CHAPTER 1

Ver.12.12.00*END*

This Etext Created by Jeroen Hellingman <jehe@kabelfoon.nl>

A Forgotten Empire: Vijayanagar; A Contribution to the History of India

by Robert Sewell

Preface

The two Portuguese chronicles, a translation of which into English

is now for the first time offered to the public, are contained in

a vellum-bound folio volume in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris,

amongst the manuscripts of which institution it bears the designation

"PORT. NO. 65." The volume in question consists of copies of four

original documents; the first two, written by Fernao Nuniz and Domingo

Paes, being those translated below, the last two (at the end of the

MS.) letters written from China about the year 1520 A.D. These will

probably be published in translation by Mr. Donald Ferguson in the

pages of the INDIAN ANTIQUARY.

The first pair of original papers was sent with a covering letter

by some one at Goa to some one in Europe. The names are not given,

but there is every reason for believing that the recipient was the

historian Barros in Lisbon.

Both these papers are in the same handwriting, which fact -- since

they were written by separate Portuguese merchants or travellers at

Vijayanagar in different years, one, I believe, shortly subsequent

to 1520 A.D., the latter not later than about 1536 or 1537 --

conclusively proves them to be copies of the originals, and not the

originals themselves.[2] I have inserted a facsimile of two pages of

the text, so that no doubt may remain on this point. The first portion

consists of the conclusion of the text of Fernao Nuniz; the second

of the covering letter written by the person who sent the originals

to Europe; the third of the beginning of the text of Domingo Paes.

Paes being the earlier in date (about 1520) I have given his account

of personal experiences first, and afterwards the historical summary

composed by Nuniz about the year 1536 or 1537.

I have stated that the person to whom the documents were sent from

Goa was probably the celebrated historian Barros. He is alluded to

in the covering letter in the words: "It seemed necessary to do what

your Honour desired of me," "I send both the summaries ... because

your Honour can gather what is useful to you from both;" and at the

end of the long note on "Togao Mamede," king of Delhi, quoted in my

introduction, "I kiss your Honour's hand."

Since the first DECADA of Barros was published in 1552,[3]

this argument is not unreasonable; while a comparison between the

accounts given by Nuniz and Barros of the siege and battle of Raichur

sufficiently proves that one was taken from the other. But we have

fortunately more direct evidence, for the discovery of which we have

to thank Mr. Ferguson. I have mentioned above that at the end of the

MS. volume are copies of two letters concerning China. These were

written subsequent to the year 1520 by Vasco Calvo and Christovao

Vieyra. Mr. Ferguson has pointed out to me that, in the third DECADA

(liv. IV, caps. 4, 5), after quoting some passages almost verbatim

from this chronicle of Nuniz regarding Vijayanagar, Barros writes:

"According to two letters which our people had two or three years

afterwards from these two men, Vasco Calvo, brother of Diogo Calvo,

and Christovao Vieyra, who were prisoners in Canton, etc...." He

also mentions these letters in two subsequent passages, and quotes

from them. This renders it certain that Barros saw those letters;

and since they are copied into the same volume which contains the

chronicles of Nuniz and Paes, we may be sure that Barros had the

whole before him. It is of little importance to settle the question

whether the chronicles of Nuniz and Paes were sent direct to Barros

-- whether, that is, Barros himself is the addressee of the covering

letter -- or to some other official (the "our people" of the passage

from Barros last quoted); but that Barros saw them seems certain,

and it is therefore most probable that the Paris MS. was a volume of

copies prepared for him from the originals.

* * *

These documents possess peculiar and unique value; that of Paes because

it gives us a vivid and graphic account of his personal experiences

at the great Hindu capital at the period of its highest grandeur and

magnificence -- "things which I saw and came to know" he tells us --

and that of Nuniz because it contains the traditional history of the

country gathered first-hand on the spot, and a narrative of local

and current events of the highest importance, known to him either

because he himself was present or because he received the information

from those who were so. The summaries of the well-known historians

already alluded to, though founded, as I believe, partly on these

very chronicles, have taken all the life out of them by eliminating

the personal factor, the presence of which in the originals gives

them their greatest charm. Senhor Lopes, who has published these

documents in the original Portuguese in a recent work,[4] writes in his

introduction: "Nothing that we know of in any language can compare with

them, whether for their historical importance or for the description

given of the country, and especially of the capital, its products,

customs, and the like. The Italian travellers who visited and wrote

about this country -- Nicolo di Conti, Varthema, and Federici --

are much less minute in the matter of the geography and customs of

the land, and not one of them has left us a chronicle." They are

indeed invaluable, and throw an extraordinary light on the condition

of Vijayanagar as well as on several doubtful points of history.

Thus, for instance, we have in Nuniz for the first time a definite

account of the events that led to the fall of the First Dynasty and the

establishment of the second by the usurpation of Narasimha. Previous

to the publication of these chronicles by Senhor Lopes we had nothing

to guide us in this matter, save a few vague and unsatisfactory lines

in the chronicle of the historian Firishtah.[5] Now all is made clear,

and though as yet the truth cannot be definitely determined, at least

we have an explicit and exceedingly interesting story. Paes too,

as well as Nuniz, conclusively proves to us that Krishna Deva Raya

was really the greatest of all the kings of Vijayanagar, and not the

mere puppet that Firishtah appears to consider him (Firishtah does not

mention him by name); for Paes saw him on several occasions and speaks

of him in warm and glowing terms, while Nuniz, whose narrative was

evidently firsthand, never so much as hints that his armies were led

to victory by any other general but the king himself. Nuniz also gives

us a graphic description from personal knowledge of the character of

Krishna's degenerate successor Achyuta, whose feebleness, selfishness,

cowardice, and cruelty paved the way for the final destruction of

the great empire.

By the side of these two chronicles the writings of the great European

historians seem cold and lifeless.

* * *

I have mentioned the publication of Senhor Lopes. It is to that

distinguished Arabic scholar that we owe the knowledge of the existence

of these precious documents. He it was who brought them to light

in the first instance, and to him personally I owe the fact of my

being able to translate and publish them. His introduction to the DOS

REIS DE BISNAGA is full of valuable matter. India owes him a debt of

gratitude for his services; and for myself I desire to record here

my sincere thanks for the disinterested and generous help he has so

constantly accorded to me during the last two years.

My thanks are also due to Mr. Donald Ferguson for his careful revision

of the whole of my translations.

I desire further to express my appreciation of a particular kindness

done to me by Colonel R. C. Temple, C.I.E., and lastly to acknowledge

gratefully the liberality of H.E. the Governor of Madras and the

Members of his Council, who by subsidising this work have rendered

its publication possible.

I trust that my remarks regarding the causes of the downfall of

Portuguese trade in the sixteenth century will not be misunderstood. It

is not in any spirit of criticism or comparison that I have written

those passages. History, however, is history; and it is a fact that

while the main cause of the small success which attended the efforts

of the Portuguese to establish a great and lasting commerce with India

was no doubt the loss of trade after the destruction of Vijayanagar,

there must be added to this by the impartial recorder the dislike of

the inhabitants to the violence and despotism of the Viceroys and to

the uncompromising intolerance of the Jesuit Fathers, as well as the

horror engendered in their minds by the severities of the terrible

Inquisition at Goa.

* * *

A word as to my spelling of names. I have adopted a medium course

in many cases between the crudities of former generations and the

scientific requirements of the age in which we live; the result of

which will probably be my condemnation by both parties. But to the

highly educated I would point out that this work is intended for

general reading, and that I have therefore thought it best to avoid

the use of a special font of type containing the proper diacritical

points; while to the rest I venture to present the plea that the

time has passed when Vijayanagar needs to be spelt "Beejanuggur,"

or Kondavidu "Condbeer."

Thus I have been bold enough to drop the final and essential "a"

of the name of the great city, and spell the word "Vijayanagar,"

as it is usually pronounced by the English. The name is composed

of two words, VIJAYA, "victory," and NAGARA, "city," all the "a's"

to be pronounced short, like the "u" in "sun," or the "a" in "organ."

"Narasimha" ought, no doubt, to be spelt "Nrisimha," but that in such

case the "ri" ought to have a dot under the "r" as the syllable is

really a vowel, and I have preferred the common spelling of modern

days. (Here again all three "a's" are short.)

As with the final "a" in "Vijayanagara," so with the final "u" in

such names as "Kondavidu" -- it has been dropped in order to avoid

an appearance of pedantry; and I have preferred the more common

"Rajahmundry" to the more correct "Rajamahendri," "Trichinopoly" to

"Tiruchhinapalle," and so on.

This system may not be very scientific, but I trust it will prove

not unacceptable.

* * *

The name of the capital is spelt in many different ways by the

chroniclers and travellers. The usual Portuguese spelling was

"Bisnaga;" but we have also the forms "Bicheneger" (NIKITIN),

"Bidjanagar" (ABDUR RAZZAK), "Bizenegalia" (CONTI), "Bisnagar,"

"Beejanuggur," &c.

A Forgotten Empire: Vijayanagar

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Introductory remarks -- Sources of information -- Sketch of history of

Southern India down to A.D. 1336 -- A Hindu bulwark against Muhammadan

conquest -- The opening date, as given by Nuniz, wrong -- "Togao

Mamede" or Muhammad Taghlaq of Delhi -- His career and character.

In the year 1336 A.D., during the reign of Edward III. of England,

there occurred in India an event which almost instantaneously changed

the political condition of the entire south. With that date the volume

of ancient history in that tract closes and the modern begins. It is

the epoch of transition from the Old to the New.

This event was the foundation of the city and kingdom of

Vijayanagar. Prior to A.D. 1336 all Southern India had lain under

the domination of the ancient Hindu kingdoms, -- kingdoms so old

that their origin has never been traced, but which are mentioned in

Buddhist edicts rock-cut sixteen centuries earlier; the Pandiyans at

Madura, the Cholas at Tanjore, and others. When Vijayanagar sprang

into existence the past was done with for ever, and the monarchs

of the new state became lords or overlords of the territories lying

between the Dakhan and Ceylon.

There was no miracle in this. It was the natural result of the

persistent efforts made by the Muhammadans to conquer all India. When

these dreaded invaders reached the Krishna River the Hindus to their

south, stricken with terror, combined, and gathered in haste to the

new standard which alone seemed to offer some hope of protection. The

decayed old states crumbled away into nothingness, and the fighting

kings of Vijayanagar became the saviours of the south for two and a

half centuries.

And yet in the present day the very existence of this kingdom is

hardly remembered in India; while its once magnificent capital,

planted on the extreme northern border of its dominions and bearing

the proud title of the "City of Victory," has entirely disappeared

save for a few scattered ruins of buildings that were once temples

or palaces, and for the long lines of massive walls that constituted

its defences. Even the name has died out of men's minds and memories,

and the remains that mark its site are known only as the ruins lying

near the little village of Hampe.

Its rulers, however, in their day swayed the destinies of an empire

far larger than Austria, and the city is declared by a succession of

European visitors in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries to have

been marvellous for size and prosperity -- a city with which for

richness and magnificence no known western capital could compare. Its

importance is shown by the fact that almost all the struggles of the

Portuguese on the western coast were carried on for the purpose of

securing its maritime trade; and that when the empire fell in 1565,

the prosperity of Portuguese Goa fell with it never to rise again.

Our very scanty knowledge of the events that succeeded one another in

the large area dominated by the kings of Vijayanagar has been hitherto

derived partly from the scattered remarks of European travellers

and the desultory references in their writings to the politics of

the inhabitants of India; partly from the summaries compiled by

careful mediaeval historians such as Barros, Couto, and Correa, who,

though to a certain degree interested in the general condition of

the country, yet confined themselves mostly to recording the deeds

of the European colonisers for the enlightenment of their European

readers; partly from the chronicles of a few Muhammadan writers

of the period, who often wrote in fear of the displeasure of their

own lords; and partly from Hindu inscriptions recording grants of

lands to temples and religious institutions, which documents, when

viewed as state papers, seldom yield us more than a few names and

dates. The two chronicles, however, translated and printed at the

end of this volume, will be seen to throw a flood of light upon the

condition of the city of Vijayanagar early in the sixteenth century,

and upon the history of its successive dynasties; and for the rest

I have attempted, as an introduction to these chronicles, to collect

all available materials from the different authorities alluded to and

to weld them into a consecutive whole, so as to form a foundation

upon which may hereafter be constructed a regular history of the

Vijayanagar empire. The result will perhaps seem disjointed, crude,

and uninteresting; but let it be remembered that it is only a first

attempt. I have little doubt that before very long the whole history of

Southern India will be compiled by some writer gifted with the power

of "making the dry bones live;" but meanwhile the bones themselves

must be collected and pieced together, and my duty has been to try

and construct at least the main portions of the skeleton.

Before proceeding to details we must shortly glance at the political

condition of India in the first half of the fourteenth century,

remembering that up to that time the Peninsula had been held by a

number of distinct Hindu kingdoms, those of the Pandiyans at Madura

and of the Cholas at Tanjore being the most important.

The year 1001 A.D. saw the first inroad into India of the Muhammadans

from over the north-west border, under their great leader Mahmud of

Ghazni. He invaded first the plains of the Panjab, then Multan, and

afterwards other places. Year after year he pressed forward and again

retired. In 1021 he was at Kalinga; in 1023 in Kathiawar; but in no

case did he make good his foothold on the country. His expeditions

were raids and nothing more. Other invasions, however, followed in

quick succession, and after the lapse of two centuries the Muhammadans

were firmly and permanently established at Delhi. War followed war,

and from that period Northern India knew no rest. At the end of the

thirteenth century the Muhammadans began to press southwards into

the Dakhan. In 1293 Ala-ud-din Khilji, nephew of the king of Delhi,

captured Devagiri. Four years later Gujarat was attacked. In 1303

the reduction of Warangal was attempted. In 1306 there was a fresh

expedition to Devagiri. In 1309 Malik Kafur, the celebrated general,

with an immense force swept into the Dakhan and captured Warangal. The

old capital of the Hoysala Ballalas at Dvarasamudra was taken in

1310, and Malik Kafur went to the Malabar coast where he erected a

mosque, and afterwards returned to his master with enormous booty.[6]

Fresh fighting took place in 1312. Six years later Mubarak of Delhi

marched to Devagiri and inhumanly flayed alive its unfortunate prince,

Haripala Deva, setting up his head at the gate of his own city. In

1323 Warangal fell.

Thus the period at which our history opens, about the year 1330, found

the whole of Northern India down to the Vindhya mountains firmly

under Moslem rule, while the followers of that faith had overrun

the Dakhan and were threatening the south with the same fate. South

of the Krishna the whole country was still under Hindu domination,

but the supremacy of the old dynasties was shaken to its base by the

rapidly advancing terror from the north. With the accession in 1325 of

Muhammad Taghlaq of Delhi things became worse still. Marvellous stories

of his extraordinary proceedings circulated amongst the inhabitants

of the Peninsula, and there seemed to be no bound to his intolerance,

ambition, and ferocity.

Everything, therefore, seemed to be leading up to but one

inevitable end -- the ruin and devastation of the Hindu provinces;

the annihilation of their old royal houses, the destruction of their

religion, their temples, their cities. All that the dwellers in the

south held most dear seemed tottering to its fall.

Suddenly, about the year 1344 A.D., there was a check to this wave

of foreign invasion -- a stop -- a halt -- then a solid wall of

opposition; and for 250 years Southern India was saved.

The check was caused by a combination of small Hindu states -- two

of them already defeated, Warangal and Dvarasamudra -- defeated,

and therefore in all probability not over-confident; the third, the

tiny principality of Anegundi. The solid wall consisted of Anegundi

grown into the great empire of the Vijayanagar. To the kings of this

house all the nations of the south submitted.

If a straight line be drawn on the map of India from Bombay to Madras,

about half-way across will be found the River Tungabhadra, which,

itself a combination of two streams running northwards from Maisur,

flows in a wide circuit north and east to join the Krishna not far from

Kurnool. In the middle of its course the Tungabhadra cuts through a

wild rocky country lying about forty miles north-west of Bellary, and

north of the railway line which runs from that place to Dharwar. At

this point, on the north bank of the river, there existed about the

year 1330 a fortified town called Anegundi, the "Nagundym" of our

chronicles, which was the residence of a family of chiefs owning a

small state in the neighbourhood. They had, in former years, taken

advantage of the lofty hills of granite which cover that tract to

construct a strong citadel having its base on the stream. Fordable at

no point within many miles the river was full of running water at all

seasons of the year, and in flood times formed in its confined bed a

turbulent rushing torrent with dangerous falls in several places. Of

the Anegundi chiefs we know little, but they were probably feudatories

of the Hoysala Ballalas. Firishtah declares that they had existed as

a ruling family for seven hundred years prior to the year 1350 A.D.[7]

The chronicle of Nuniz gives a definite account of how the sovereigns

of Vijayanagar first began to acquire the power which afterwards became

so extensive. This account may or may not be accurate in all details,

but it at least tallies fairly with the epigraphical and other records

of the time. According to him, Muhammad Taghlaq of Delhi, having

reduced Gujarat, marched southwards through the Dakhan Balaghat, or

high lands above the western ghats, and a little previous to the year

1336[8] seized the town and fortress of Anegundi. Its chief was slain,

with all the members of his family. After a futile attempt to govern

this territory by means of a deputy, Muhammad raised to the dignity of

chief of the state its late minister, a man whom Nuniz calls "Deorao,"

for "Deva Raya." or Harihara Deva I. The new chief founded the city

of Vijayanagar on the south bank of the river opposite Anegundi and

made his residence there, with the aid of the great religious teacher

Madhava, wisely holding that to place the river between him and the

ever-marauding Moslems was to establish himself and his people in

a condition of greater security than before. He was succeeded by

"one called Bucarao" (Bukka), who reigned thirty-seven years, and

the next king was the latter's son, "Pureoyre Deo" (Harihara Deva II.).

We know from other sources that part at least of this story is

correct. Harihara I. and Bukka were the first two kings and were

brothers, while the third king, Harihara II., was certainly the son

of Bukka.

The success of the early kings was phenomenal. Ibn Batuta, who was

in India from 1333 to 1342, states that even in his day a Muhammadan

chief on the western coast was subject to Harihara I., whom he calls

"Haraib" or "Harib," from "Hariyappa" another form of the king's

name; while a hundred years later Abdur Razzak, envoy from Persia,

tells us that the king of Vijayanagar was then lord of all Southern

India, from sea to sea and from the Dakhan to Cape Comorin --

"from the frontier of Serendib (Ceylon) to the extremities of the

country of Kalbergah ... His troops amount in number to eleven lak,"

I.E. 1,100,000. Even so early as 1378 A.D., according to Firishtah,[9]

the Raya of Vijayanagar was "in power, wealth, and extent of country"

greatly the superior of the Bahmani king of the Dakhan.

