supplied,
though in other respects Brutus accustomed his officers to a simple and
severe habit. But he thought that the wealth which they had in their
hands and about their bodies, would give courage to the more ambitious
of honour and would make those who were fond of gain still more
courageous, as if the weapons which they held were their property.
XXXIX. Now Cæsar made a lustration[562] within his lines, and
distributed among the soldiers a small allowance of grain and five
drachmæ apiece for the sacrifice; but Brutus, who considered this either
as proof of Cæsar's poverty or his meanness, first of all performed a
lustration for the army under the open sky, according to the custom, and
then distributed a number of victims for every cohort, and fifty drachmæ
to each man, by which he had the advantage over the enemy in the
goodwill and zeal of his troops. Notwithstanding this bad omen, as
Cassius considered it, happened during the lustration; for the lictor
brought him his crown reversed. It is said that on a former occasion,
also during a certain spectacle and procession, a golden Victory
belonging to Cassius, which was being carried, fell down owing to the
bearer slipping. Besides this many birds of prey daily appeared in the
camp and swarms of bees were seen collecting about a certain spot within
the lines, which the diviners enclosed in order to get rid of the
superstitious fear which was gradually withdrawing even Cassius himself
from the principles of Epicurus, and had completely cowed the soldiers.
Owing to this, Cassius was not eager that the matter should be decided
at present by a battle, and he was of opinion that they should protract
the war, being strong in resources, but in amount of arms and men
inferior to the enemy. But Brutus even before this was eager to settle
the matter by the speediest hazard, and thus either to recover freedom
for his country, or to relieve from their sufferings all the people who
were oppressed by cost and military service and requisitions. And now
seeing that his cavalry was successful and victorious in the skirmishes
and encounters of posts, his spirit was raised: and some desertions to
the enemy which took place and imputations and suspicions against others
caused many of the friends of Cassius in the council to go over to the
opinion of Brutus. One of the friends of Brutus, Atillius, opposed the
opinion of Brutus and advised that they should wait for the winter. On
Brutus asking, Wherein he thought that he would be better after a year,
he replied, If in nothing else, I shall live longer. Cassius was vexed
at this, and Atillius gave no small offence to the rest. Accordingly it
was resolved to fight on the next day.
XL. Brutus went to rest after having been in high spirits and engaged in
philosophical discourse at supper. As to Cassius, Messala[563] says that
he supped by himself with a few of his intimates, and appeared
thoughtful and silent, though he was not naturally so; and that after
supper he pressed the hand of Messala strongly and said, as he was wont
when he was in friendly mood, in the Greek language, "I call you to
witness, Messala, that I am in the same situation as Pompeius Magnus,
being compelled to cast the die for my country's safety in a single
battle. However, let us have a good heart, looking to fortune, which it
is not right to distrust, though we may have resolved badly." Messala
says that these were the last words that Cassius spoke to him and
thereon embraced him, and that he was invited[564] by him to supper for
the following day, which was his birthday. At daybreak there was hung
out in the lines of Brutus and of Cassius the signal for the contest, a
purple vest, and they met between the two camps, and Cassius said:
"Brutus, I hope we may be victorious and live together happily all the
rest of our lives; but as the chief of human events are the most
uncertain, and if the battle results contrary to our expectation, it
will not be easy for us to see one another, what do you intend with
respect to flight or death?" Brutus replied, "When I was a young man,
Cassius, and inexperienced in affairs, I know not how it happened that I
neglected a weighty matter in philosophy. I blamed Cato for killing
himself, considering that it was not right nor befitting a man to
withdraw himself from his dæmon, and not to await what happens without
fear, but to skulk away. But now I am of a different mind in the
circumstances, and if the deity shall not determine in our favour, I do
not want to try other hopes and means, but I will withdraw content with
fortune, that on the Ides of March I gave to my country my life and have
lived another life for her sake free and glorious." Whereat Cassius
smiled and, embracing Brutus, said, "With such thoughts let us go
against the enemy; for we shall either conquer or we shall not fear the
conquerors." After this they discussed the order of battle in the
presence of their friends. Brutus asked Cassius to allow him to command
the right wing, which was supposed to be more appropriate for Cassius on
account of his experience and his age. But Cassius granted even this,
and he commanded Messala with the bravest of the legions to be posted on
the right. Brutus immediately led forth the cavalry equipped in splendid
style, and he brought up the infantry with equal expedition.
