A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF ILLUMINATION
(1) _From the Fourth to the Eleventh Century_
Perhaps it would be as well, before dealing with the practical side
of illumination, to give a brief sketch of the history of this art in
Europe. It will not be possible to do more than give just a very short
outline of the history here. The modern illuminator should, however,
know something of the history of illumination. It is not intended to
deal with any but vellum MSS. Possibly it may be claimed that some of
the Egyptian Papyrii are illuminated MSS., but these have little in
common with the illuminated work of the Middle Ages, and it is with
this that this short review is chiefly concerned.
[Illustration: THE LINDISFARNE GOSPELS.
_By kind permission of
the British Museum._
]
CLASSICAL AND BYZANTINE ILLUMINATION
It is known from the Epigrams of Martial, who himself lived in the
first century, that vellum MSS. were illuminated as early as A.D. 100.
Although this was undoubtedly the case, very few MSS. have survived. It
is very difficult to state exactly the date of the earliest of these,
but most authorities are of the opinion that the third or fourth
century is the earliest date that any of them can be assigned to. Some
think that the MS. of Virgil in the Vatican (No. 3225) is the oldest
illuminated MS. This MS. is written on seventy-six leaves of vellum.
It has fifty miniatures, but of this number five are scarcely visible
at the present time. These miniatures are framed with gilt or coloured
bands, but the MS. displays nothing in the way of ornament which is
generally associated with illuminated work.
Another early MS. is the Ambrosian Iliad, at Milan, which some think
to be of the third century and others of the fourth or fifth. This is
noted for its fine handwriting and also its illustrations.
These early MSS. are really illustrated rather than illuminated, as the
term is generally understood.
Following on after this comes the Byzantine School of illumination. The
most important of the early MSS. are the Dioscorides and the Genesis
of the Vienna Library. These two MSS. are both thought to be of the
sixth century. The first of these, called after its principal author
the “Dioscorides,” is a collection of treatises on botany, hunting,
etc., by several Greek physicians. This was written for the Princess
Juliana Anicia, daughter of Flavius Anicius Olybrius, who was Emperor
of the West in 472. It is written in uncial characters and contains,
amongst other things, a portrait of Juliana. It contains also a number
of coloured drawings of plants, birds, insects, etc., illustrating the
text.
In the Vienna Genesis the text is written in gold and silver on purple
vellum. It has forty-eight miniatures which are placed in square
frames, and there is no marginal decoration. Gold is occasionally used,
but it is not burnished.
There is also a fragment of a Genesis Codex in the British Museum
(Cott. Otho. B. VI.), which is supposed to be of the same period.
The Joshua Rotulus in the Vatican Library (Codex Vat. Palat. Gr. 431)
is a very important MS. It is thought by some to be a copy of an
original MS. possibly as old as the fifth century. Opinions, however,
differ, other authorities ascribing it to the fifth or sixth century.
Another well-known MS. is the famous Gospel Book in the Laurentian
Library of Florence, known as the Rabula MS. This MS. is dated 586.
The first phase of the Byzantine School is Hellenesque, and, no doubt,
it was part of the Alexandrian School, which was at its height in
the sixth century. The later style, which reached its maturity about
the end of the ninth century and began to decline after the twelfth
century, represents what is generally understood as Byzantine. A Simeon
Metaphrastes of the eleventh-twelfth century (Add. MS. 1180) and a
twelfth-century Gospels (Harley MS. 1810), both in the British Museum,
represent the peculiarly dignified ecclesiastical style of this school.
The Byzantine School influenced the development of illumination very
strongly. Especially is this noticeable in Italy.
CELTIC AND ANGLO-CELTIC ILLUMINATION
In the development of illumination the Celtic School played a most
important part. There is a very strong contrast between this and the
Byzantine School. The Byzantine MSS. were illustrated by more or less
naturalistic representations, while in the Celtic MSS. everything
seems to be treated as pure ornament. Even when the human figure is
introduced it seems to be treated in this way. Gold is also absent in
purely Irish MSS. The artists do not appear to represent the figure
with any degree of realism.
The chief characteristics of Celtic work are intricate spirals and
interlaced pattern, also patterns composed of dots, and curious
elongated creatures entwined together in a most complicated fashion.
Possibly the earliest date mentioned in connection with Celtic
illumination is that given by Giraldus Cambrensis, who went to Ireland
at the time of the Anglo-Norman invasion. He was chaplain to John,
the son of Henry II. He wrote concerning a famous MS. called the
Book of Kildare, a book which at present is not known to be extant.
He describes it as having been written at the “dictation of an angel
in St. Bridget’s own time.” St. Bridget, of Kildare, lived in the
latter part of the fifth and the early sixth centuries, so that, if
this account may be relied upon, it must have been written at least
a century before the celebrated Book of Kells. From the details that
Giraldus Cambrensis gives of the Book of Kildare, he might easily be
describing the Book of Kells. It was evidently very similar.
The Book of Kells is now in the Library of Trinity College, Dublin.