The old southern states appear (we have little history to guide

us) to have in general submitted peaceably to the rule of the new

monarchy. They were perhaps glad to submit if only the dreaded

foreigners could be kept out of the country. And thus by leaps

and bounds the petty state grew to be a kingdom, and the kingdom

expanded till it became an empire. Civil war and rebellion amongst

the Muhammadans helped Harihara and Bukka in their enterprise. Sick

of the tyranny and excesses of Muhammad Taghlaq, the Dakhan revolted

in 1347, and the independent kingdom of the Bahmanis was for a time

firmly established.

The chronicle of Nuniz opens with the following sentence: --

"In the year twelve hundred and thirty these parts of India were

ruled by a greater monarch than had ever reigned. This was the king

of Dili,[10] who by force of arms and soldiers made war on Cambaya for

many years, taking and destroying in that period the land of Guzarate

which belongs to Cambaya,[11] and in the end he became its lord."

After this the king of Delhi advanced against Vijayanagar by way of

the Balaghat.

This date is a century too early, as already pointed out. The sovereign

referred to is stated in the following note (entered by Nuniz at

the end of Chapter xx., which closes the historical portion of his

narrative) to have been called "Togao Mamede."

"This king of Delhi they say was a Moor, who was called Togao

Mamede. He is held among the Hindus as a saint. They relate that once

while he was offering prayer to God, there came to him four arms with

four hands; and that every time he prayed roses fell to him from out

of heaven. He was a great conqueror, he held a large part of this

earth under his dominion, he subdued ... (blank in original) kings,

and slew them, and flayed them, and brought their skins with him; so

that besides his own name, he received the nickname ... which means

'lord of ... skins of kings;' he was chief of many people.

"There is a story telling how he fell into a passion on account of

(BEING GIVEN?) eighteen letters (OF THE ALPHABET TO HIS NAME?), when

according to his own reckoning he was entitled to twenty-four.[12]

There are tales of him which do indeed seem most marvellous of the

things that he did; as, for instance, how he made ready an army because

one day in the morning, while standing dressing at a window which was

closed, a ray of the sun came into his eyes, and he cried out that he

would not rest until he had killed or vanquished whomsoever had dared

to enter his apartments while he was dressing. All his nobles could

not dissuade him from his purpose, even though they told him it was

the sun that had done it, a thing without which they could not live,

that it was a celestial thing and was located in the sky, and that he

could never do any harm to it. With all this he made his forces ready,

saying that he must go in search of his enemy, and as he was going

along with large forces raised in the country through which he began

his march so much dust arose that it obscured the sun. When he lost

sight of it he made fresh inquiries as to what the thing was, and

the captains told him that there was now no reason for him to wait,

and that he might return home since he had put to flight him whom he

had come to seek. Content with this, the king returned by the road

that he had taken in his search for the sun, saying that since his

enemy had fled he was satisfied.

"Other extravagances are told of him which make him out a great lord,

as, for instance, that being in the Charamaodel country he was told

that certain leagues distant in the sea there was a very great island,

and its land was gold, and the stones of its houses and those which

were produced in the ground were rubies and diamonds: in which

island there was a pagoda, whither came the angels from heaven to

play music and dance. Being covetous of being the lord of this land,

he determined to go there, but not in ships because he had not enough

for so many people, so he began to cart a great quantity of stones

and earth and to throw it into the sea in order to fill it up, so

that he might reach the island; and putting this in hand with great

labour he did so much that he crossed over to the island of Ceyllao,

which is twelve or fifteen leagues off[13], This causeway that he

made was, it is said, in course of time eaten away by the sea, and

its remains now cause the shoals of Chillao. Melliquiniby,[14] his

captain-general, seeing how much labour was being spent in a thing so

impossible, made ready two ships in a port of Charamaodell which he

loaded with much gold and precious stones, and forged some despatches

as of an embassy sent in the name of the king of the island, in which

he professed his obedience and sent presents; and after this the king

did not proceed any further with his causeway.

"In memory of this work he made a very large pagoda, which is still

there; it is a great place of pilgrimage.

"There are two thousand of these and similar stories with which I

hope at some time to trouble your honour; and with other better ones,

if God gives me life. I kiss your honour's hand."[15]

To conclusively establish the fact that this account can only refer

to Muhammad Taghlaq of Delhi, who reigned from 1325 to 1351, it is

necessary that we should look into the known character of that monarch

and the events of his reign.

Nuniz states that his "Togao Mamede" conquered Gujarat, was at war

with Bengal, and had trouble with the Turkomans on the borders of

Sheik Ismail, I.E. Persia.[16] To take these in reverse order. Early

in the reign of Muhammad Taghlaq vast hordes of Moghuls invaded

the Panjab and advanced almost unopposed to Delhi, where the king

bought them off by payment of immense sums of money. Next as to

Bengal. Prior to his reign that province had been subdued, had given

trouble, and had again been reduced. In his reign it was crushed

under the iron hand of a viceroy from Delhi, Ghiyas-ud-din Bahadur

"Bura," who before long attempted to render himself independent. He

styled himself Bahadur Shah, and issued his own coinage. In 1327

(A.H. 728) the legends on his coins acknowledge the overlordship of

Delhi, but two years later they describe him as independent king of

Bengal.[17] In 1333 Muhammad issued his own coinage for Bengal and

proceeded against the rebel. He defeated him, captured him, flayed

him alive, and causing his skin to be stuffed with straw ordered it

to be paraded through the provinces of the empire as a warning to

ambitious governors. With reference to Gujarat, Nuniz has been led

into a slight error. Muhammad Taghlaq certainly did go there, but

only in 1347. What he did do was to conquer the Dakhan. Firishtah

mentions among his conquests Dvarasamudra, Malabar, Anegundi (under

the name "Kampila," for a reason that will presently be explained),

Warangal, &c, and these places "were as effectually incorporated

with his empire as the villages in the vicinity of Delhi."[18]

He also held Gujarat firmly. If, therefore, we venture to correct

Nuniz in this respect, and say that "Togao Mamede" made war on the

"Dakhan" instead of on "Gujarat," and then advanced against Anegundi

(wrongly called "Vijayanagar," which place was not as yet founded)

we shall probably be not far from the truth. The history of "Togao

Mamede" so far is the history of Muhammad Taghlaq.

Then as to the extraordinary stories told of him. True or not, they

apply to that sovereign. Muhammad is described by contemporary writers

as having been one of the wonders of the age. He was very liberal,

especially to those learned in the arts. He established hospitals

for the sick and alm-houses for widows and orphans. He was the most

eloquent and accomplished prince of his time. He was skilled in many

sciences, such as physic, logic, astronomy, and mathematics. He

studied the philosophies and metaphysics of Greece, and was very

strict in religious observances.

"But," continues Firishtah, from whom the above summary is taken,

"with all these admirable qualities he was wholly devoid of mercy

or consideration for his people. The punishments he inflicted were

not only rigid and cruel, but frequently unjust. So little did he

hesitate to spill the blood of God's creatures that when anything

occurred which excited him to proceed to that horrid extremity, one

might have supposed his object was to exterminate the human species

altogether. No single week passed without his having put to death

one or more of the learned and holy men who surrounded him, or some

of the secretaries who attended him."

The slightest opposition to his will drove him into almost insane

fury, and in these fits he allowed his natural ferocity full play. His

whole life was spent in visionary schemes pursued by means equally

irrational. He began by distributing enormous sums of money amongst

his nobles, spending, so it is said, in one day as much as [pound

sterling]500,000. He bought off the invading Moghuls by immense

payments instead of repelling them by force of arms. Shortly after

this he raised a huge army for the conquest of Persia, his cavalry,

according to Firishtah, numbering 370,000 men. But nothing came

of it except that the troops, not receiving their pay, dispersed

and pillaged the country. Then he decided to try and conquer China

and sent 100,000 men into the Himalayas, where almost all of them

miserably perished; and when the survivors returned in despair the king

put them all to death. He tried to introduce a depreciated currency

into his territories as a means to wealth, issuing copper tokens for

gold, which resulted in entire loss of credit and a standstill of

trade. This failing to fill the treasury he next destroyed agriculture

by intolerable exactions; the husbandmen abandoned their fields and

took to robbery as a trade, and whole tracts became depopulated,

the survivors living in the utmost starvation and misery and being

despoiled of all that they possessed. Muhammad exterminated whole

tribes as if they had been vermin. Incensed at the refusal of

the inhabitants of a certain harassed tract to pay the inordinate

demands of his subordinates, he ordered out his army as if for a hunt,

surrounded an extensive tract of country, closed the circle towards

the centre, and slaughtered every living soul found therein. This

amusement was repeated more than once, and on a subsequent occasion

he ordered a general massacre of all the inhabitants of the old

Hindu city of Kanauj.[19] These horrors led of course to famine,

and the miseries of the Hindus exceeded all power of description. On

his return from Devagiri on one occasion he caused a tooth which he

had lost to be interred in a magnificent stone mausoleum, which is

still in existence at Bhir.

But perhaps the best known of his inhuman eccentricities was his

treatment of the inhabitants of the great city of Delhi. Muhammad

determined to transfer his capital thence to Devagiri, whose name he

changed to Doulatabad. The two places are six hundred miles apart. The

king gave a general order to every inhabitant of Delhi to proceed

forthwith to Devagiri, and prior to the issue of this order he had

the entire road lined with full-grown trees, transplanted for the

purpose. The unfortunate people were compelled to obey, and thousands

-- including women, children, and aged persons -- died by the way. Ibn

Batuta, who was an eye-witness of the scenes of horror to which this

gave rise, has left us the following description: --

"The Sultan ordered all the inhabitants to quit the place (Delhi),

and upon some delay being evinced he made a proclamation stating that

what person soever, being an inhabitant of that city, should be found

in any of its houses or streets should receive condign punishment. Upon

this they all went out; but his servants finding a blind man in one

of the houses and a bedridden one in the other, the Emperor commanded

the bedridden man to be projected from a balista, and the blind one to

be dragged by his feet to Daulatabad, which is at the distance of ten

days, and he was so dragged; but his limbs dropping off by the way,

only one of his legs was brought to the place intended, and was then

thrown into it; for the order had been that they should go to this

place. When I entered Delhi it was almost a desert."[20]

It is characteristic of Muhammad's whimsical despotism that shortly

afterwards he ordered the inhabitants of different districts to

go and repeople Delhi, which they attempted to do, but with little

success. Batuta relates that during the interval of desolation the

king mounted on the roof of his palace, and seeing the city empty

and without fire or smoke said, "Now my heart is satisfied and my

feelings are appeased."

Ibn Batuta was a member of this king's court, and had every opportunity

of forming a just conclusion. He sums up his qualities thus: --

"Muhammad more than all men loves to bestow gifts and to shed

blood. At his gate one sees always some fakir who has become rich, or

some living being who is put to death. His traits of generosity and

valour, and his examples of cruelty and violence towards criminals,

have obtained celebrity among the people. But apart from this he is

the most humble of men and the one who displays the most equity;

the ceremonies of religion are observed at his court; he is very

severe in all that concerns prayer and the punishment that follows

omission of it ... his dominating quality is generosity.... It rarely

happened that the corpse of some one who had been killed was not to

be seen at the gate of his palace. I have often seen men killed and

their bodies left there. One day I went to his palace and my horse

shied. I looked before me and I saw a white heap on the ground, and

when I asked what it was one of my companions said it was the trunk

of a man cut into three pieces.... Every day hundreds of individuals

were brought chained into his hall of audience, their hands tied

to their necks and their feet bound together. Some were killed,

and others were tortured or well beaten."[21]

A man of these seemingly opposite qualities, charity, generosity, and

religious fervour linked to unbridled lust for blood and an apparently

overmastering desire to take life, possesses a character so bizarre,

so totally opposed to Hindu ideals, that he would almost of necessity

be accounted as something superhuman, monstrous, a saint with the heart

of a devil, or a fiend with the soul of a saint. Hence Muhammad in the

course of years gathered round his memory, centuries after his death,

all the quaint tales and curious legends which an Oriental imagination

could devise; and whenever his name is mentioned by the old chroniclers

it is always with some extraordinary story attached to it.

Nuniz, therefore, though accurate in the main, was a century too

early in his opening sentence. His "Togao Mamede" can be none other

than Muhammad Taghlaq.

Henceforward this will be assumed.[22]

CHAPTER 2

Origin of the Empire (A.D. 1316)

Muhammad's capture of Kampli and Anegundi -- Death of his nephew

Baha-ud-din -- Malik Naib made governor of Anegundi -- Disturbances

-- Harihara Deva Raya raised to be king of Anegundi -- Madhavacharya

Vidyaranya -- The city of Vijayanagar founded -- Legends as to the

origin of the new kingdom.

The city of Vijayanagar is, as already stated, generally supposed to

have been founded in the year 1336, and that that date is not far from

the truth may be gathered from two facts. Firstly, there is extant

an inscription of the earliest real king, Harihara I. or Hariyappa,

the "Haraib" of Ibn Batuta,[23] dated in A.D. 1340. Secondly, the

account given by that writer of a raid southwards by Muhammad Taghlaq

tallies at almost all points with the story given at the beginning

of the Chronicle of Nuniz, and this raid took place in 1334.[24]

For if a comparison is made between the narrative of Batuta and the

traditional account given by Nuniz as to the events that preceded and

led to the foundation of Vijayanagar, little doubt will remain in the

mind that both relate to the same event. According to Ibn Batuta,[25]

Sultan Muhammad marched southwards against his rebel nephew,

Baha-ud-din Gushtasp, who had fled to the protection of the "Rai of

Kambila," or "Kampila" as Firishtah calls the place, in his stronghold

amongst the mountains. The title "Rai" unmistakably points to the

Kanarese country, where the form "Raya" is used for "Rajah;" while in

"Kambila" or "Kampila" we recognise the old town of Kampli, a fortified

place about eight miles east of Anegundi, which was the citadel of the

predecessors of the kings of Vijayanagar. Though not itself actually

"amongst the mountains," Kampli is backed by the mass of rocky hills

in the centre of which the great city was afterwards situated. It is

highly natural to suppose that the "Rai," when attacked by the Sultan,

would have quitted Kampli and taken refuge in the fortified heights

of Anegundi, where he could defend himself with far greater chance

of success than at the former place; and this would account for the

difference in the names given by the two chroniclers. Ibn Batuta goes

on to say that the Raya sent his guest safely away to a neighbouring

chief, probably the Hoysala Ballala, king of Dvarasamudra in Maisur,

then residing at Tanur. He caused a huge fire to be lit on which

his wives and the wives of his nobles, ministers, and principal

men immolated themselves, and this done he sallied forth with his

followers to meet the invaders, and was slain. The town was taken,

"and eleven sons of the Rai were made prisoners and carried to the

Sultan, who made them all Mussalmans." After the fall of the place

the Sultan "treated the king's sons with great honour, as much for

their illustrious birth as for his admiration of the conduct of their

father;" and Batuta adds that he himself became intimately acquainted

with one of these -- "we were companions and friends."

There are only two substantial points of difference between this

story and the traditional Hindu account given by Nuniz. One of these

concerns the reason for the Sultan's attack. According to the Hindus

it was a war undertaken from pure greed of conquest; according to

Muhammadan story it was a campaign against a rebel. The second is

that while the Hindus declare that none of the blood royal escaped,

Batuta distinctly mentions the survival of eleven sons, and proves his

point incontestably. But this does not vitiate the general resemblance

of the two accounts, while the synchronism of the dates renders it

impossible to believe that they can refer to two separate events. We

may suppose that since the eleven sons became followers of Islam they

were for ever blotted out of account to the orthodox Hindu.

After the capture of the fortress the Sultan, according to Ibn Batuta,

pursued Baha-ud-din southwards and arrived near the city of the prince

with whom he had taken refuge. The chief abandoned his guest to the

tender mercies of the tyrant, by whom he was condemned to a death of

fiendish barbarity.

"The Sultan ordered the prisoner to be taken to the women his

relations, and these insulted him and spat upon him. Then he ordered

him to be skinned alive, and as his skin was torn off his flesh was

cooked with rice. Some was sent to his children and his wife, and the

remainder was put into a great dish and given to the elephants to eat,

but they would not touch it. The Sultan ordered his skin to be stuffed

with straw, to be placed along with the remains of Bahadur Bura,[26]

and to be exhibited through the country."

To continue briefly the story given by Nuniz. After the capture

of Anegundi in 1334 the Sultan left Malik Naib (whom Nuniz calls

"Enybiquymelly" in his second chapter, and "Mileque neby," "Meliquy

niby," and "Melinebiquy" in the third) as his local governor, and

retired northwards. The country rose against the usurpers, and after a

time the Sultan restored the principality to the Hindus, but made a new

departure by raising to be Raya the former chief minister Deva Raya,

called "Deorao" or "Dehorao" by Nuniz. He reigned seven years. During

his reign this chief was one day hunting amongst the mountains south of

the river when a hare, instead of fleeing from his dogs, flew at them

and bit them.[27] The king, astonished at this marvel, was returning

homewards lost in meditation, when he met on the river-bank the sage

Madhavacharya, surnamed VIDYARANYA or "Forest of Learning," -- for so

we learn from other sources to name the anchorite alluded to -- who

advised the chief to found a city on the spot. "And so the king did,

and on that very day began work on his houses, and he enclosed the

city round about; and that done, he left Nagumdym, and soon filled

the new city with people. And he gave it the name VYDIAJUNA, for so

the hermit called himself who had bidden him construct it."[28]

Thus, in or about the year A.D. 1336, sprung into existence the great

city which afterwards became so magnificent and of such wide-spread

fame.

The chronicle continues by saying that the king constructed in the

city of Vijayanagar a magnificent temple in honour of the sage. This

temple I take to be the great temple near the river, still in use

and known as the temple of Hampi or Hampe, having a small village

clustering about it. On the rocks above it, close to a group of more

modern Jain temples, is to be seen a small shrine built entirely,

roof as well as walls, of stone. Everything about this little relic

proves it to be of greater antiquity than any other structure in the

whole circuit of the hills, but its exact age is doubtful. It looks

like a building of the seventh century A.D. Mr. Rea, superintendent

of the Madras Archaeological Survey, in an article published in the

MADRAS CHRISTIAN COLLEGE MAGAZINE for December 1886, points out that

the fact of mortar having been used in its construction throws a doubt

upon its being as old as its type of architecture would otherwise

make it appear. It is quite possible, however, that the shrine may

have been used by a succession of recluses, the last of whom was the

great teacher Madhava. If we stand on that rock and imagine all the

great ruins of the city visible from thence, the palaces and temples,

the statues and towers and walls, to be swept out of existence, we

have around us nothing but Nature in one of her wildest moods -- lofty

hills near and far, formed almost entirely of huge tumbled boulders

of granite, but with trees and grass on all the low ground. It was a

lonely spot, separated by the river from the mere inhabited country

on the farther side, where dwelt the chiefs of Anegundi, and was

just such as would have been chosen for their abode by the ascetics

of former days, who loved to dwell in solitude and isolation amid

scenes of grandeur and beauty.