XLI. The soldiers of Antonius happened to be driving trenches from the
marshes, around which they were encamped, into the plain and cutting off
the approaches of Cassius to the sea. Cæsar was on the watch, not being
present himself by reason of sickness, but his troops were there, which,
however, did not expect that the enemy would fight, but would merely
make sallies against the works and disturb the diggers with light
missiles and shouts; and as they were paying no attention to those who
were opposed to them, they were surprised at the shouts about the
trenches, which were indistinct and loud. In the meantime billets came
from Brutus to the officers in which the word was written, and as he was
advancing on horseback before the legions and encouraging them, a few
had time to hear the word as it was passed along, but the greater part
without waiting, with one impulse and shout rushed against the enemy.
Some irregularity arose in the lines and some separation of them through
this disorder, and the legion of Messala first and those which were
close upon it outflanked Cæsar's left; and having slightly touched the
soldiers on the extreme left and killed no great number, but completely
outflanking them, fell on the camp. Cæsar, as he says in his Memoirs,
inasmuch as one of his friends, Artorius Marcus,[565] had seen a vision
in his sleep which bade Cæsar get out of the way and leave the camp, had
just before been conveyed out of it, and he was supposed to have lost
his life; for the enemy pierced his empty litter with javelins and
spears. And there was a slaughter in the camp of those who were
captured, and two thousand Lacedæmonians, who had lately come as allies,
were cut to pieces with them.
XLII. They who had not surrounded the soldiers of Cæsar, but had engaged
with those in front, easily put to flight the enemy who were in
confusion, and destroyed at close quarters three legions, and they
rushed into the camp with the fugitives, carried along by the
impetuosity of success and having Brutus with them; but what the victors
did not see, that the critical time showed to the vanquished. For
pushing forward to the parts of the opposite line which were exposed and
broken where the right wing was drawn off in the pursuit, they did not
force the centre but were engaged in a violent struggle; but they put to
flight the left, which was in disorder and ignorant of what had
happened, and pursuing it to the camp they plundered it, neither of the
Imperatores being with them. For Antonius, as they say, having at the
beginning avoided the attack, retreated to the marsh, and Cæsar could
nowhere be seen, as he had fled from the camp; but some showed their
bloody swords to Brutus supposing they had killed him, and describing
his appearance and age. And now the centre had repelled their opponents
with great slaughter; and Brutus thought that he was completely
victorious as Cassius thought that he was defeated. And this was the
only thing which ruined their cause, that Brutus did not aid Cassius
because he thought that he was victorious, and that Cassius did not wait
for Brutus because he thought that he had perished; for Messala
considers it a proof of victory that Brutus had taken three eagles and
many standards from the enemy, and the enemy had taken nothing. Brutus
now retreating after he had destroyed Cæsar's camp, was surprised not to
see the tent of Cassius standing out conspicuous, as usual, nor the rest
in their place, for most of the tents had immediately been thrown down
and torn in pieces by the enemy when they broke in. But those who
thought they could see better than their comrades said to Brutus that
they saw many helmets glittering and many silver shields moving about in
the camp of Cassius, and they said it did not appear to them that it was
either the number or the armour of those were left to guard the camp,
but yet there did not appear to be in that direction a number of corpses
such as might be expected if so many legions had been defeated. This
was the first thing that gave Brutus an idea of the misfortune; and
leaving a guard in the camp of the enemy he recalled the pursuers and
got them together to aid Cassius.
XLIII. And it had fared thus with him. He was neither pleased at seeing
the first onset of the soldiers of Brutus without signal and order, nor
was he pleased that when they were victorious they rushed straight to
plunder and profit, taking no pains to get round and encircle the enemy.
Cassius, conducting his operations rather with delay and waste of time
than with vigour and judgment, was surrounded by the right wing of the
enemy; and when he saw that, as soon as the cavalry broke away in flight
to the sea, the infantry also were giving way, he endeavoured to stop
and recall them. He also seized the standard from one of the
standard-bearers who was flying, and fixed it in the ground before his
feet, though even those who were placed about his person no longer
remained with any spirit. In these circumstances, being pressed, he
retreated with a few men to a hill which had a view towards the plain.