Some authorities think this to be as old as the seventh century, while
others assign it to the eighth or ninth century. This is an extremely
beautiful MS.; it has been described so many times that there is no
need to give a detailed description here.
Another well-known MS. is the Book of Durrow, also in Trinity College,
Dublin. Some have thought that this was written by the famous Columba
of Iona, as the name “Columba” is mentioned in the colophon at the end
of the MS., but whether this Columba was St. Columba of Iona is, of
course, debatable. Certainly a number of authorities are agreed that
its claims to be an actual relic of St. Columba are by no means to be
altogether rejected. The Book of Durrow, although very fine, is not
such a good example as the Book of Kells.
It would be interesting to know if St. Columba had much to do with
the cultivation of this art. The early biographies certainly speak of
him as an enthusiastic calligrapher, and in an ancient “Life of St.
Columba” he is spoken of as having written “three hundred splendid,
lasting books.”
It was through the efforts of the Scoto-Irish missionaries from
Iona that the art of illuminating was introduced into the north of
England. They founded a monastery at Lindisfarne early in the seventh
century. The famous Durham Book, or Lindisfarne Gospels, now in the
British Museum, was written here about the year 700 (Nero D. IV.). The
decoration and writing in this splendid MS. are essentially Celtic.
It, however, differs from the Book of Kells by the slight use of
gold in the decoration, also in the four full-page portraits of the
Evangelists, which show a strong Italo-Byzantine influence. This MS. is
undoubtedly one of the choicest treasures amongst the illuminated MSS.
in the British Museum.
CARLOVINGIAN ILLUMINATION
At the end of the eighth century the great revival of the arts which
followed the accession of Charlemagne acted as a great impetus to the
art of illumination. This art was developed from the crude Merovingian
style, and many elaborate volumes were produced. Some of the most
sumptuous are the Alcuin Bibles, and the Gospel Books, which were
written in gold. One of these Alcuin Bibles is exhibited in the British
Museum (Add. MSS. 10546), also one of the Gospel Books (Harley MS.
2788). The miniatures and decoration in these MSS. seem to show the
influence of the Roman, Byzantine, and Celtic Schools. The best period
of Carlovingian illumination seems to be the eighth century.
THE WINCHESTER SCHOOL
One cannot write even the briefest of sketches concerning the history
of illumination without referring to the work produced by the two
Winchester Scriptoria, generally referred to under the appellation of
“Opus Anglicum.”
The Anglo-Celtic tradition seems to have been completely lost, probably
due to the Danish raids in the ninth century.
It is said that in the time of Alfred the Great, there was a
scriptorium already in existence at Winchester, founded by St. Swithin,
who was made Bishop of Winchester in 852. Alfred, when a boy of
five, went with his father to Rome, and there is, at the very least,
presumptive evidence that, when returning, he saw the library of
Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle.
When he came to the throne in 871 he founded another monastery near the
old one, attaching a scriptorium. These two scriptoria were, at a later
date, to become the nursery of English illumination.
Although Alfred seems to have done so much to foster this art, there
are, unfortunately, no specimens which have survived that can be
assigned to any earlier date than that of his grandson Athelstan
(925-40).
A small MS. known as Athelstan’s Psalter was principally written on the
Continent in the ninth century, but many additions were made to it in
England towards the middle of the tenth century. This MS. shows that
some efforts had been made to replace the lost art of the Anglo-Celtic
School, which had flourished more than 200 years before by a new style
based on Continental models; and, although these miniatures may appear
somewhat crude, they probably represent the best work of the English
artists at this early period.
The first known example of actual Winchester work is the “Golden
Charter” of King Edgar, in 966, now in the British Museum (Cott. MS.
Vesp. A. VIII.). This represents an enormous advance on the crude
paintings in Athelstan’s Psalter; a miniature on a purple ground
shows King Edgar, standing between the Virgin and St. Peter, offering
the Charter to the Saviour. This page is well designed and a fine
decorative border surrounds the miniature.
The most famous example, however, is the well-known Benedictional of
Æthelwold, in the Library of the Duke of Devonshire. If the student
wishes for a full and illustrated description of this fine MS. he is
referred to the twenty-fourth volume of the Archæologia.
This MS. was written by Godeman, a monk of the old Minster, at
Winchester; it contains twenty large miniatures, each facing a
benediction for the most important days, with seven others of groups of
Confessors, Virgins, and Apostles at the beginning, and at the end the
bishop is represented giving a benediction in his cathedral. All these
miniatures, excepting the last, are surrounded with arches or frames of
gold and colours, and a similar border surrounds the opening words of
the benediction.
The Harleian Psalter (Harl. MS. 2904), in the British Museum, is
another MS. of this school. It would take far too much space to
go into details concerning this, but special mention should be
made of the drawing of the Crucifixion. This is in outline and is
slightly tinted and shaded. It is very interesting as showing the
stage that figure-drawing had reached at this early period. One very
characteristic feature of Winchester work is the curious “fluttering”
drapery which is noticeable in practically all the work of this school.