We shall, however, in all probability never know whether this hermit,

whose actual existence at the time is attested by every tradition

regarding the origin of Vijayanagar, was really the great Madhava or

another less celebrated sage, on whom by a confusion of ideas his

name has been foisted. Some say that Madhavacharya lived entirely

at Sringeri.

There are a number of other traditions relating to the birth of the

city and empire of Vijayanagar.

One has it that two brothers named Bukka and Harihara, who had been

in the service of the king of Warangal at the time of the destruction

of that kingdom by the Muhammadans in 1323, escaped with a small

body of horse to the hill country about Anegundi, being accompanied

in their flight by the Brahman Madhava or Madhavacharya Vidyaranya,

and by some means not stated became lords of that tract, afterwards

founding the city of Vijayanagar.[29]

Another states that the two brothers were officers in the service of

the Muhammadan governor of Warangal subsequent to its first capture

in 1309. They were despatched against the Hoysala Ballala sovereign

in the expedition under the command of Malik Kafur in 1310, which

resulted in the capture of the Hindu capital, Dvarasamudra; but the

portion of the force to which the brothers belonged suffered a defeat,

and they fled to the mountainous tract near Anegundi. Here they met

the holy Madhava, who was living the life of a recluse, and by his

aid they established the kingdom and capital city.

A variant of this relates that the two brothers for some reason

fled direct from Warangal to Anegundi. This account redounds more

to their honour as Hindus. Though compelled first to accept service

under their conquerors, their patriotism triumphed in the end, and

they abandoned the flesh pots of Egypt to throw in their luck with

their co-religionists.

A fourth story avers that the hermit Madhava himself founded the city

after the discovery of a hidden treasure, ruled over it himself,

and left it after his death to a Kuruba family who established the

first regular dynasty.

A fifth, mentioned by Couto,[30] who fixes the date as 1220, states

that while Madhava was living his ascetic life amongst the mountains

he was supported by meals brought to him by a poor shepherd called

Bukka, "and one day the Brahman said to him, 'Thou shalt be king and

emperor of all Industan.' The other shepherds learned this, and began

to treat this shepherd with veneration and made him their head; and

he acquired the name of 'king,' and began to conquer his neighbours,

who were five in number, viz., Canara, Taligas, Canguivarao, Negapatao,

and he of the Badagas, and he at last became lord of all and called

himself Boca Rao." He was attacked by the king of Delhi, but the

latter was defeated and retired, whereupon Bukka established a city

"and called it Visaja Nagar, which we corruptly call Bisnaga; and we

call all the kingdom by that name, but the natives amongst themselves

always call it the 'kingdom of Canara.' " Couto's narrative seems to

be a mixture of several stories. His wrong date points to his having

partly depended upon the original chronicle of Nuniz, or the summary

of it published by Barros; while the rest of the tale savours more

of Hindu romance than of historical accuracy. He retains, however,

the tradition of an attack by the king of Delhi and the latter's

subsequent retirement.

Another authority suggests that Bukka and Harihara may have been

feudatories of the Hoysala Ballalas.

Nikitin, the Russian traveller, who was in India in 1474, seems to

favour the view that they belonged to the old royal house of the

Kadambas of Banavasi, since he speaks of "the Hindoo Sultan Kadam,"

who resided at "Bichenegher."[31]

Here we have a whole bundle of tales and traditions to account for

the origin of the great kingdom, and can take our choice. There are

many others also. Perhaps the most reasonable account would be one

culled from the general drift of the Hindu legends combined with the

certainties of historical fact; and from this point of view we may

for the present suppose that two brothers, Hindus of the Kuruba caste,

who were men of strong religious feeling, serving in the treasury of

the king of Warangal, fled from that place on its sack and destruction

in 1323 and took service under the petty Rajah of Anegundi. Both they

and their chiefs were filled with horror and disgust at the conduct of

the marauding Moslems, and pledged themselves to the cause of their

country and their religion. The brothers rose to be minister and

treasurer respectively at Anegundi. In 1334 the chief gave shelter

to Baha-ud-din, nephew of Muhammad of Delhi, and was attacked by the

Sultan. Anegundi fell, as narrated by Batuta, and the Sultan retired,

leaving Mallik as his deputy to rule the state. Mallik found the

people too strong for him, and eventually the Sultan restored the

country to the Hindus, raising to be rajah and minister respectively

the two brothers who had formerly been minister and treasurer. These

were Harihara I. ("Hukka") and Bukka I.

The First Vijayanagar Dynasty

[The following shows the pedigree of this dynasty as given in the

EPIGRAPHIA INDICA (iii. p. 36). Inscriptions not yet satisfactorily

examined will probably add to the information given.]

CHAPTER 3

The First Kings (A.D. 1336 to 1379)

Rapid acquisition of territory -- Reign of Harihara I. -- Check to

Muhammadan aggression -- Reign of Bukka I. -- Kampa and Sangama? --

The Bahmani kingdom established, 1347 -- Death of Nagadeva of Warangal

-- Vijayanagar's first great war -- Massacres by Muhammad Bahmani --

Battle at Adoni, 1366 -- Flight of Bukka -- Mujahid's war, 1375 --

He visits the Malabar coast -- Siege of Vijayanagar -- Extension of

territory -- Death of Mujahid, 1378.

The city of Vijayanagar, thus founded about the year 1335, speedily

grew in importance and became the refuge of the outcasts, refugees,

and fighting men of the Hindus, beaten and driven out of their old

strongholds by the advancing Muhammadans.

The first rulers of Vijayanagar, however, did not dare to call

themselves kings, nor did even the Brahmans do so who composed the text

of their early inscriptions. It is for this reason that I have spoken

of Harihara I. and Bukka I. as "Chiefs." The inscription referred to of

Harihara in 1340 calls him "Hariyappa VODEYA," the former name being

less honourable than "Harihara," and the latter definitely entitling

him to rank only as a chieftain. Moreover, the Sanskrit title given

him is MAHAMANDALESVARA, which may be translated "great lord" --

not king. And the same is the case with his successor, Bukka, in

two inscriptions,[32] one of which is dated in 1353. Already in 1340

Harihara is said to have been possessed of very large territories,

and he was the acknowledged overlord of villages as far north as the

Kaladgi district, north of the Malprabha, a country that had been

overrun by Muhammad Taghlaq. That this was not a mere empty boast

is shown by the fact that a fort was built in that year at Badami by

permission of Harihara.

And thus we see the first chief of Vijayanagar quietly, and perhaps

peacefully, acquiring great influence and extensive possessions. These

so rapidly increased that Bukka's successor, Harihara II., styles

himself RAJADHIRAJA, "king of kings," or emperor.

But to revert to the first king Harihara, or, as Nuniz calls him,

"Dehorao," for DEVA RAYA. He reigned, according to our chronicle,

seven years, "and did nothing therein but pacify the kingdom, which

he left in complete tranquillity." His death, if this be so, would

have taken place about the year 1343. Nuniz relates that he founded

a temple in honour of the Brahman hermit, his protector. This was

the great temple at Hampe close to the river, which is still in full

preservation and is the only one among the massive shrines erected

at the capital in which worship is still carried on; the others were

remorselessly wrecked and destroyed by the Muhammadans in 1565. As

already stated, the traveller Ibn Batuta refers to this king under

the name of "Haraib" or "Harib" in or about the year 1342. If the

traditions collated by Nuniz, according to which Harihara I. lived at

peace during the seven years of his reign, be true, his death must

have occurred before 1344, because in that year, as we learn from

other sources, Krishna, son of Pratapa Rudra of Warangal, took refuge

at Vijayanagar, and, in concert with its king and with the surviving

Ballala princes of Dvarasamudra, drove back the Muhammadans, rescued

for a time part of the Southern Dakhan country, and prepared the way

for the overthrow of the sovereignty of Delhi south of the Vindhyas. I

take it, therefore, that Harihara died in or about the year A.D. 1343.

As to his having reigned quietly, I know of only one statement to the

contrary. An inscription of Samgama II. recording a grant in 1356,

and referred to below, states that Harihara I. "defeated the Sultan;"

but perhaps this only alludes to the fact that Muhammad Taghlaq had

to abandon his hold on the country.

The next king was Harihara's brother, Bukka I. ("Bucarao"),

and according to Nuniz he reigned thirty-seven years, conquering

in that time all the kingdoms of the south, even including Orissa

(Orya). Without laying too much stress on conquests by force of arms,

it seems certain that most if not all Southern India submitted to

his rule, probably only too anxious to secure a continuance of Hindu

domination in preference to the despotism of the hated followers of

Islam.[33] According to the chronicle, therefore, the death of Bukka

I., as we must call him, took place about the year A.D. 1380. As to

inscriptions of his reign, Dr. Hultzsch[34] mentions that they cover

the period from about 1354 to 1371, while the first inscription

of his successor, Harihara II., is dated in 1379.[35] If, then,

we assume that Bukka I. reigned till 1379, we find the chronicle

so far accurate that Bukka I. did in fact reign thirty-six years,

though not thirty-seven -- A.D. 1343 to 1379.

But meanwhile we have another story from an inscription on

copper-plates which is to be seen preserved in the Collector's office

at Nellore.[36] It has been carefully edited by Mr. H. Krishna

Sastri. According to this it would appear that Bukka I., who

undoubtedly was a man of war, usurped the throne. It asserts that

the father of Harihara I., who was named Samgama, had five sons. The

eldest was Harihara himself, the second Kampa, and the third Bukka. We

want to know who succeeded Harihara. There is extant an inscription

of Bukka dated in 1354, and there is this Nellore inscription dated in

1356. The latter comes from a far-off country near the eastern coast,

and it relates that Kampa succeeded Harihara, and that Samgama II.,

son of Kampa, succeeded his father, and granted a village in the

Nellore district to the Brahmans on a date which corresponds to May

3, A.D. 1356. It implies that Samgama had succeeded his father Kampa

exactly a year previous to the grant. Thus it claims that Kampa was

king from 1343 to 1355. We know nothing more of this, and there is

only one other document at present known to exist which was executed

in the reign either of Kampa or of Samgama This is alluded to by

Mr. Krishna Sastri, who refers us to the colophon of the MADHAVIYA

DHATUVRITTI, according to which its author, Sayanacharya, uterine

brother of the great Madhavacharya, was minister to king Samgama,

son of Kampa. The only possible inference is that the succession to

Harihara was disputed, and that somehow Bukka got the upper hand and

at least as early as 1354 declared himself king, afterwards claiming

to have immediately succeeded Harihara. It will be seen farther on

that in almost every case the kingdom was racked with dissension on

the demise of the sovereign, and that year after year the members of

the reigning family were subjected to violence and murder in order

that one or other of them might establish himself as head of the State.

On the assumption, therefore, that the reign of Bukka I. lasted from

1343 to 1379, we turn to Firishtah to learn what were this king's

relations with the followers of Islam, now supreme on the north of

the Krishna.

Just after his accession, as it would appear, occurred the successful

campaign alluded to above, in which a combination of Hindus from

different States drove back the invaders. Here is Firishtah's

account of what took place.[37] He is speaking of the year A.H. 744,

which lasted from May 26, A.D. 1343, to May 15, 1344, and he says

that Krishna Naik, son of Rudra Deva of Warangal, went privately to

Ballala Deva and urged him to join a combination of Hindus with the

view of driving out the Muhammadans from the Dakhan. The Ballala

prince consented, and Krishna Naik promised, when the preparations

were complete, to raise all the Hindus of Telingana and place himself

at their head.

Ballala Deva then built the city of Vijayanagar,[38] raised an army,

and the war began. Warangal, then in the hands of the Muhammadans,

was reduced, and its governor, Imad-ul-Mulkh, retreated to Daulatabad

or Devagiri. The two chiefs then induced other Rajahs of the Malabar

and Kanara countries to join them, and the joint forces seized the

whole of the Dakhan and expelled the Muhammadans there, "so that

within a few months Muhammad Taghlak had no possessions in that

quarter except Daulatabad."

So far the Muhammadan historian. It is necessary to observe that

this success of the Hindus was only temporary, for their enemies

still swarmed in the Dakhan, and immediately after this contest

the Hindus appear to have retired south of the Krishna, leaving the

distracted country a prey to temporary anarchy. This, however, was

of short duration, for though the domination of the Sultan of Delhi

in that tract was completely destroyed, yet three years later, viz,

on Friday the 24th Rabi-al-akhir A.H. 748, according to Firishtah,

a date which corresponds to Friday, August 3, A.D. 1347, Ala-ud-din

Bahmani was crowned sovereign of the Dakhan at Kulbarga, establishing

a new dynasty which lasted for about 140 years.

A few years after this there was a successful invasion of the Carnatic

country by Ala-ud-Din; but though the army returned with some booty

Firishtah does not claim for him a decisive victory. He does, however,

claim that the new Sultan extended his territory as far south as the

river Tungabhadra, "the vicinity of the fortress of Adoni." Ala-ud-din

died at the age of sixty-seven on Sunday, February 2, A.D. 1358,[39]

and was succeeded by Muhammad Shah. The Raya of Vijayanagar had

presented Ala-ud-din with a ruby of inestimable price, and this,

set in a bird of paradise composed of precious stones, the Sultan

placed in the canopy over his throne; but some say that this was done

by Muhammad, and that the ruby was placed above his umbrella of State.

Early in the reign of Muhammad it was discovered that the gold and

silver coins of the Bahrami Sultans were being melted down in large

quantities by the Hindus of Vijayanagar and Warangal, and numbers

of the merchants were put to death. At the same time Bukka I.,

supported by his friend at Warangal, demanded the restoration of

certain territories,[40] and as the Sultan was not ready for war, he

"during a year and a half kept the ambassadors of the Raies at his

court, and sent his own to Beejanugger to amuse his enemies." Finally

he resolved on war, and made extravagant counter-demands on the

Hindus. Bukka joined forces with Warangal, and Muhammad waged war

on the latter state, plundering the country up to the capital, and

retiring only on receipt of a large indemnity. Firishtah does not

relate that any further campaign was at that time initiated, and we

are therefore free to suppose that the Muhammadans were unable to

press their advantage. Warangal was not long left in peace, and it

may be well to glance at its subsequent history before returning to

the events of the reign of Bukka at Vijayanagar.

After an interval, enraged at an insult offered or supposed to have

been offered by the Rajah of Warangal, Muhammad made a rapid advance

to the former's city of "Vellunputtun," as it is spelt by Firishtah,

or "Filampatan," according to the author of the BURHAN-I-MAASIR. He

seized it, slaughtered the inhabitants without mercy, and captured

the unfortunate prince Vinayaka Deva.[41] The Sultan "commanded a

pile of wood to be lighted before the citadel, and putting Nagdeo in

an engine (catapult), had him shot from the walls into the flames,

in which he was consumed." After a few days' rest the Sultan retired,

but was followed and harassed by large bodies of Hindus and completely

routed. Only 1500 men returned to Kulbarga, and the Sultan himself

received a severe wound in his arm.

This was followed by a joint embassy from Bukka of Vijayanagar and

the prince of Warangal to the Sultan of Delhi, in which they offered

to act in conjunction with him should an army be sent southwards

by that monarch in order to regain his lost power in the Dakhan;

"but Feroze Shah, being too much employed with domestic commotions to

assist them, did not attend to their representations." Thus encouraged,

Muhammad assembled fresh forces and despatched them in two divisions

against Warangal and Golkonda. The expedition was successful and the

Rajah submitted, the Sultan receiving Golkonda, an immense treasure,

and a magnificent throne as the price of peace. The throne was set

with precious stones of great value, and being still further enriched

by subsequent sovereigns was at one time valued at four millions

sterling.[42] Warangal finally fell in A.D. 1424, and was annexed

to the Bahmani kingdom, thus bringing the Muhammadans down to the

River Krishna all along its length except in the neighbourhood of

the east coast.

Now for the principal events of Bukka's reign and the affairs of

Vijayanagar. The story deepens in interest from about the year 1365,

and for two centuries we can follow the fortunes of the Hindu kingdom

without much difficulty.

Early in A.D. 1366[43] the Sultan opened his first regular campaign

against Vijayanagar. Originating in an after-dinner jest, it ended

only after such slaughter that Firishtah computes the victims on

the Hindu side alone as numbering no less than half a million. The

story is told us by an eye-witness, one Mullah Daud of Bidar, who

was seal-bearer to Sultan Muhammad.[44]

"One evening, when the spring of the garden of mirth had infused

the cheek of Mahummud Shaw with the rosy tinge of delight, a band

of musicians sung two verses of Ameer Khoossroo in praise of kings,

festivity, and music. The Sultan was delighted beyond measure,

and commanded Mallek Syef ad Dien Ghoree to give the three hundred

performers a draft for a gratuity on the treasury of the roy of

Beejanuggur. The minister, though he judged the order the effect of

wine, in compliance with the humour of the Sultan wrote it, but did

not despatch it. However, Mahummud Shaw penetrated his thoughts. The

next day he inquired if the draft had been sent to the roy, and

being answered, not, exclaimed, 'Think you a word without meaning

could escape my lips? I did not give the order in intoxication, but

serious design.' Mallek Syef ad Dien upon this, affixed the royal

seal to the draft, and despatched it by express messenger to the

roy of Beejanuggur. The roy, haughty and proud of his independence,

placed the presenter of the draft on an ass's back, and, parading him

through all the quarters of Beejanuggur, sent him back with every

mark of contempt and derision. He also gave immediate orders for

assembling his troops, and prepared to attack the dominions of the

house of Bhamenee. With this intent he marched with thirty thousand

horse, three thousand elephants, and one hundred thousand foot to

the vicinity of the fortress of Oodnee;[45] from whence he sent

detachments to destroy and lay waste the country of the faithful."

The Raya, in spite of the season being that of the rains, pressed

forward to Mudkal, an important city in the Raichur Doab, or the

large triangle of country lying west of the junction of the Krishna

and Tungabhadra rivers, a territory which was ever a debatable ground

between the Hindus and Mussulmans, and the scene of constant warfare

for the next 200 years. Mudkal was captured, and all the inhabitants,

men, women, and children, put to the sword. One man only escaped and

carried the news to Kulbarga.

"Mahummud Shaw, on hearing it, was seized with a transport of grief

and rage, in which he commanded the unfortunate messenger to be

instantly put to death; exclaiming that he could never bear in his

presence a wretch who could survive the sight of the slaughter of so

many brave companions."