He saw nothing in the plain, or with difficulty the plunder of the camp,
for he was weak of vision; but the horsemen around him saw many
approaching whom Brutus sent. Cassius conjectured that they were enemies
and were in pursuit of him; yet he sent Titinius, one of those who were
with him, to see. The horsemen did not fail to observe him approaching,
and when they saw a man who was a friend, and faithful to Cassius, they
shouted for joy, and some of his friends leaping down from their horses
embraced him and took his hand, and the rest riding round him with
joyful shouts and clatter by their unmeasured rejoicing produced the
greatest misfortune. For Cassius was quite sure that Titinius was caught
by the enemy. With these words, "Through love of life have I waited to
see a friend seized by the enemy," he retired into an empty tent
dragging after him one of his freed men, Pindarus, whom, in the
unfortunate affair of Crassus, he had prepared for this extremity.
Cassius escaped the Parthians, but now drawing his cloak over his head
and baring his neck he presented it to be cut asunder; for the head was
found separated from the body. But no man saw Pindarus after the death
of Cassius, which made some persons think that he had killed Cassius
without his order. Shortly after the horsemen appeared, and Titinius
crowned by them went up to Cassius. But when, by the weeping and cries
of his friends who were lamenting and bewailing, he knew of the fate of
the general and of his error, he drew his sword and with much upbraiding
of himself for his tardiness killed himself.
XLIV. Brutus, who was acquainted with the defeat of Cassius, was now
approaching, and he heard of his death when he was near the camp. After
lamenting over the body and calling Cassius the last of the Romans, as
if he considered that such a spirit could never again be produced in
Rome, he wrapped up the corpse and sent it to Thasos, that no disorder
might be produced by its being interred there. He summoned the soldiers
together and consoled them; and seeing that they were deprived of all
necessaries he promised them two thousand drachmæ apiece in place of
what they had lost. The soldiers were encouraged by his words and
admired the magnitude of his present; and they accompanied him with
shouts as he went away, magnifying him as the only one of the four
Imperatores who was unvanquished in battle. And the result proved that
he had good reason for trusting to success in the battle; for with a few
legions he put to flight all those who opposed him. But if he had
employed all his forces in the battle, and the greater part had not
passed by the enemy and fallen on the enemy's baggage, it is probable
that he would have left no part of the enemy's force unvanquished.
XLV. There fell on the side of Brutus eight thousand, with the slaves
who were with them in the army, whom Brutus called Briges;[566] and of
the enemy Messala says that he thinks more than twice the number fell.
For this reason the enemy was the more dispirited, till a slave of
Cassius, named Demetrius, came to Antonius as soon as it was evening,
having taken the cloaks from the corpse, and the sword; and when these
were brought, they were so much encouraged that at daybreak they led
forth their force prepared for battle. But as both his armies were in an
unsettled and dangerous state (for his own army being full of captives
required careful watching, and the army of Cassius was troubled at the
loss of their general, and they felt somewhat of envy and dislike in
consequence of their defeat towards the army that had been victorious),
Brutus resolved to put his troops under arms, but he would not fight. Of
the captives, he ordered the slaves to be killed, as they were moving
about among the soldiers in a suspicious way; but of the freemen he
released some, saying that they had rather been made captives by the
enemy, and were captives and slaves there, but with him were free men
and citizens; and when he saw that his friends and the officers were
ill-disposed towards them, he saved them by concealing them and sending
them away. There were a certain Volumnius,[567] a mime, and Saculio, a
jester, among the prisoners, whom Brutus cared not for, and his friends
bringing these to him accused them of not abstaining even now from
speaking and jeering to insult them. Brutus was silent, being occupied
with other thoughts, but Messala Corvinus was of opinion that they
should be flogged in a tent, and given up naked to the generals of the
enemy, that they might know what kind of drinking companions and
intimates they wanted in their campaigns. Some of those who were present
laughed; but Publius Casca, who had struck Cæsar first, said, "We offer
no fit sacrifice to Cassius who is dead, by making merry and jesting;
but you, Brutus," he said, "will show what remembrance you have of the
general either by punishing or protecting those who will mock and revile
him." Upon this Brutus, greatly angered, said, "Why then do you ask me,
Casca, and why don't you do what you like?" This answer of Brutus they
considered as an assent to the punishment of the unhappy men, whom they
led away and put to death.