The same day -- I.E. on a day in A.H. 767, in the month of

Jamad-ul-awwal, which lasted from January to February 13, A.D. 1366 --

the Sultan marched southwards taking a solemn oath --

"that till he should have put to death one hundred thousand infidels,

as an expiation for the massacre of the faithful, he would never

sheathe the sword of holy war nor refrain from slaughter. When he

reached the banks of the Kistna, he swore by the power who had created

and exalted him to dominion, that eating or sleep should be unlawful

for him till he had crossed that river in face of the enemy, by the

blessing of heaven routed their army, and gladdened the souls of the

martyrs of Mudkul with the blood of their murderers. He then appointed

his son Mujahid Shaw to succeed him, and Mallek Syef ad Dien regent

of his kingdom. He resigned all his elephants, except twenty, to the

prince, gave him his advice, and sent him back to Kulbarga. He then

crossed the river with nine thousand chosen horse without delay. The

roy of Beejanuggur, notwithstanding his vast army, was so alarmed[46]

that he sent off all his treasure, valuable baggage, and elephants

towards his capital, intending to engage the next morning, or retreat,

as he should find it adviseable. The night being stormy and heavy rain

falling, the elephants and other beasts of burden stuck frequently

in the mud,[47] and were not able to advance above four miles from

the camp. Mahummud Shaw heard of the enemy's movement during the

night, and immediately marched towards them, leaving his encampment

standing. Towards the dawn he arrived at the roy's camp, and the alarm

being given, so great was the confusion, that the infidels fled with

the utmost precipitation towards the fortress of Oodnee, leaving

everything behind them. Mahummud Shaw entered the camp of their

market and baggage, putting all to death without any distinction;

and it is said that the slaughter amounted to seventy thousand men,

women, and children."

Muhammad passed the hot weather and the season of the early rains that

year near Mudkal, and after being reinforced marched against Adoni --

"in the plains of which, on the banks of the Tummedra (Tungabhadra),

the roy of Beejanuggur had taken up his station in his own territories,

having given the command of Oodnee to his sister's son. Here he had

collected a great army, and brought elephants and all the splendid

insignia of empire from Beejanuggur."[48]

The Sultan had with him a train of artillery[49] and in a short time

crossed the Tungabhadra, "and entered the domains of Beejanuggur,

which were now for the first time invaded by a Muhammadan sovereign

in person." This remark of Firishtah's is historically correct, for

the Delhi Sultan's attack on Anegundi took place on the north bank

of that river.

Before continuing the story I must note that Firishtah calls the king

of Vijayanagar "Kishen Roy," otherwise Krishna Raya; but there can

be no doubt that his real name was Bukka. The historian collected

his information more than two hundred years after these events,

and often misnamed the Hindu kings of whom he writes.

Muhammad, then, crossed the Tungabhadra, and only about twenty-five

miles intervened between him and the great fortress of Adoni, which is

situated on a precipitous range of hills about that distance from the

river. The Tungabhadra at this portion of its course may be considered

as forming the arc, west to north, of a quarter circle having Adoni for

its centre, the radius roughly measuring about twenty-five miles. The

river is fordable at most seasons of the year, lying as it does in a

shallow rocky bed with low banks. It is difficult to locate with any

certainty the scenes of this campaign, but I gather generally that,

finding the Muhammadans aiming at the reduction of Adoni, Bukka marched

out with a very large force to intercept this move, and placed himself

on the south bank of the Tungabhadra, In the neighbourhood of the

threatened fortress. The Sultan crossed somewhere near the present town

of Siruguppa, and the great battle that ensued took place in the open

cotton-plains, perhaps near Kavutal ("Kowtall" on the Ordnance Map).

Here is Firishtah's account:[50] --

"Roy Kishen Roy (I.E. Bukka), on receiving the intelligence (that

Muhammad had crossed), called together all the first nobles of his

court, and consulted on the best mode of opposing the mussulmauns. It

was agreed that Hoje Mul,[51] a maternal relation to the roy and

commander of his armies, should have the conduct of the war. Hoje Mul,

vain to excess, on receiving his command, asked the roy if he should

bring the prince of the mussulmauns alive a prisoner into his presence,

or present him only his head upon a spear. Kishen Roy replied, that

a living enemy, in any situation, was not agreeable, therefore he

had better put him to death as soon as he should take him. Hoje Mul,

having received his dismission marched to oppose Mahummud Shaw with

forty thousand horse and five hundred thousand foot. He commanded

the Bramins to deliver every day to the troops discourses on the

meritoriousness of slaughtering the mahummedans, in order to excite

zeal for expelling them. He ordered them to describe the butchery of

cows,[52] the insults to sacred images, and destroying of temples,

practised by the true believers.

"Mahummud Shaw, when the enemy arrived within fifteen coss[53] of his

camp, commanded his general, Khan Mahummud, to muster the troops, who

were found to be fifteen thousand horse and fifty thousand foot. Ten

thousand horse and thirty thousand foot, with all the artillery,

he advanced under Khan Mahummud Khan.

"On the 14th of Zeekaud (A.H. 767, or Thursday, July 23, A.D. 1366),

the armies of light and darkness met. From the dawn till four

in the afternoon, like the waves of the ocean, they continued in

warm conflict with each other, and great numbers were slain on both

sides. Mooseh Khan and Eeseh Khan, who commanded the right and left

wings of Khan Mahummud's line, drank the sherbet of martyrdom, and

their troops broke; which misfortune had nearly given a blow to the

army of Islaam. At this instant Mahummud Shaw appeared with three

thousand fresh horse. This restored the spirits of Khan Mahummud as

also of the disordered troops, who rallied and joined him. Mukkrib

Khan, advancing with the artillery, was not wanting in execution,

greatly disordering the enemy's horse and foot. He asked leave to

charge and complete the rout. Khan Mahummud upon this, detached a

number of the nobility to support him, and permitted him to advance;

which he did with such rapidity that the infidels had not time to use

fireworks (I.E. cannon), but cane to short weapons such as swords and

daggers. At this time an elephant, named Sheer Shikar,[54] belonging

to Khan Mahummud, refused the guidance of his driver, and rushed into

the center of the enemy's line, where he was stopped by the elephants

of Hoje Mul Roy, and his driver was killed. Khan Mahummud with five

hundred horse followed, and the elephant becoming unruly, turned

upon the enemy, throwing their ranks into confusion. Hoje Mul Roy,

after receiving a mortal wound, fled, and his followers no longer

made resistance. The infidels, seeing their center broke, fled on

all sides. The scymetars of the faithful were not yet sheathed from

slaughter when the royal umbrella appeared. The sultan gave orders

to renew the massacre of the unbelievers. They were executed with

such strictness that pregnant women, and even children at the breast,

did not escape the sword.

"Mahummud Shaw halted a week on the field, and dispatched accounts

of his victory to his own dominions. In performance of his vow

of massacre he next marched towards the camp of Kishen Roy, who,

thinking himself unable to oppose notwithstanding his numerous force,

fled to the woods and mountains for shelter. The sultan followed him

from place to place for three months, putting to death all who came

in his way, without distinction. At length Kishen Roy took the road

of Beejanuggur, his capital. The sultan, pursuing, soon arrived with

his army near the city."

To make a long story short, the Sultan besieged Vijayanagar in vain

for a month, and then retreated across the Tungabhadra, harassed at

every step by masses of the Hindus from the city. He halted at last

in an open plain, and the king also pitched his camp at no great

distance. Muhammad's retreat had been deliberately carried out in

order to draw on his enemy, and cause him by over-confidence to

neglect proper precautions. The ruse was successful. The Muhammadans

made a sudden and unexpected night-attack. Bukka (called, as before,

"Kishen") was off his guard, having indulged in wine and the amusements

provided by a band of dancing-women. The slaughter was terrible, and

the Raya fled to Vijayanagar, ten thousand of his troops being slain;

-- "But this did not satisfy the rage of the sultan, who commanded

the inhabitants of every place round Beejanuggur to be massacred

without mercy."

Then Bukka tried to make peace, but the Sultan refused.

"At this time a favourite remarked to the sultan that he had only

sworn to slaughter one hundred thousand Hindoos, and not totally to

destroy their race The sultan replied that though twice the number

of his vow might have been slain, yet till the roy should submit, and

satisfy the musicians, he would not pardon him or spare the lives of

his subjects. To this the ambassadors, who had full powers, agreed,

and the money was paid at the instant. Mahummud Shaw then said,

'Praise be to God that what I ordered has been performed. I would

not let a light word be recorded of me in the pages of time!' "

The ambassadors then pleaded that no religion ordained that the

innocent, and particularly helpless women and children, should suffer

for the guilty: --

"If Kishen Roy had been faulty, the poor and wretched had not been

partakers in his crimes. Mahummud Shaw replied that the decrees of

providence had so ordered, and that he had no power to alter them."

The ambassadors finally urged that as the two nations were neighbours,

it were surely best to avoid unnecessary cruelty, which would only

embitter their relations with one another; and this argument had

effect.

"Mahummud Shaw was struck by their remarks, and took an oath that

he would not in future put to death a single enemy after victory,

and would bind his successors to observe the same lenity."

For some years, no doubt, the promise was fulfilled, but we read of

wholesale massacres perpetrated by sovereigns of later date. As to

Muhammad, Firishtah glories in the statement that he had slaughtered

500,000 Hindus, and so wasted the districts of the Carnatic that for

several decades they did not recover their natural population.

Thus ended the war, and for some years there was peace between

Vijayanagar and Kulbarga.

Muhammad Shah died on 21st April A.D. 1375,[55] and was succeeded

by his son Mujahid, then nineteen years old. Shortly after his

accession Mujahid wrote to Bukka Raya (still called "Kishen Roy"

by Firishtah[56]), "that as some forts and districts between the

Kistnah and Tummedra (Tungabhadra) rivers were held by them in

participation, which occasioned constant disagreements, he must for

the future limit his confines to the Tummedra, and give up all on

the eastern side to him, with the fort of Beekapore and some other

places." This "Beekapore" is the important fortress of Bankapur,

south of Dharwar. The Dakhani sovereigns always looked on it with

covetous eyes, as it lay on the direct route from Vijayanagar to the

sea, and its possession would paralyse Hindu trade.

The Raya replied by a counter-demand that the Sultan should evacuate

the whole of the Doab, since Raichur and Mudkal had always belonged

to the Anegundi family. Bukka declared the Krishna river to be the

true boundary, and asked that the elephants taken by Sultan Muhammad

should be restored.

The Sultan's answer was a declaration of war. He advanced in person,

crossed both the rivers, and arrived before Adoni. On hearing that the

Raya was encamped on the bank of the Tungabhadra, he left one force

to besiege the fortress, sent another to advance towards Vijayanagar,

and himself marched, probably in a north-westerly direction, towards

the river, "by slow marches and with great caution." The Hindu prince

at first prepared to receive his attack, but for some reason[57]

lost heart and retired to the forests on the hills of Sandur, south

of his capital.

Firishtah here pays a tribute to the interest felt by the inhabitants

of this part of India in the new city, then only forty years old,

but evidently growing in grandeur year by year.

"Mujahid Shaw, having heard great praises of the beauty of the city,

advanced to Beejanuggur; but thinking it too strong to besiege at

present, he moved in pursuit of the enemy in the field."

Now follows a passage on which it is difficult to place full reliance,

but which only echoes common tradition. It runs to the effect that,

on the advance of the Sultan, the Raya

"fled through the woods and hills towards Seet Bunder Ramessar

followed by the sultan, who cut passages for his cavalry; through

forests before inaccessible. In this manner the roy fled from place to

place for six months, but never dared to appear without the woods. It

was in vain that the favourites of the sultan represented the pursuit

as fruitless and destructive to the troops. He would not desist. At

last his good fortune prevailed. The health of Kishen Roy and his

family became affected by the noxious air of the woods, and they

were warned to quit them by the physicians.... Driven by necessity,

he retired by secret paths to his capital of Beejanuggur. The sultan

despatched an army after him, while he himself, with the ameer al

amra Bahadur Khan and five thousand men, went to amuse himself with

the sight of Seet Bunda Ramessar.

"The sultan at this place repaired a mosque which had been built

by the officers of Sultan Alla ad Dien Khiljee. He broke down many

temples of the idolaters, and laid waste their country after which

he hastened with all expedition to Beejanuggur."

It is a fact that a mosque is declared to have been erected by Malik

Kafur on the sea-coast in 1310, but apparently not at Ramesvaram,

which lies in the extreme south of India, on the eastern coast

opposite the island of Ceylon. Moreover, it is extremely improbable

that a Muhammadan sovereign could, in the fourteenth century A.D.,

have penetrated so far south with such a handful of men. They

would have been harassed at every step by myriads of Hindus, who,

though doubtless trembling at the sight of a Muhammadan, would,

we may be sure, never have permitted 5000 men to traverse in

peace 1000 miles of forest and mountain; for Ramesvaram is fully

500 miles from Vijayanagar. Malik Kafur's expedition is said to

have taken place after the conquest by him of the Ballala Rajah of

Dvarasamudra in Maisur, when he erected a mosque on the SEA-COAST OF

MALABAR, and therefore nowhere near Ramesvaram. Colonel Briggs has

observed this difficulty,[58] and thinks that the place alluded to

must be Sadasivaghur, on the western coast,) south of Goa, adding,

"The spot ... is called Cape Ramas on our maps."[59] He believes,

however, that the remains of an old mosque do exist at Ramesvaram,

and its date should be settled. Leaving it to others better informed

to throw light on this point, I return to Bukka Raya and his doings.

Firishtah says that there were two roads to Vijayanagar:

"one fit for the passage of armies, the other narrow and difficult. As

the former was lined with ambushes, he chose the latter, through

which he marched with a select-body of troops, and appeared suddenly

in the suburbs of the city."

If Mujahid came up from the Malabar coast, the former of these two

roads would perhaps be the usual route adopted by travellers, which

leads through open undulating plains. Avoiding this route, the Sultan

may have turned the Sandur hills by a flank movement to his right,

and approached either along the valley of Sandur or along the valley

which now carries the main road from Bellary to Vijayanagar, between

the Sandur hills and the hills that surround the latter city.

"Kishen Roy was astonished at his boldness, and sent myriads of his

people to defend the streets. The sultan drove them before him and

gained the bank of a piece of water which alone now divided him from

the citadel, in which Kishen Roy resided. Near this was an eminence,

upon which stood a temple covered with plates of gold and silver set

with jewels, much venerated by the Hindoos, and called in the language

of the country Puttuk. The sultan, esteeming the destruction of it

as a religious obligation, ascended the hill, and having razed the

temple, possessed himself of the precious metals and jewels."

The piece of water alluded to may have been the picturesque lake at

Kamalapuram; but which was the temple that Mujahid destroyed? It seems

useless to speculate, considering that the historian only wrote from

tradition after a lapse of two centuries. There are many temples on

hills to choose from, and several pieces of water. But the strangest

part of the story is that we are not told how the Sultan succeeded

in penetrating the outer lines of works, and in reaching a spot which

divided him only from the inner citadel or palace enclosure. It must,

however, be remembered that though in A.D. 1443 Abdur Razzak saw

seven lines of walls, we are not certain how many there were in the

days of Bukka Raya.

At this point Mujahid was attacked and nearly lost his life.

"The idolaters, upon seeing their object of veneration destroyed,

raised their shrieks and lamentations to the sky. They obliged Kishen

Roy to head them and advanced resolutely in astonishing numbers. Upon

which the sultan formed his disposition. He laid aside his umbrella,

and with one of his arms-bearers, an Afghaun named Mhamood, crossed a

small rivulet to observe the numbers and motions of the infidels. A

Hindoo, who knew the sultan from the horse he rode, resolved, by

revenging the destruction of his gods and country, to gain immortal

reputation for himself. He moved unperceived through the hollows and

broken ground along the bank of the rivulet, had gained the plain,

and was charging towards the sultan at full speed, when Mujahid Shaw,

at a lucky instant, perceiving him, made a sign to Mhamood Afghaun,

who without delay charged the Hindoo. Mhamood's horse rearing, he fell

to the ground. His antagonist, having every advantage, was on the point

of putting him to death, when sultan Mujahid Shaw advanced with the

quickness of lightning. The Hindoo, changing his object, aimed a heavy

stroke at the sultan, giving at the same instant a shout of triumph,

which made the spectators believe his blow was effectual. Luckily, a

helmet of iron saved the head of the sultan, who now inflicted such a

wound on his enemy that he was divided from the shoulder to the navel

and fell dead from his horse,[60] upon which the sultan remounted

Mhamood and joined his army on the other side of the rivulet."

A battle ensued in which the Hindus were defeated; but while

the invading force had hardly recovered from their fatigue, the

Raya's brother[61] "arrived at the city from his government with a

reinforcement of twenty thousand horse and a vast army of foot"[62]

The fighting then became furious. In the middle of the battle the

Sultan's uncle, Daud Khan,[63] fearful for the safety of his sovereign,

quitted his post at "Dhunna Sodra"[64] and joined in the engagement

with distinguished gallantry. The Muhammadans were again victorious;

but the enemy, having taken advantage of Daud Khan's movement,

had captured the abandoned position, and thus seriously threatened

the Sultan's retreat. He therefore left the field, and by skilful

manoeuvring enabled the whole of his force to extricate themselves

in safety from the hills. With between sixty and seventy thousand

prisoners, mostly women, he retreated from Vijayanagar and sat down

before Adoni; but after a siege lasting nine months the attempt was

abandoned, and the Sultan retired to his own territories. Thus ended

the campaign.

Firishtah gives a short account of the kingdom of Vijayanagar at this

period (about 1378 A.D.), from which the following extracts are taken.

"The princes of the house of Bahmanee maintained themselves by superior

valour only, for in power, wealth, and extent of country the roles

of Beejanuggur were greatly their superiors;" and he implies that

at this time, as certainly in after years, all Southern India had

submitted to the sway of the Raya.

"The seaport of Goa,[65] the fortress of Malgaon,[66] ... belonged

to the roy of Beejanuggur, and many districts of Tulghaut[67] were

in his possession. His country was well peopled, and his subjects

submissive to his authority. The roles of Malabar, Ceylon, and other

islands and other countries kept ambassadors at his court, and sent

annually rich presents."[68]

We must revert for a moment to the Sultan's uncle and his behaviour

before Vijayanagar. It will be remembered that, filled with the best

intentions, he had quitted his post to defend his king.

"The sultan, on seeing the standard of Daood Khan, was enraged, but

stifled his displeasure till the gale of victory had waved over the

standards of the faithful. He then called Daood Khan before him, and

gave him a harsh reprimand for quitting a station so important that,

should the enemy gain possession, not a mussulmaun could make his

escape from the city."

Daud treasured up his resentment at this treatment, and, being joined

by other disaffected nobles, secretly plotted the assassination of

the Sultan. The conspirators waited till Mujahid was on his way from

Adoni towards Kulbarga, and then one night, that of Friday, April

16, A.D. 1378,[69] while the Sultan was asleep in his tent, Daud,

accompanied by three other men, rushed in and stabbed him. There was

a struggle, and the unfortunate monarch was despatched by the blow

of a sabre.[70] Daud at once proclaimed himself Sultan as nearest

of kin -- Mujahid having no children -- and being acknowledged,

proceeded to Kulbarga, where he was proclaimed.

The assassination of his nephew availed Daud but little, as the

country was at once divided into two opposing factions, and on May

21, A.D. 1378,[71] after a reign of only one month, the murderer

was himself assassinated while at prayer in the great mosque of the

capital. Meanwhile Bukka Raya overrun the Doab, advanced as far as

the river Krishna, and invested the fortress of Raichur.

Daud was succeeded by Ala-ud-din's youngest son Mahmud I,[72] Mujahid's

sister Ruh Parvar Agah having blinded Daud's son, then a boy of eight

years, in order to prevent dissension. Mahmud was apparently welcome

to all parties, for even the Raya raised the siege of Raichur and

agreed to pay him the tribute exacted by Muhammad Shah; so at least

says Firishtah. And during the whole of his reign of nearly twenty

years there was peace and tranquillity at home and abroad. He died

on the 20th April A.D. 1397.[73]

The decease of Bukka I. of Vijayanagar must apparently, for reasons

shown, be placed at about A.D. 1379.

CHAPTER 4

Growth of the Empire (A.D. 1379 to 1406)

Harihara II. -- Firuz Shah of Kulbarga -- Fresh wars -- Assassination

of a prince in 1399 A.D. -- Bukka II.

Bukka I. was succeeded by Harihara II., his son by his wife

Gauri. Nuniz calls the new king "Pureoyre Deorao," and "Pureoyre"

seems to be a rough Portuguese version of the name Harihara;

H and P representing the same sound in the Kanarese and Telugu

languages. According to the inscriptions,[74] Harihara II. reigned

at least twenty years, and he was the first king who gave himself

imperial titles under the style of MAHARAJADHIRAJA. He gave many

grants to the temples, and consolidated the supremacy of his dynasty

over all Southern India. Sayana, brother of Madhavacharya, appears

to have been his chief minister, as he was to King Samgama II.[75]

Mudda is mentioned in two inscriptions of A.D. 1379 and 1382 as the

king's general. Another of his generals was called Iruga. He was

son of Chaicha, minister of Bukka II. His name appears on a pillar

in a Jain temple near Kamalapura at Vijayanagar in an inscription

bearing date A.D. 1385; which proves that the king was tolerant in

religious matters. There seems also to have been a general named

Gunda living in his reign, but his date is uncertain.[76] According

to another inscription,[77] King Harihara early in his reign expelled

the Muhammadans from Goa; and the last inscription of his reign at

present discovered[78] mentions that one Bachanna Udaiyar was then

governor of that place.

The king's wife, or one of his principal wives, was Malladevi, or

Mallambika. The extent of his domination is shown by the fact that

inscriptions of his reign are found in Mysore, Dharwar, Conjeeveram,

Chingleput, and Trichinopoly.[79] He was a worshipper of Siva under

the form Virupaksha, but appears to have been singularly tolerant

of other religions. The latest actual date of the reign afforded by

inscriptions is October 15, A.D. 1399.[80]

Ghias-ud-din, a boy of seventeen, eldest son of the late Sultan Mahmud,

had succeeded his father on the throne of Kulbarga; but on June 14,

1397,[81] he was treacherously blinded during an entertainment by an

ambitious slave, after a reign of only one month and twenty days. His

younger brother, Shams-ud-din, was then placed on the throne, but after

a reign of five months was blinded and deposed by his cousin Firuz,

second son of the late Sultan Daud. Firuz was by birth undoubtedly of

the elder branch, and he became one of the most celebrated monarchs

of his line, ascending the throne on November 15, A.D. 1397.[82] He

must have then been well advanced in years, as Firishtah says he was

"old" in A.D. 1419.

The date of the last inscription of Harihara II. as yet brought to

light is, as before stated, October 15, A.D. 1399. There are two

inscriptions extant of Bukka II., his eldest son, both dated in

A.D. 1406,[83] and several of the latter's successor, the younger

brother of Bukka II., whose name was Devaraya I., and whose reign

lasted till at least A.D. 1412.

It will be remembered that the first king of Vijayanagar, Harihara I.,

was an old man (Nuniz says "very old"), and reigned seven years. His

successor, Bukka, his brother, reigned thirty-seven years according to

Nuniz, and perhaps, therefore, it would be best not to assume too great

an age for Harihara I. However this may be, it would appear that when

the peaceful monarch Harihara II., son of Bukka I., came to the throne,

his father must have died at a very advanced age, and he himself

must have been by no means young. He reigned at least twenty years,

as before stated, and we are therefore justified in assuming that at

the close of his reign (in A.D. 1399) he was quite an old man. With

this in our minds, let us turn to Firishtah's narrative of the reign of

Firuz Shah Bahmani, beginning with his accession in November A.D. 1397.

He tells us that in the Hijra year 801 (13th September 1398 to 3rd

September 1399), month not given --

"Dewal Roy of Beejanuggur, with thirty thousand horse and a vast

army of foot, invaded the royal territories between the rivers,

with a design to reduce the forts of Mudkul and Roijore" (Raichur).

And in a later passage we are told that the campaign was at an end

a few months before the end of Hijra 801; I.E. a few months before

the end of August A.D. 1399. The first movement of the Hindu army

must therefore have taken place at the beginning of the cold season

of A.D. 1398, probably not earlier than December in that year, when

the great cotton plains across which the troops had to march were

passable. It can hardly be supposed that King Harihara II., then

quite old and always a lover of peace, would without motive have

waged this sudden war and himself led his armies into the field,

and it seems more likely that the invasion was a bold dash made by

his son with the king's permission. The Muhammadan historians admit

an unbroken peace of twenty years previous to this date.

It seems, therefore, that the chronicles of Nuniz, the writings of

Firishtah, and the extant inscriptions all agree together, and that

we must place the death of Harihara II. at the close of the year

A.D. 1399. Little more can be said about the events of his reign.

The new king, his eldest son, Bukka II., must have been a man of

middle age, as he had a son old enough to take the field with him

before he himself came to the throne.

"This king ('Pureoyre')," says Nuniz, "had a son, who by his

death inherited the kingdom, who was called Ajarao; and he reigned

forty-three years, in which time he was always at war with the Moors."

I can give no explanation as to why Nuniz calls the successor of

Harihara II "Ajarao," nor as to his estimate of forty-three years

for his reign. The names and lengths of reigns given to "Ajarao's"

successors by our chronicler prove that by "Ajarao" he means two kings,

Bukka II. and his successor, Deva Raya I.; and the period covered by

their combined reigns was only fourteen years, not forty-three.

Nuniz states that the successor of Harihara II. greatly improved the

city of Vijayanagar, raising fresh walls and towers, increasing its

extent, and building further lines of fortification. But his great

work was the construction of a huge dam in the Tungabhadra river,

and the formation of an aqueduct fifteen miles long from the river

into the city. If this be the same channel that to the present day

supplies the fields which occupy so much of the site of the old city,

it is a most extraordinary work. For several miles this channel is

cut out of the solid rock at the base of the hills, and is one of the

most remarkable irrigation works to be seen in India. No details are

given of the wars he engaged in, except that, besides his campaigns

against the Moors, he took "Goa, Chaul, and Dabull," and reduced the

Choromandel side of the peninsula to loyalty and obedience to his rule.

We learn a great deal more about the doings of Bukka II. and Deva

Raya I. from Firishtah than from Nuniz, and I make no apology for

quoting copiously from the former author, whose writings throw much

light on the period.

Bukka's first war began with the invasion already alluded to. It took

place during his father Harihara's reign, apparently about the month

of December A.D. 1398 (rather later than earlier). The wide cotton

plains of that tract are only passable during prolonged dry weather,

and the prince would certainly not have risked an advance while there

was any likelihood of rain falling. Bukka's son accompanied his father,

and the objective was the country of the Doab, and particularly the

fortresses of Mudkal and Raichur, then in the hands of the Bahmani

Sultan. Sultan Firuz moved to meet him, slaughtering on the way a

Hindu chief or zamindar and seven or eight thousand of his followers,

"who had always been very troublesome and refractory." The Raya

had advanced to the northern frontier of the debatable land and was

encamped on the river Krishna, then in full flood, having large bodies

of troops posted to oppose the passage of the Muhammadans.

"Sultan Feroze Shaw,[84] on his arrival near the river, held a council

of war with his chief officers, but received no advice that to him

appeared satisfactory.

"While the sultan was debating in his own mind how to act, Cauzi

Serauje, seeing his concern, offered, if the sultan would permit him,

to cross the river with a few of his friends, whom he would select

for that purpose, to assassinate Dewal Roy or his son, as he found

most convenient....

"The sultan approving the measure, some hundreds of hurdles covered

with leather[85] were prepared expeditiously for the troops to

cross. Cauzi Serauje, with seven of his friends disguised as holy

mendicants, proceeded to the roy's camp, and repaired to the quarter

where the dancing-girls resided.[86] Here the cauzi pretended to be

enraptured with a courtesan, and was guilty of a thousand extravagances

to support his character. In the evening the girl, having adorned

herself in her richest ornaments, prepared to go out, on which the

cauzi, like a jealous and distracted lover, falling at her feet,

entreated her to stay, or let him attend her, and not rend his heart

by her absence. The woman upon this informed him that she was ordered

to attend an entertainment by the roy's son, and durst not disobey,

nor could she take him with her, as only musicians and dancers would

be admitted. The cauzi upon this replied that he played on the same

instrument as herself, and had, besides, some curious accomplishments

that would highly please the roy's son. The dancing-girl, thinking

him in jest, out of contempt gave him her mundal,[87] and desired him

to play, which he did in so masterly a manner that she was delighted,

saying that his company would give her superiority over her fellows and

do her honour with the roy's son. Accordingly he with his companions

attended the girl to the tents of the young roy.

"As is the custom of Dekkan, many sets of loolies[88] and dancing-girls

were ordered to perform at the same time, and having finished

their parts, the roy's son called for the players and mummers. The

dancing-girl now obtained leave for the cauzi and one of his companions

to show their feats. Having assumed the dress of women, they entered

ogling and smiling, and so well imitated the mummers in playing on

the mundal, dancing, and mimicry, that the roy's son was charmed

with their performances. At length they each drew a dagger, and,

like the dancers of Dekkan, continued to flourish them for some

time, making a thousand antic postures in advancing, retreating,

and turning round. At last, suddenly rushing upon the roy's son,

they plunged both the daggers into his breast, afterwards attacking

his companions. Their remaining friends, who were watching without

the tent, on hearing an alarm, ripped up the curtain, and entered

to assist them. Many of the company, being much intoxicated, were

easily put to death. The cauzi with his friends extinguished all

the lights, and, making their escape through the rent, mingled with

the crowd. The outcry soon became general round the tents. Great

confusion ensued, and various reports and alarms took place. Some

said that the sultan had crossed the river and surprised the camp,

others that one of his chiefs, with twelve thousand men, had cut off

both the roy and his son. The night was uncommonly dark, and the camp

extended near ten miles, so that circumstances were variously reported,

and the different chiefs, ignorant of the real cause of the alarm,

contended themselves with waiting in their several quarters; under

arms. About four thousand of the sultan's troops, in this interim,

crossed the river in boats and rafts which had been prepared for the

purpose. The enemy's foot, stationed to oppose the passage, terrified

by the alarm in camp and the approach of the sultan's forces, fled in

confusion without waiting to be attacked. Before the morning Feroze

Shaw had crossed the river with his whole army, and at dawn assaulted

the enemy's camp with great fury. Dewul Roy grieved by the death of

his son and panic struck at the bravery of the assailants, made but

a faint resistance. Before sunrise, having taken up his son's corpse,

he fled with his army. The sultan gained immense plunder in the camp,

and pursued him to the vicinity of Beejanuggur. Several actions

happened on the way, all of which were fortunate to the sultan, and

the roads were heaped up with the bodies of the slaughtered Hindoos."

Bukka reached Vijayanagar in safety and took refuge behind its

fortifications, while the Sultan sent his brother Ahmad (afterwards

Sultan), whom he had honoured with the title of "Khankhanan," to

ravage the rich districts south of the city. Ahmad fulfilled his

instructions and returned with numberless prisoners, and amongst them

many Brahmans. The relatives of these in the city begged the aged

Raya (Harihara II., still alive) to offer ransom, and after much

negotiation the Sultan accepted "ten lakhs of oons"[89] and agreed

to the execution of a treaty.

According to this treaty, which was entered into a few months

before the close of the Hijra year 801, I.E. a few months before 3rd

September A.D. 1399, the boundaries of the two kingdoms were to be

the same as before the war, and each party agreed to refrain from

molesting the subjects of the other. This does not look as though

the Sultan had gained any very material advantage in the campaign,

since the true boundary was always a subject of dispute. I obtain

the date above given from Firishtah's sentence: "In a few months

after the conclusion of this campaign, and the beginning of the year

802, the sultan marched to punish Nersing," a chief who had raised

disturbances on the borders of Berar.

The BURHAN-I MAASIR passes over this war with great brevity. It states

that the Sultan began it, and that at its close he accepted a large

indemnity and promise of payment of annual tribute. The date given

is identical.

Not long after this war, but certainly not before October 15,

A.D. 1399, Harihara II, died, and was succeeded by Bukka, his son.

We have little to guide us as to the events of Bukka's reign, but

Firishtah states that he ceased to pay tribute to Firuz Shah, partly

owing to instigation from Gujarat, Malwa, and Khandeish. In Hijra 808

(June 1405 to June 1406 A.D.) four years' tribute was owing, but the

Sultan took no notice, and waited for a more convenient time.

Bukka was followed on the throne of Vijayanagar by his brother Deva

Raya I., the date of whose coronation is fixed by an inscription

at Hasan in Mysore as November 5, 1406.[90] The last inscription of

Bukka Raya at present known bears a date corresponding to April 30th

in that year -- in Hindu reckoning the 12th day of the first half of

the month Vaisakha, in the (expired) Saka year 1328, the name of the

cyclic year being "Vyaya."[91]

CHAPTER 5

Deva Raya I. (A.D. 1406 to 1419)

The amorous monarch, Deva Raya I. -- The farmer's beautiful daughter --

The king's escapade -- The city threatened -- A Hindu princess wedded

to a Muhammadan prince -- Firuz Shah's anger -- Pertal's marriage --

King Vijaya -- Probable date of accession of Deva Raya II.

Firishtah tells us of an event that must have taken place towards

the end of the year A.D. 1406, in which the principal actor was the

king of Vijayanagar. This king I believe to have been Bukka II.'s

successor, his younger brother, Deva Raya I. The story relates to a

mad adventure of the Raya which he undertook in order to secure for

himself the person of a beautiful girl, the daughter of a farmer in

Mudkal. His desire to possess her attained such a pitch, that he made

an expedition into the debatable land north of the Tungabhadra for the

sole purpose of capturing the girl and adding her to his harem. I have

already shown reasons for supposing that Bukka II. was a middle-aged

man at his accession, and it is not unreasonable to suppose that this

hot-blooded monarch was his younger brother, who began to reign in

November 1406 A.D. His escapade must be narrated in full as told by

Firishtah, since it led to very important consequences.

"There resided in the town of Mudkul a farmer, who was blessed with

a daughter of such exquisite beauty, that the Creator seemed to have

united all his powers in making her perfect."

This attractive person was educated by an old Brahman, whose admiration

of her led him to think that she would prove a desirable member of

the Raya's household.

"He proceeded to Beejanuggur and being introduced to the roy, spoke

in such praise of the beauty and accomplishments of the young maid,

that he was fired with the desire of possessing her, and entreated

the bramin to procure her for him of her parents in marriage. This

request was what the bramin earnestly wished, and he immediately

agreed to satisfy him; upon which the roy despatched him with rich

gifts and great promises of favours to the parents, and the title of

ranee, or princess, for their beautiful daughter. The bramin lost no

time in his journey, and, upon his arrival at the farmer's house,

delivered to him and his wife the roy's orders, that they should

repair to Beejanuggur with their daughter. The parents were overjoyed

at such unexpected good fortune, and calling for the young maid, laid

before her the rich gifts of the roy, congratulated her on being soon

to be united to a great prince, and attempted to throw upon her neck

a golden collar set with jewels, as a token of immediate espousals,

and which, if done, could not have been broken off.

"The beautiful virgin, to their great astonishment, drawing her

neck from compliance, refused to receive the collar, and observed,

that whoever entered the harem of Beejanuggur, was afterwards not

permitted to see even her nearest relations and friends; and though

they might be happy to sell her for worldly riches, yet she was too

fond of her parents to submit to eternal absence from them, even

for all the splendour of the palace of Beejanuggur. This declaration

was accompanied with affectionate tears, which melted her parents;

who rather than use force, dismissed the bramin with all his gifts,

and he returned, chagrined and disappointed, to Beejanuggur....

"When the bramin arrived at Beejanuggur, and related to the roy the

failure of his scheme, the prince's love became outrageous, and he

resolved to gratify it by force, though the object resided in the

heart of Feroze Shaw's dominions.[92] For this purpose he quitted

Beejanuggur with a great army, on pretence of going the tour of his

countries; and upon his arrival on the banks of the River Tummedra,

having selected five thousand of his best horse, and giving the reins

of his conduct to love, commanded them, in spite of the remonstrances

of his friends, to march night and day with all expedition to

Mudkul,[93] and, surrounding the village where Pertal[94] lived,

to bring her prisoner to him, with her whole family, without injury."

The unexpected, however, happened. The king neglected to send the

Brahman to warn Pertal's family, and on the arrival of news at

Mudkal that a large force of the Raya's troops was approaching, the

inhabitants fled, and amongst them the girl and her relatives. The

troops therefore resumed, but on the way looted the country. They

were attacked by superior forces and 2000 of them were slain. This

led to a war.

"In the beginning of the winter of the year 809 (I.E. the winter of

A.D. 1406),[95] he (the Sultan) moved in great force, and arrived

near Beejanuggur, in which Dewul Roy had shut himself up. An assault

was made upon the city, and the Sultan got possession of some streets,

which, however, he was obliged to quit, his army being repulsed by the

Carnatickehs. Dewul Roy, encouraged by his success, now ventured to

encamp his army under protection of the walls, and to molest the royal

camp. As the mussulmauns could not make proper use of their cavalry in

the rocky unevenness of ground round Beejanuggur, they were somewhat

dispirited. During this, Sultan Feroze Shaw was wounded by an arrow

in the hand, but he would not dismount; and drawing out the arrow,

bound up the wound with a cloth.

"The enemy were at last driven off by the valour and activity of Ahmed

Khan and Khankhanan, and the Sultan moved farther from the city to a

convenient plain, where he halted till his wounded men were recovered."

He halted here for four months, holding the Raya a prisoner in his

own capital, while bodies of troops harassed and wasted the country

south of Vijayanagar, and attacked the fortress of Bankapur. The

"convenient plain" was probably in the open and rich valley near

the town of Hospett, south of the city; for the Sultan could not

have ravaged the country to the south unless he had been master of

the whole of this valley for many miles. Bankapur was taken, and the

detached forces returned bringing with them 60,000 Hindu prisoners;

on which the Sultan left Khankhanan to hold Vijayanagar, while he

himself attempted to reduce the fortress of Adoni, "the strongest in

possession of the enemy."

Deva Raya then began to treat for peace, and was compelled to submit

to conditions to the last degree humiliating. He agreed to give the

Sultan his daughter in marriage, to indemnify him with an immense

treasure, and to cede for ever the fort of Bankapur.[96]

"Though the roies of Carnatic had never yet married their daughters

but to persons of their own cast, and giving them to strangers was

highly disgraceful, yet Dewul Roy, out of necessity, complied,

and preparations for celebrating the nuptials were made by both

parties. For forty days communication was open between the city and

the sultan's camp. Both sides of the road were lined with shops and

booths, in which the jugglers, drolls, dancers, and mimics of Carnatic

displayed their feats and skill to amuse passengers. Khankhanan and

Meer Fuzzul Oollah, with the customary presents of a bridegroom,

went to Beejanuggur, from whence at the expiration of seven days they

brought the bride, with a rich portion and offerings from the roy,

to the sultan's camp. Dewul Roy having expressed a strong desire to

see the sultan, Feroze Shaw with great gallantry agreed to visit him

with his bride, as his father-in-law.

"A day being fixed, he with his bride proceeded to Beejanuggur,

leaving the camp in charge of Khankhanan. On the way he was met by

Dewul Roy in great pomp. From the gate of the city to the palace,

being a distance of six miles,[97] the road was spread with cloth of

gold, velvet, satin, and other rich stuffs. The two princes rode on

horseback together, between ranks of beautiful boys and girls, who

waved plates of gold and silver flowers[98] over their heads as they

advanced, and then threw them to be gathered by the populace. After

this the inhabitants of the city made offerings, both men and women,

according to their rank. After passing through a square directly

in the centre of the city,[99] the relations of Dewul Roy, who had

lined the streets in crowds, made their obeisance and offerings, and

joined the cavalcade on foot, marching before the princes. Upon their

arrival at the palace gate, the sultan and roy dismounted from their

horses, and ascended a splendid palanquin, set with valuable jewels,

in which they were carried together to the apartments prepared for

the reception of the bride and bridegroom, when Dewul Roy took his

leave, and retired to his own palace. The sultan, after being treated

with royal magnificence for three days, took his leave of the roy,

who pressed upon him richer presents than before given, and attended

him four miles on his way, when he returned to the city.

"Sultan Feroze Shaw was enraged at his not going with him to his

camp, and said to Meer Fuzzul Oollah that he would one day have his

revenge for the affront offered him by such neglect. This declaration

being told to Dewul Roy, he made some insolent remarks, so that,

notwithstanding the connection of family, their hatred was not calmed."

Firuz returned after this to his capital and sent for the lovely

Pertal, and on her arrival, finding that her beauty surpassed

all report, he gave her in marriage to his eldest son, Hasan

Khan, when "the knot was tied amid great rejoicings and princely

magnificence." The lady's husband is described by Firishtah as being

"a weak and dissipated prince." He was heir to the throne, but was

easily ousted by the valiant Ahmad "Khankhanan," and lived privately

at Firuzabad, "entirely devoted to redolence and pleasure." The last

we hear of him is that his usurping uncle, Ahmad Shah I., treated

him kindly, "gave him the palace of Firozeabad for his residence,

with an ample jaghire (estate), and permission to hunt or take his

pleasure within eight miles round his palace, without restriction to

time or form." Hasan "was more satisfied with this power of indulging

his appetites than with the charge of empire. While his uncle lived

he enjoyed his ease, and no difference ever happened between them;

but he was afterwards blinded and kept confined to the palace of

Firozeabad." This must have been after A.D. 1434.

Deva Raya I. lived till at least 1412 A.D., and was succeeded by

his son Vira-Vijaya, whom Nuniz calls "Visaya," and who, he says,

reigned six years. The last extant inscription of Deva Raya I. is

dated in A.D. 1412 -- 13, the first of his successor Vijaya in 1413

-- 14. Vijaya's last known inscription is one of 1416 -- 17, and the

first yet known of his successor, his eldest son, Deva Raya II.,

is dated Monday, June 26, 1424 -- 25. Nuniz gives Deva Raya II. a

reign of twenty-five years.

I am inclined to think that Deva Raya II. began to reign in 1419,

for the following reason. The informants of Nuniz stated that

during Vijaya's reign he "did nothing worth relating," and the

chronicle records that during the reign which followed, namely that

of Deva Raya II., there was "constant warfare." Now we have it from

Firishtah that in 1417 Firuz, Sultan of Kulbarga, commenced a war of

aggression against the Hindus of Telingana He besieged the fortress

of Pangul,[100] seventy miles north-east of Adoni, for a period of

two years, but the attempt to reduce it ended in failure owing to a

pestilence breaking out amongst both men and horses.

"Many of the first nobility deserted the camp and tied with their

followers to their jaghires. At this crisis Dewul Roy collected his

army, and having obtained aid from the surrounding princes, even to

the Raja of Telingana (Warangal), marched against the sultan with a

vast host of horse and foot."

This then took place in 1419 A.D., and since this energetic action was

not consonant with the character of Vijaya, the FAINEANT sovereign,

"who did nothing worth recording" in all his career, we must suppose

that it took place as soon as Deva Raya, his successor, was crowned;

when the nobles surrounding him (he was, I believe, quite young when

he began to reign)[101] filled with zeal and ambition, roused the

Hindu troops and in the king's name plunged into war against their

country's hereditary foe.

If this be correct, the reign of Deva Raya II., granting that it lasted

as stated by Nuniz for twenty-five years, ended in A.D. 1444. Now the

chronicle tells us a story of how this Deva Raya's son and successor,

"Pina Rao,"[102] was attacked by his nephew with a poisoned dagger, and

died from the effects of his wounds after a lapse of six months. Abdur

Razzak, more reliable because he was not only a contemporary but

was at Vijayanagar at the time, relates the same anecdote of Deva

Raya II. himself, making the would-be assassin the king's brother,

and definitely fixing the date beyond a shadow of a doubt. The

event occurred on some day between November 1442 and April 1443 --

the outside limits of Razzak's visit to Calicut -- during his stay

at which place he says it happened. Abdur Razzak does not mention the

king's death, and this therefore had not supervened up to the time of

the traveller leaving the capital in December 1443. On the assumption

that we need not be too particular about Nuniz's "six months," we may

conclude that the attack was made about the month of April 1443, and

that Deva Raya II. died early in 1444 A.D. There is still, however,

a difficulty, as will be noticed below, inscriptions giving us the

name of a Deva Raya as late as 1449 A.D., but it is just possible

that this was another king of the same name.

Putting together the facts given above, we find that the twenty-five

years of the reign of Deva Raya II. lay between 1419 and 1444 A.D.

CHAPTER 6

Deva Raya II. (A.D. 1419 to 1444 or (?) 1449)

A fresh war, 1419 -- Success of Vijayanagar -- Death of Firuz --

Sultan Ahmad attacks Deva Raya -- The latter's adventure and narrow

escape -- Ahmad at the gates of the city -- He nearly loses his life

-- Submission of Deva Raya -- Fall of Warangal -- Sultan Ala-ud-din

-- Deva Raya's precautions -- His attempted assassination, 1433 --

The story as told by Abdur Razzak -- Expedition against Kulbarga --

Improvements at the capital -- Probable date of the kings death --

Was there a King Deva Raya III.?

There was war then with Kulbarga in 1419, Deva Raya II. being king

of Vijayanagar. The Sultan had been unsuccessful in his attack on

the Warangal fortress, Pangul, and the troops of Vijayanagar marched

against him with horse, foot, and elephants. Firuz Shah gave battle

forthwith, though he judged his forces to be inferior. Firishtah does

not mention where the fight took place.

"Meer Fuzzul Oollah, who commanded the troops of Islaam, charged the

infidels with heroic vigour, and, routing their center, proceeded to

attack their right wing. He was on the point of gathering the flowers

of victory, when one of his own attendants, bribed for the purpose

by Dewul Roy, gave him a mortal wound on the head, and he instantly

quaffed the sherbet of martyrdom. This fatal event changed the fortune

of the day; the sultan was defeated, and with the utmost difficulty,

by the most surprising and gallant efforts, made his escape from

the field. The Hindoos made a general massacre of the mussulmauns,

and erected a platform with their heads on the field of battle. They

followed the sultan into his own country, which they wasted with fire

and sword, took many places, broke down many mosques and holy places,

slaughtered the people without mercy; by their actions seeming to

discharge the treasured malice and resentment of ages. Sultan Firoze

Shaw, in the exigence of distress, requested aid of the sultan of

Guzarat, who, having but just acceded to the throne, could afford

none. At last fortune took a turn favourable to his affairs, and the

enemy, after repeated battles, were expelled from his dominions by

the Sultan's brother, Khankhanan; but these misfortunes dwelt on the

mind of Firoze Shaw, now old, and he fell into a lingering disorder

and lowness of spirits."

The Sultan desired the throne for his son Hasan, husband of the

beautiful Pertal, but on Ahmad Khankhanan taking up arms to support

his intended usurpation and advancing, supported by most of the nobles,

to the capital, Firuz gave way and nominated him Sultan in his stead.

Firuz died on September 24, A.D. 1422,[103] and Khankhanan became

Sultan of Kulbarga under the title of Ahmad Shah I.

The first act of the new monarch, after "impressing the minds of

his people with affection to his government" -- probably, that is,

after an interval of a few months -- was to strengthen his army in

order to take revenge for the invasions of the Raya; and having made

all preparations he advanced to the attack. Deva Raya's generals

collected their troops, sent for aid to Warangal, and marched to

the Tungabhadra where they encamped. From this it appears that they

had retired from the Doab after their successful raid. The Sultan

arrived on the north bank of the river opposite the Hindu camp,

and LAAGERED, if we may use the term now in fashion. Firishtah says

that he "surrounded his camp with carriages (carts and waggons),

after the usage of Room (Turkey in Europe), to prevent the enemy's

foot from making night-attacks. Here he halted for forty days." We

are now, therefore, probably in the dry season at the beginning of

the year A.D. 1423, for if the river had been in flood there would

have been no fear of the enemy's crossing it. In the early months of

the Christian year that river is usually shallow in the open country

east of the Hindu capital and away from the hills that surround it,

having only thin streams running in its rocky bed. Indeed, Firishtah

himself tells us that the river was at that time fordable.

Then ensued a dramatic episode. The Muhammadan cavalry had crossed the

river and devastated the country of the Raya, who remained inactive,

and the Sultan determined on a direct frontal attack. The troops of

Warangal deserted the Raya and withdrew.

"Early in the morning Lodi Khan, Aulum Khan, and Dillawer Khan,

who had marched during the night and forded the river at distance,

reached the environs of the enemy's camp. It happened that the roy was

sleeping, attended by only a few persons, in a garden, close to which

was a thick plantation of sugar-cane.[104] A body of the mussulmauns

entered the garden for plunder, and Dewul Roy, being alarmed, fled

almost naked into the sugar-cane plantation. Here he was found by

the soldiers, who thought him only a common person, and -- having

loaded him with a bundle of canes, obliged him to run with it before

them. Dewul Roy, rejoiced at his being undiscovered, held his peace,

and took up the burden readily, hoping that he should be discharged

as a poor person or be able to make his escape.

"They had not gone far when the alarm of Sultan Ahmed Shaw's having

crossed the river, and the loss of the roy, filled the camp, and the

Hindoos began to disperse. The sultan entered the camp, and Dewul Roy's

masters, hoping now for more valuable plunder than sugar-cane, hastened

to join their own fronds, leaving him to shift for himself. Dewul

Roy ran with his own troops, and about noon came up with some of his

nobles, by whom he was recognised and received with great joy. His

safety being made known, his army rallied into some order; but as he

regarded the late accident as an ill omen, he laid aside all thoughts

of engaging in the field, and fled to Beejanuggur.[105]

"Ahmad Shaw not stopping to besiege the city, overran the open country,

and wherever he came, put to death men; women, and children, without

mercy, contrary to the compact made by his ancestor Mahummud Shaw

with the roies of Beejanuggur. Laying aside all humanity, whenever

the number of the slain amounted to twenty thousand, he halted three

days, and made a festival in celebration of the bloody work. He

broke down the idol temples, and destroyed the colleges of the

Bramins. During these operations a body of five thousand Hindoos,

enraged to desperation at the destruction of their country and the

insults of their gods, united in taking an oath to sacrifice their

lives in attempting to kill the sultan, as the grand author of all

their sufferings. For this purpose they employed spies to observe

his motions, that they might seize the first opportunity of action.

"It happened, that the sultan going to hunt, in the eagerness of

chase separated from the body of his attendants, and advanced near

twelve miles from his camp.[106] The devoted infidels, informed of

the circumstance, immediately hastened to intercept him, and arrived

in sight when even his personal attendants, about two hundred Moguls,

were at some distance from him. The sultan alarmed, galloped on in

hopes of gaining a small mud enclosure which stood on the plain as

a fold for cattle, but was so hotly pursued, that some broken ground

falling in his way, he was not able to cross it before his pursuers

came up. Luckily some archers at this instant arrived to his aid, so

that the enemy were delayed sufficiently to give the sultan time to

reach the enclosure with his friends. The infidels attempted to enter,

and a sharp conflict took place; all the faithful repeating the creed

of testimony, and swearing to die, rather than submit.... Their little

troop being mostly killed and wounded, the assailants advanced close to

the wall, which they began to throw down with pickaxes and hatchets,

so that the sultan was reduced to the extremity of distress. At this

critical juncture arrived Abd-al-Kadir, first armour-bearer to the

sultan, and a body of troops, with whom, fearful of some accident

having happened to occasion his absence, he had left the camp in

search of his master. The infidels had completed a wide breach, and

were preparing to enter, when they found their rear suddenly attacked

The sultan with his remaining friends joined Abd-al-Kadir in attacking

the enemy, who after a long struggle were driven off the field, with

a loss of a thousand men, and about five hundred of the mussulmauns

attained martyrdom. Thus the sultan, by the almost inspired caution

of Abd-al-Kadir, acceded, as it were, a second time, from the depths

of danger to the enjoyment of empire.[107] It deserves place among

the records of time, as a remarkable event, that two sovereigns at

the head of armies, should fall into such danger for want of numbers,

and both escape uninjured....

"after this event Ahmed Shaw, having laid waste the whole country,

marched to Beejanuggur, which he kept so closely blocked up, that

the inhabitants were reduced to the greatest distress; when Dewul

Roy, to spare his people, sent ambassadors to the sultan entreating

peace, to which he consented, on condition that he would send the

tribute of as many years as he had neglected to pay,[108] laden

on his best elephants, and conducted by his son, with his drums,

trumpets, and all the other insignia of state, to his camp. Dewul Roy,

unable to refuse compliance, agreed to the demands, and sent his son

with thirty favourite elephants, loaded with treasure and valuable

effects. The sultan sent some noblemen to meet him; and after being led

in ceremony through the market and great streets of the camp, he was

brought to the presence.[109] The sultan, after embracing, permitted

him to sit at the foot of his throne, and putting on his shoulders a

magnificent robe, and girding him with a sabre set with jewels, gave

him twenty beautiful horses of various countries, a male elephant,

dogs for the chase, and three hawks, which the Carnatickehs were till

then strangers to the use of. He then marched from the environs of

Beejanuggur, and on his arrival on the bank of the Kistnah dismissed

the roy's son and returned to Koolburga."

To form some idea of the date of this cessation of hostilities we must

see what follows in Firishtah's narrative. The historian states that

during the year of the Sultan's return to Kulbarga there was a grievous

famine in the Dakhan, and "the next year also, no rain appearing,

the people became seditious." These two years were probably A.H. 826,

827, extending from 15th December A.D. 1422 to 23rd November 1424. He

continues, "In the year 828" the Sultan marched against Warangal. The

last campaign began about December A.D. 1422; and since we must allow

some months for Ahmad's blockade of Vijayanagar, which resulted in his

reducing the inhabitants to a state of starvation so that the Raya

was compelled to capitulate, the date for the end of the war cannot

be safely placed earlier than the winter of the year A.D. 1423. During

these twelve months, however, there was a famine and failure of rain,

so that the Sultan may have been able to traverse the cotton plains

lying between Vijayanagar and Kulbarga, plains quite impassable for

troops in wet weather, somewhat earlier than would otherwise have

been the case.

The Sultan's next war took place in A.H. 828, when he advanced against

Warangal over the undulating plains of the Dakhan, then rich in crop,

and was completely successful. The Hindu kingdom was completely and

for ever destroyed. The English date usually given for this event

is A.D. 1424, but it is quite possible that a mistake has been

made owing to the use of imperfect chronological tables by those

who have written on the subject, and that Ahmad Shah's capture of

Warangal may have taken place in A.D. 1425. Briggs, for instance,

calls A.H. 828 "A.D. 1424," but the year only began on November

23, 1424. The campaign, however, was very short, and may have been

concluded before the end of December of that year.

We hear nothing more from Firishtah regarding the affairs of

Vijayanagar till the early part of the reign of Ahmad's son and

successor, Ala-ud-din II., which began on Sunday, February 27,

A.D. 1435,[110] the day of Sultan Ahmad's death.

Ala-ud-din's first act was to despatch his brother Muhammad Khan with

a powerful army against Deva Raya of Vijayanagar --

"who had withheld his tribute for five years and refused to pay the

arrears. They laid waste the country in such a manner that the Roy

in a short time was glad to procure peace by giving twenty elephants,

a great sum of money, and two hundred female slaves skilled in music

and dancing, besides a valuable present to Mahummud Khan."

Flushed with this victory, and in command of a large force, Prince

Muhammad rebelled against his brother, and Firishtah states that

in doing so he obtained aid from Deva Raya. The prince took Mudkal,

Raichur, Sholapur, Bijapur, and Naldirak from the Sultan's governors,

but in a pitched battle with the royal forces was completely defeated

and fled. Shortly afterwards, however, he was forgiven by his generous

sovereign, and the fortress and territories of Raichur were conferred

on him.

About the year 1442 Deva Raya began to consider more seriously his

situation in relation to his powerful neighbour at Kulbarga.

"He called[111] a general council of his nobility and principal

bramins, observing to them that as his country of Carnatic in extent,

population, and revenue far exceeded the territories of the house

of Bahmenee; land in like manner his army was far more numerous,

wished therefore to explore the cause of the mussulmauns' successes,

and his being reduced to pay them tribute. Some said ... that the

superiority of the mussulmauns arose from two circumstances: one,

all their horses being strong, and able to bear more fatigue than the

weak, lean animals of Carnatic; the other, a great body of excellent

archers always kept up by the sultans of the house of Bahmenee,

of whom the roy had but few in his army.

"Deo Roy upon this gave orders for the entertainment of mussulmauns

in his service, allotted them jaghires,[112] erected a mosque

for their use in the city of Beejanuggur, and commanded that no

one should molest them in the exercise of their religion. He also

ordered a koraun to be placed before his throne, on a rich desk,

that the mussulmauns might perform the ceremony of obeisance in his

presence, without sinning against their laws. He also made all the

Hindoo soldiers learn the discipline of the bow; in which he and his

officers used such exertions, that he had at length two thousand

mussulmauns and sixty thousand Hindoos, well skilled in archery,

besides eighty thousand horse and two hundred thousand foot, armed

in the usual manner with pikes and lances."

On a day which must have been between November 1442 and April 1443 a

desperate attempt was made on the life of King Deva Raya by one of his

closest relatives -- a brother, according to Abdur Razzak, a nephew,

according to Nuniz. Abdur Razzak's story is without doubt the more

reliable of the two, since he is a contemporary witness. The story as

told by Nuniz is given in the chronicle at the end of this volume.[113]

Abdur Razzak was ambassador from Persia to Calicut and Vijayanagar, and

his account is particularly important as it definitely fixes the date.

"During the time that the author of this narrative was still sojourning

at Calicut (November 1442 to April 1443) there happened in the city

of Bidjanagar an extraordinary and most singular occurrence....

"The king's brother, who had had a new house built for himself, invited

thither the monarch and the principal personages of the empire. Now it

is an established usage of the infidels never to eat in presence of

each other. The men who were invited were assembled together in one

grand hall. At short intervals the prince either came in person or

sent some messenger to say that such or such great personage should

come and eat his part of the banquet. Care had been taken to bring

together all the drums, kettledrums, trumpets, and flutes that could

be found in the city, and these instruments playing all at the same

time, made a tremendous uproar. As soon as the individual who had been

sent for entered the above-mentioned house, two assassins, placed in

ambush, sprang out upon him, pierced him with a poignard, and cut him

in pieces. After having removed his limbs, or rather the fragments of

his body, they sent for another guest, who, once having entered this

place of carnage, disappeared.... In consequence of the noise of the

drums, the clamour, and the tumult, no one was aware of what was going

on. In this manner all those who had any name or rank in the state were

slaughtered. The prince leaving his house all reeking with the blood

of his victims, betook himself to the king's palace, and addressing

himself to the guards who were stationed in that royal residence,

invited them with flattering words to go to his house, and caused them

to follow the steps of the other-victims. So that the palace was thus

deprived of all its defenders. This villain then entered into the

king's presence, holding in his hand a dish covered with betel-nut,

under which was concealed a brilliant poignard. He said to the monarch,

'The hall is ready and they only wait your august presence.'

"The king, following the maxim which declares that eminent men

receive an inspiration from heaven, said to him, 'I am not in good

health to-day.'

"This unnatural brother, thus losing the hope of enticing the king

to his house, drew his poignard, and struck him therewith several

violent blows, so that the prince fell at the back of his throne. The

traitor, thus believing that the king was dead, left there one of

his confidants to cut off the monarch's head; then going out of the

hall he ascended the portico of the palace, and thus addressed the

people: 'I have slain the king, his brothers, and such and such emirs,

Brahmins, and viziers; now I am king.'

"Meanwhile his emissary had approached the throne with the intention of

cutting off the king's head, but that prince, seizing the seat behind

which he had fallen, struck the wretch with it with so much violence

on the chest that he fell upon his back. The king then, with the help

of one of his guards, who at the sight of this horrible transaction

had hidden himself in a corner, slew this assassin, and went out of

the palace by way of the harem.

"His brother, still standing on the steps of the hall of council,

invited the multitude to recognise him as their king. At that moment

the monarch cried out, 'I am alive. I am well and safe. Seize that

wretch.'

"The whole crowd assembled together threw themselves upon the guilty

prince and put him to death.

"The only one who escaped was Danaik, the vizier, who previously to

this sad event had gone on a voyage to the frontier of Ceylon. The

king sent a courier to him to invite him to return, and informed

him of what had just occurred. All those who had in any way aided in

the conspiracy were put to death. Men in great numbers were slain,

flayed, burnt alive, and their families entirely exterminated. The

man who had brought the letters of invitation was put to the last

degree of torture...."

Nuniz states that the king died six months later and was succeeded by

his son, but Abdur Razzak declares that he was presented in person to

Deva Raya about the month of December 1443. The name of Deva Raya's

son is not given by Nuniz, nor yet the length of his reign; he only

states that he did nothing worth relating except to give enormous

charities to temples. This king again was succeeded by a son called

"Verupaca Rao," who must be identical with Virupaksha, and Nuniz

dates from his reign the commencement of the troubles that led to

the usurpation of Narasimha and the downfall of the first dynasty.

But before putting together the confusing records of this period I

must revert to the events of the year A.D. 1443.

"At this period," says Abdur Razzak, referring to the second half

of the year 1443, "Danaik[114] the vizier set out on an expedition

into the kingdom of Kalbarga." The reasons which had led to this

invasion were as follows: Sultan Ala-ud-din had heard of the

treacherous attempt to kill the king of Vijayanagar and the murder

of the nobles and Principal people, and he had sent a message to the

king demanding payment of "seven lakhs of varahas," as he thought the

moment auspicious for an attempt to crush the kingdom. "Diou-rai, the

king of Bidjanagar, was equally troubled and irritated by the receipt

of such a message," but he sent a brave answer and prepared for war.

"Troops were sent out on both sides, which made great ravages on

the frontiers of the two kingdoms.... Danaik, after having nit de

an invasion upon the frontiers of the country of Kalbarga, and taken

several unfortunate prisoners, had retraced his steps...."

Firishtah also describes this war of A.D. 1443. He states that Deva

Raya wantonly attacked the Bahmani princes --

"crossed the Tummedra suddenly, took the fortress of Mudkul, sent his

sons to besiege Roijore and Beekapore, encamped himself along the bank

of the Kistnan, and sent out detachments, who plundered the country

as far as Saugher and Beejapore, laying waste by fire and sword.

"Sultan Alla ud Dien, upon intelligence of this invasion, prepared to

repel it, and commanded all his forces from Telingana, Dowlutabad,

and Berar to repair to the capital of Ahmedabad without delay. Upon

their arrival he reviewed the whole, and found his army composed of

fifty thousand horse, sixty thousand foot, and a considerable train

of artillery. With this force he began to march against the enemy;

and Deo Roy, upon his approach, shifted his ground, and encamped under

the walls of the fortress of Mudkul, detaching a large body to harass

the sultan.

"The sultan halted at the distance of twelve miles from Mudkul, and

despatched Mallek al Tijar with the troops of Dowlutabad against the

sons of Deo Roy;[115] also Khan Zummaun, governor of Beejapore, and

Khan Azim, commander of the forces of Berar and Telingana, against the

main body of the enemy. Mallek-al-Tijar, going first to Roijore, gave

battle to the eldest son of Deo Roy, who was wounded in the action,

and fled towards Beekapore, from whence he was joined by his younger

brother, who quitted the siege of that fortress.

"In the space of two months, three actions happened near Mudkul between

the two grand armies; in the first of which multitudes were slain

on both sides, and the Hindoos having the advantage, the mussulmauns

experienced great difficulties.[116] The sultan was successful in the

others; and in the last, the eldest son of Deo Roy was killed by a

spear thrown at him by Khan Zummaun, which event struck the Hindoos

with a panic, and they fled with the greatest precipitation into the

fortress of Mudkul."

Two chief Muhammadan officers, in the ardour of pursuit, entered the

city with the fugitives, and were captured by the Hindus.

Deo Roy then sent a message to the Sultan that if he would promise

never again to molest his territories he would pay the stipulated

tribute annually, and return the two prisoners. This was accepted,

a treaty was executed, and the prisoners returned with the tribute

and added presents; and till the end of Deva Raya's reign both parties

observed their agreement.

From the terms of the agreement we gather that, though Firishtah does

not expressly mention it, tribute had been demanded by the Sultan,

and this confirms the account given by Abdur Razzak. It also shows

why the "Danaik" in Abdur Razzak's narrative had not returned covered

with glory, but merely, having "taken several unfortunate prisoners,

had retraced his steps."

The campaign must have been of short duration, since, while it began in

A.H. 847 (May 1, A.D. 1443, to April 19, 1444) according to Firishtah,

it was over before December 1443 when Abdur Razzak left Vijayanagar.

The narrative being thus brought down to the close of the year 1443,

let us, before passing on, turn to other records and see what they

tell us about the reign of Deva Raya II. I have already stated that

he appears to have been very young at his accession in A.D. 1419. In

1443 he had already reigned twenty-four years. Now the Hakluyt

translation of Abdur Razzak's chronicle states that Razzak saw

King Deva Raya II. in 1443, and the India Office copy contains the

additional information that the king was then "exceedingly young." I

am not aware which version is the more accurate. But even if these

added words be accepted as part of the original, the difficulty is

capable of being explained away by the supposition that perhaps the

ambassador was presented to one of the princes and not to the king

himself. The king appears to have been in doubt as to whether the

traveller was not an impostor in representing himself as an envoy

from Persia, and may have refrained from granting a personal interview.

Several inscriptions of the reign are extant. One records a

proclamation made in the king's name in A.D. 1426.[117] According

to another bearing a date corresponding to Wednesday, October 16,

in the same year,[118] he caused a Jain temple to be erected in

the capital, in a street called the "Pan Supari Bazaar." This

temple is situated south-west of the temple marked as No. 35 on

the Government map. It is within the enclosure of the royal palace,

and close to the rear of the elephant stables still standing. The

king is honoured in this inscription with the full imperial title

of MAHARAJADHIRAJA RAJAPARAMESVARA. The site of this bazaar is thus

definitely established. It lay on either side of the road which ran

along the level dry ground direct from the palace gate, near the temple

of HAZARA RAMASVAMI, in a north-easterly direction, to join the road

which now runs to the Tungabhadra ferry through the fortified gate on

the south side of the river immediately opposite Anegundi. It passed

along the north side of the Kallamma and Rangasvami temples, leaving

the imperial office enclosure with its lofty walls and watch-towers,

and the elephant stables, on the left, skirted the Jain temple and the

temple numbered "35" on the plan, and passed along under the rocky

hills that bound this plain on the north till it debouched on the

main road above mentioned. This street would be the direct approach

from the old city of Anegundi to the king's palace.

In A.D. 1430 the king made a grant to a temple far in the south in

the Tanjore district.[119] There are two inscriptions of his reign

dated respectively in 1433 -- 34 and 1434 -- 35 A.D. at Padavedu in

North Arcot.[120] If, as stated by Nuniz, King Deva Raya II. died a

few months after his attempted assassination, and if Abdur Razzak saw

him in December 1443, we are led to the belief that he died early in

1444. Definite proof is, however, wanting. Other inscriptions must be

carefully examined before we can arrive at any certain conclusion. Thus

an inscription at Sravana Belgola, of date corresponding to Tuesday,

May 24 A.D. 1446, published by Professor Kielhorn,[121] relates to

the death on that day of "Pratapa Deva Raya;" and as it is couched in

very curious and interesting terms, I give the translation in full --

"In the evil year Kshaya, in the wretched (month) second Vaisakha,

on a miserable Tuesday, in a fortnight which was the reverse of

bright,[122] on the fourteenth day, the unequalled store of valour

(PRATAPA) Deva Raya, alas! met with death."

But since royal titles are not given to the deceased, he may have

been only a prince of the blood. An inscription at Tanjore, also

dated in A.D. 1446, mentions the name Deva Raya, but gives no further

royal titles than the BIRUDA -- "Lord of the four oceans."[123] An

inscription bearing date corresponding to Saturday, August 2 A.D. 1449,

at Conjeeveram,[124] records a grant by a king called Vira Pratapa

Praudha-Immadi-Deva Raya, to whom full royal titles are given.

It is provoking that Nuniz omits the name of the successor of Deva

Raya II., as known to tradition in the sixteenth century, for this

might have helped us to a decision. At present it looks as though

there had been a Deva Raya III. reigning from A.D. 1444 to 1449;

but this point cannot as yet be settled.

Mr. Rice has shown that one of the ministers of Deva Raya II. was named

Naganna; he had the title "Dhannayaka," implying command of the army.

CHAPTER 7

The City of Vijayanagar in the Reign of Deva Raya II. (A.D. 1420

(?), 1443)

Description given by Nicolo to Bracciolini -- The capital -- Festivals

-- Immense population -- Abdur Razzak's description -- His journey --

The walls -- Palaces -- The Mint -- Bazaars -- The great Mahahnavami

festival.

It will be well to suspend our historical narrative for a time in

order to acquire some idea of the appearance and condition of the

great city of Vijayanagar in these days. We have already noticed that

as early as 1375 A.D. Sultan Mujahid of Kulbarga had heard so much of

the beauty of this capital that he desired to see it, and it had grown

in importance and grandeur during the succeeding half-century. About

the year 1420 or 1421 A.D. there visited Vijayanagar one Nicolo, an

Italian, commonly called Nicolo Conti or Nicolo dei Conti, and if he

was not the earliest European visitor, he was at least the earliest

that we know of whose description of the place has survived to this

day. His visit must have taken place shortly after the accession of

Deva Raya II. Nicolo never apparently wrote anything himself. His

stories were recorded in Latin by Poggio Bracciolini, the Pope's

secretary, for his master's information. Translated into Portuguese,

they were re-translated from the Portuguese into Italian by Ramusio,

who searched for but failed to obtain a copy of the original in

Latin. This original was first published in 1723 by the Abbe Oliva

of Paris under the title P. BRACCIOLINI, DE VARIETATE FORTUNAE,

LIBER QUATUOR.

Nicolo, on reaching India, visited first the city of Cambaya

in Gujarat. After twenty days' sojourn there he passed down the

coast to "Pacamuria," probably Barkur, and "Helly," which is the

"Mount d'Ely" or "Cabo d'Eli" of later writers. Thence he travelled

inland and reached the Raya's capital, Vijayanagar, which he calls

"Bizenegalia."[125] He begins his description thus: --

"The great city of Bizenegalia is situated near very steep

mountains. The circumference of the city is sixty miles; its walls

are carried up to the mountains and enclose the valleys at their

foot, so that its extent is thereby increased. In this city there

are estimated to be ninety thousand men fit to bear arms."

I must here interpose a correction. There were no "mountains" properly

so called at Vijayanagar; only a confused and tumbled mass of rocky

hills, some rising to considerable altitude. The extent of its

lines of defences was extraordinary. Lofty and massive stone walls

everywhere crossed the valleys, and led up to and mounted over the

hillsides. The outer lines stretched unbroken across the level country

for several miles. The hollows and valleys between the boulder-covered

heights were filled with habitations, poor and squalid doubtless,

in most instances, but interspersed with the stone-built dwellings

of the nobles, merchants, and upper classes of the vast community;

except where the elaborately constructed water-channels of the Rayas

enabled the land to be irrigated; and in these parts rich gardens

and woods, and luxurious crops of rice and sugar-cane, abounded. Here

and there were wonderfully carved temples and fanes to Hindu deities,

with Brahmanical colleges and schools attached to the more important

amongst their number.

As to the appearance of the scenery, I cannot do better than quote the

description given in 1845 by a distinguished South-Indian geologist,

Lieutenant Newbold:[126] --

"The whole of the extensive site occupied by the ruins of Bijanugger

on the south bank of the Tumbuddra, and of its suburb Annegundi on the

northern bank, is occupied by great bare piles and bosses of granite

and granitoidal gneiss, separated by rocky defiles and narrow rugged

valleys encumbered by precipitated masses of rock. Some of the larger

flat-bottomed valleys are irrigated by aqueducts from the river.... The

peaks, tors, and logging-stones of Bijanugger and Annegundi indent the

horizon in picturesque confusion, and are scarcely to be distinguished

from the more artificial ruins of the ancient metropolis of the Deccan,

which are usually constructed with blocks quarried from their sides,

and vie in grotesqueness of outline and massiveness of character

with the alternate airiness and solidity exhibited by nature in the

nicely-poised logging stones and columnar piles, and in the walls of

prodigious cuboidal blocks of granite which often crest and top her

massive domes and ridges in natural cyclopean masonry."

The remains of palaces, temples, walls, and gateways are still to be

seen, and these abound not only on the site of Vijayanagar proper,

but also on the north side of the swiftly rushing river, where stood

the stately citadel of Anegundi, the mother of the empire-city. The

population of this double city was immense, and the area occupied by

it very extensive. From the last fortification to the south, beyond

the present town of Hospett, to the extreme point of the defences of

Anegundi on the north, the distance is about twelve miles. From the

extreme western line of walls in the plain to the last of the eastern

works amongst the hills lying in the direction of Daroji and Kampli the

interval measures about ten miles. Within this area we find the remains

of the structures of which I have spoken. The hovels have disappeared,

and the debris lies many feet thick over the old ground-level. But the

channels are still in working order, and wherever they exist will be

found rich crops, tall and stately trees, and a tangle of luxuriant

vegetation. On the rocks above are the ruins of buildings and temples

and walls, and in many places small shrines stand out, built on the

jutting edges of great boulders or on the pinnacles of lofty crags, in

places that would seem inaccessible to anything but monkeys and birds.

In the central enclosure are the remains of great structures that

must once have been remarkable for their grandeur and dignity. These

immediately surrounded the king's palace; but in 1565 the Muhammadans

worked their savage will upon them with such effect that only the

crumbling ruins of the more massive edifices amongst them still

stand. The site of the palace itself is marked by a large area of

ground covered with heaps of broken blocks, crushed masonry, and

fragments of sculpture, not one stone being left upon another in its

original position.

To return to Nicolo. He continues: --

"The inhabitants of this region marry as many wives as they please,

who are burnt with their dead husbands. Their king is more powerful

than all the other kings of India. He takes to himself 12,000 wives,

of whom 4000 follow him on foot wherever he may go, and are employed

solely in the service of the kitchen. A like number, more handsomely

equipped, ride on horseback. The remainder are carried by men in

litters, of whom 2000 or 3000 are selected as his wives on condition

that at his death they should voluntarily burn themselves with him,

which is considered to be a great honour for them....

"At a certain time of the year their idol is carried through the city,

placed between two chariots, in which are young women richly adorned,

who sing hymns to the god, and accompanied by a great concourse

of people. Many, carried away by the fervour of their faith, cast

themselves on the ground before the wheels, in order that they may be

crushed to death -- a mode of death which they say is very acceptable

to their god. Others, making an incision in their side, and inserting a

rope thus through their body, hang themselves to the chariot by Nay of

ornament, and thus suspended and half-dead accompany their idol. This

kind of sacrifice they consider the best and most acceptable of all.

"Thrice in the year they keep festivals of especial solemnity. On

one of these occasions the males and females of all ages, having

bathed in the rivers or the sea, clothe themselves in new garments,

and spend three entire days in singing, dancing, and feasting. On

another of these festivals they fix up within their temples, and on

the outside on the roofs, an innumerable number of lamps of oil of

SUSIMANNI, which are kept burning day and night. On the third, which

lasts nine days, they set up in all the highways large beams, like the

masts of small ships, to the upper part of which are attached pieces

of very beautiful cloth of various kinds, interwoven with gold. On the

summit of each of these beams is each day placed a man of pious aspect,

dedicated to religion, capable of enduring all things with equanimity,

who is to pray for the favour of God. These men are assailed by the

people, who pelt them with oranges, lemons, and other odoriferous

fruits, all which they bear most patiently. There are also three

other festival days, during which they sprinkle all passers-by, even

the king and queen themselves, with saffron water, placed for that

purpose by the wayside. This is received by all with much laughter."

The first of these festivals may be the Kanarese New Year's Day,

which Domingo Paes in his chronicle asserts to have fallen, during

his visit to Vijayanagar, on October 12 -- "FESTAS EM QUE TODOS VESTEM

PANOS NOVOS E RICOS E GALANTES, E CADA HUU COMO O TEM, E DAO TODOS OS

CAPITAEES PANOS A TODA SUA GNETE DE MUYTAS CORES E GALANTES."[127]

The second should be the Dipavali festival, which occurs about the

month of October, when lamps are lighted by all the householders,

and the temples are illuminated. The description of the third answers

to the nine-days' festival, called the MAHANAVAMI, at Vijayanagar,

which, during the visit of Paes, took place on September 12. The

other feast of three days' duration answers to the HOLI festival.

Conti next describes the finding of diamonds on a mountain which

he called "Albenigaras" and places fifteen days' journey beyond

Vijayanagar "towards the north." He repeats the story which we

know as that of "Sinbad the Sailor," saying that the diamonds lie

in inaccessible valleys, into which lumps of flesh being thrown, to

which the precious stones adhere, these are carried up TO the summits

by eagles, which are then driven off and the stones secured. The

direction given, though it should rather be east than north, points to

the mines on the Krishna river being those alluded to -- mines which

are often styled the "mines of Golkonda" by travellers. Marco Polo told

the same tale of the same mines in the year 1296. Conti continues: --

"They divide the year into twelve months, which they name after the

signs of the zodiac. The era is computed variously...."

After having given a short account of the different coinages and

currencies, which is interesting, but of which the various localities

are left to the imagination, he writes: --

"The natives of Central India make use of the ballistae,[128] and

those machines which we call bombardas, also other warlike implements

adapted for besieging cities.

"They call us Franks and say, 'While they call other nations blind,

that they themselves have two eyes, and that we have but one, because

they consider that they excel all others in prudence.'[129]

"The inhabitants of Cambay alone use paper; all other Indians write

on the leaves of trees. They have a vast number of slaves, and, the

debtor who is insolvent is everywhere adjudged to be the property

of his creditor. The numbers of these people and nations exceeds

belief. Their armies consist of a million men and upwards."

Abdur Razzak also visited, the city during the reign of Deva Raya

II., but about twenty years later than Conti. He was entrusted with

an embassy from Persia, and set out on his mission on January 13,

A.D. 1442. At the beginning of November that year he arrived at

Calicut, where he resided till the beginning of April 1443. Being

there he was summoned to Vijayanagar, travelled thither, and was in

the great city from the end of April till the 5th December of the

same year. The following passage explains why he left Calicut.

"On a sudden a man arrived who brought me the intelligence that

the king of Bidjanagar, who holds a powerful empire and a mighty

dominion under his sway, had sent him to the Sameri[130] as delegate,

charged with a letter in which he desired that he would send on to him

the ambassador of His Majesty, the happy Khakhan (I.E. the king of

Persia). Although the Sameri is not subject to the laws of the king

of Bidjanagar, he nevertheless pays him respect and stands extremely

in fear of him, since, if what is said is true, this latter prince

has in his dominions three hundred ports, each of which is equal to

Calicut, and on TERRA FIRMA his territories comprise a space of three

months' journey."

In obedience to this request, Abdur Razzak left Calicut by sea

and went to Mangalore, "which forms the frontier of the kingdom of

Bidjanagar." He stayed there two or three days and then journeyed

inland, passing many towns, and amongst them a place where he saw a

small but wonderful temple made of bronze.

"At length I came to a mountain whose summit reached the skies. Having

left this mountain and this forest behind me, I reached a town called

Belour,[131] the houses of which were like palaces."

Here he saw a temple with exquisite sculpture.

"At the end of the month of Zoul'hidjah[132] we arrived at the city of

Bidjanagar. The king sent a numerous cortege to meet us, and appointed

us a very handsome house for our residence. His dominion extends from

the frontier of Serendib to the extremities of the country of Kalbergah

(I.E. from the Krishna River to Cape Comorin). One sees there more

than a thousand elephants, in their size resembling mountains and in

their form resembling devils. The troops amount in number to eleven LAK

(1,100,000). One might seek in vain throughout the whole of Hindustan

to find a more absolute RAI; for the monarchs of this country bear

the title of RAI.

"The city of Bidjanagar is such that the pupil of the eye has never

seen a place like it, and the ear of intelligence has never been

informed that there existed anything to equal it in the world. It

is built in such a manner that seven citadels and the same number

of walls enclose each other. Around the first citadel are stones of

the height of a man, one half of which is sunk in the ground while

the other half rises above it. These are fixed one beside the other

in such a manner that no horse or foot soldier could boldly or with

ease approach the citadel."

The position of these seven walls and gates have long been a puzzle to

me, but I hazard the following explanation. The traveller approached

from the southwest, and the first line of wall that he saw must have

been that on the neck between the two hills south-west of Hospett. Paes

also describes this outer defence-work as that seen by all travellers

on their first arrival from the coast. After being received at

this entrance-gate Razzak must have passed down the slope through

"cultivated fields, houses, and gardens" to the entrance of Hospett,

where the second line of fortification barred the way; and since that

town was not then thickly populated, the same features would meet

his eye till he passed a third line of wall on the north side of that

town. From this point the houses became thicker, probably forming a

long street, with shops on either side of the road, leading thence

to the capital. The fourth line of wall, with a strong gateway, is

to be seen on the south of the present village of Malpanagudi, where

several remains of old buildings exist; and notably a handsome stone

well, once probably belonging to the country-house of some noble

or chief officer. The fifth line is on the north of Malpanagudi,

and here the great gateway still stands, though the wall is much

damaged and destroyed. The sixth line is passed just to the south

of the Kamalapur tank. The seventh or inner line is the great wall

still to be seen in fairly good repair north of that village. This

last surrounded the palace and the government buildings, the space

enclosed measuring roughly a mile from north to south, and two miles

and a quarter from east to west. The remains of the upright stones

alluded to by Razzak were seen by Domingo Paes in A.D. 1520.[133]

I believe that they have now disappeared.

Razzak describes the outer citadel as a "fortress of round shape, built

on the summit of a mountain, and constructed of stones and lime. It has

very solid gates, the guards of which are constantly at their post,

and examine everything with severe inspection." This passage must

refer to the outer line of wall, since Razzak's "seventh fortress"

is the innermost of all. The guards at the gates were doubtless the

officers entrusted with the collection of the octroi duties. Sir

Henry Elliot's translation (iv. 104) adds to the passage as quoted

the words, -- "they collect the JIZYAT or taxes." This system of

collecting octroi dues at the gates of principal towns lasted till

recent days, having only been abolished by the British Government.

"The seventh fortress is to the north, and is the palace of the

king. The distance between the opposite gates of the outer fortress

north and south is two parasangs,[134] and the same east to west.

"The space which separates the first fortress from the second, and

up to the third fortress, is filled with cultivated fields and with

houses and gardens. In the space from the third to the seventh one

meets a numberless crowd of people, many shops, and a bazaar. By the

king's palace are four bazaars, placed opposite each other. On the

north is the portico of the palace of the RAI. Above each bazaar is

a lofty arcade with a magnificent gallery, but the audience-hall of

the king's palace is elevated above all the rest. The bazaars are

extremely long and broad.[135]

"Roses are sold everywhere. These people could not live without roses,

and they look upon them as quite as necessary as food.... Each class

of men belonging to each profession has shops contiguous the one to

the other; the jewellers sell publicly in the bazaars pearls, rubies,

emeralds, and diamonds. In this agreeable locality, as well as in the

king's palace, one sees numerous running streams and canals formed

of chiselled stone, polished and smooth.[136]

"On the left of the Sultan's portico rises the DEWAN KHANEH,[137]

which is extremely large and looks like a palace. In front of

it is a hall, the height of which is above the stature of a man,

its length thirty ghez and its breadth ten.[138] In it is placed

the DEFTER-KHANEH (court-house), and here sit the scribes.... In the

middle of this palace, upon an high estrade, is seated an eunuch called

the Danaik,[139] who alone presides over the divan. At the end of the

hall stand chobdars[140] drawn up in line. The Dewan or Danaik settles

people's affairs and hears their petitions. There is no appeal. After

concluding business the Danaik passes through seven doors into the

palace, and entering the last alone, makes his report to the king.

"Behind the king's palace[141] are the house and hall allotted to

the Danaik. To the left of the said palace is the Mint.

"This empire contains so great a population that it would be impossible

to give an idea of it without entering into extensive details. In the

king's palace are several cells, like basins, filled with bullion,

forming one mass."

Opposite the DIVAN-KHANEH, he continues, is the house of the elephants.

"Each elephant has a separate compartment, the walls of which

are extremely solid, and the roof composed of strong pieces of

wood.... Opposite the Mint is the house of the Governor, where are

stationed twelve thousand soldiers on guard.... Behind the Mint is a

sort of bazaar, which is more than three hundred ghez in length, and

more than twenty in breadth.[142] On two sides are ranged houses and

forecourts; in front of them are erected, instead of benches (KURSI),

several lofty seats constructed of beautiful stones. On the two sides

of the avenue formed by the chambers are represented figures of lions,

panthers, tigers, and other animals.[143] Thrones and chairs are

placed on the platforms, and the courtesans seat themselves thereon,

bedecked in gems and fine raiment."

The author took up his abode in a lofty house which had been allotted

to him, on the 1st Muharram (May 1, 1443)

"One day some messengers sent from the palace of the king came

to see me, and at the close of the same day I presented myself at

court.... The prince was seated in a hall, surrounded by the most

imposing attributes of state. Right and left of him stood a numerous

crowd of men arranged in a circle. The king was dressed in a robe of

green satin, around his neck he wore a collar, composed of pearls of

beautiful water, and other splendid gems. He had an olive complexion,

his frame was thin, and he was rather tall; on his cheeks might be

seen a slight down, hut there was no beard on his chin. The expression

of his countenance was extremely pleasing.[144] ...

"If report speaks truly, the number of the princesses and concubines

amounts to seven hundred."

Abdur Razzak gives a glowing account of the brilliancy of a great

festival of which he was a spectator while in the capital. He calls it

the Mahanavami[145] festival, but I have my doubts as to whether he

was not mistaken, since he declares that it took place in the month

Rajab (October 25 to November 23, 1443 A.D.). The Hindus celebrate

the MAHANAVAMI by a nine days' festival beginning on Asvina Sukla

1st in native reckoning, that is, on the day following the new moon

which marks the beginning of the month Asvina; while the New Year's

Day at that period was the first day of the following month, Karttika

(if the year began, as it certainly did at Vijayanagar in the time of

Paes, eighty years later, on 1st Karttika). But the new moon of Rajab

in A.D. 1443 corresponded to the new moon of KARTTIKA, not to that

of ASVINA.[146] Either, therefore, the festival which he witnessed

was the New Year's Day festival, or the traveller was in error in

giving the month "Rajab." It seems most probable that the former

was the case, because he apparently makes the festival one of only

three days' duration, whereas the MAHANAVAMI, as its name implies,

was a nine days' feast. But there is also another difficulty. The

MAHANAVAMI celebrations began with the new moon, whereas Razzak says

that the festival he saw began with the "full moon." This, however,

may have been due to a slip of the pen.

However that may be, he certainly was a spectator of a brilliant scene,

and I append his account of it.

"In pursuance of orders issued by the king of Bidjanagar, the

generals and principal personages from all parts of his empire

... presented themselves at the palace. They brought with them a

thousand elephants ... which were covered with brilliant armour and

with castles magnificently adorned.... During three consecutive days

in the month of Redjeb the vast space of land magnificently decorated,

in which the enormous elephants were congregated together, presented

the appearance of the waves of the sea, or of that compact mass which

will be assembled together at the day of the resurrection. Over this

magnificent space were erected numerous pavilions, to the height of

three, four, or even five storeys, covered from top to bottom with

figures in relief.... Some of these pavilions were arranged in such a

manner that they could turn rapidly round and present a new face: at

each moment a new chamber or a new hall presented itself to the view.

"In the front of this place rose a palace with nine pavilions

magnificently ornamented. In the ninth the king's throne was set

up. In the seventh was allotted a place to the humble author of this

narrative.... Between the palace and the pavilions ... were musicians

and storytellers."

Girls were there in magnificent dresses, dancing "behind a pretty

curtain opposite the king." There were numberless performances given

by jugglers, who displayed elephants marvellously trained.

During three consecutive days, from sunrise to sunset,

the royal festival was prolonged in a style of the greatest

magnificence. Fireworks, games, and amusements went on. On the third

day the writer was presented to the king.

"The throne, which was of extraordinary size, was made of gold,

and enriched with precious stones of extreme value.... Before the

throne was a square cushion, on the edges of which were sown three

rows of pearls. During the three days the king remained seated on

this cushion. When the fete of Mahanawi was ended, at the hour of

evening prayer, I was introduced into the middle of four ESTRADES,

which were about ten ghez both in length and breadth.[147] The roof

and the walls were entirely formed of plates of gold enriched with

precious stones. Each of these plates was as thick as the blade of a

sword, and was fastened with golden nails. Upon the ESTRADE, in the

front, is placed the throne of the king, and the throne itself is of

very great size."

The descriptions given by these travellers give us a good idea of

the splendours of this great Hindu capital in the first half of the

fifteenth century; and with this in our minds we return to the history

of the period.

CHAPTER 8

Close of the First Dynasty (A.D. 1449 to 1490)

Mallikarjuna and Virupaksha I. -- Rajasekhara and Virupaksha II. --

The Dakhan splits up into five independent kingdoms -- The Bijapur

king captures Goa and Belgaum -- Fighting at Rajahmundry, Kondapalle,

and other parts of Telingana -- Death of Mahmud Gawan -- The Russian

traveller Nikitin -- Chaos at Vijayanagar -- Narasimha seizes the

throne.

I have already stated that the period following the reign of Deva

Raya II. is one very difficult to fill up satisfactorily from any

source. It was a period of confusion in Vijayanagar -- a fact that

is clearly brought out by Nuniz in his chronicle.

A.D. 1449 is the last date in any known inscription containing mention

of a Deva Raya, and Dr. Hultzsch[148] allots this to Deva Raya II. It

may be, as already suggested, that there was a Deva Raya III. on the

throne between A.D. 1444 and 1449, but this remains to be proved. Two

sons of Deva Raya II., according to the inscriptions, were named

Mallikarjuna and Virupaksha I. respectively. There are inscriptions

of the former dated in A.D. 1452 -- 53 and 1464 -- 65,[149] and one

of the latter in 1470.[150] Mallikarjuna appears to have had two sons,

Rajasekhara, of whom we have inscriptions in the years A.D. 1479 -- 80

and 1486 -- 87, and Virupaksha II., mentioned in an inscription dated

A.D. 1483 -- 84, three years earlier than the last of Rajasekhara.

Dr. Hultzsch, in the third volume of the EPIGRAPHIA INDICA, p. 36,

gives these dates, but in the fourth volume of the same work (p. 180)

he notes that an inscription of Rajasekhara exists at Ambur in North

Arcot, which is dated in the year corresponding to A.D. 1468 --

69. I have also been told of an inscription on stone to be seen at

the village of Parnapalle (or Paranapalle) in the Cuddapah district,

of which a copy on copper-plate is said to be in the possession of one

Narayana Reddi of Goddamari in the Tadpatri Taluq of the Anantapur

district. This is reported to bear the date Saka 1398 (A.D. 1476 --

77), and to mention as sovereign "Praudha Deva Raya of Vijayanagar."

Rajasekhara's second inscription must have been engraved very shortly

before the final fall of the old royal house, for the first certain

date of the usurper Narasimha is A.D. 1450.

Amid this confusion of overlapping dates we turn for help to

Nuniz; but though his story, gathered from tradition about the year

1535, is clear and consecutive, it clashes somewhat with the other

records. According to him, Deva Raya II. had a son, Pina Raya, who

died six months after his attempted assassination; but we have shown

that Abdur Razzak conclusively establishes that this unfortunate

monarch was Deva Raya II. himself, and that the crime was committed

before the month of April 1443. Pina Raya left a son unnamed, who

did nothing in particular, and was succeeded by his son "Verupaca,"

by which name Virupaksha is clearly meant. Virupaksha was murdered

by his eldest son, who in turn was slain by his younger brother,

"Padea Rao," and this prince lost the kingdom to the usurper Narasimha.

The period was without doubt a troublous one, and all that can be

definitely and safely stated at present is that for about forty years

prior to the usurpation of Narasimha the kingdom passed from one hand

to the other, in the midst of much political agitation, discontent,

and widespread antagonism to the representatives of the old royal

family, several of whom appear to have met with violent deaths. The

usurpation took place at some period between A.D. 1487 and 1490.

Leaving the Hindu and Portuguese records, we must turn to the

Muhammadan historians in order to see what were the political relations

existing at this time between Vijayanagar and its hereditary enemies

to the north. Firishtah tells us of no event occurring between the

year 1443 and 1458 A.D. to disturb the peaceful conditions then

existing. Kulbarga was itself in too troubled a condition to venture

on further national complications. Internal disputes and civil war

raged in the Dakhan, and the country was divided against itself. The

trouble had begun which ended only with the extinction of the Bahmani

monarchy, and the establishment of five rival Muhammadan kingdoms in

the place of one.

Ala-ud-din died February 13, A.D. 1458, (?)[151] and was succeeded by

his son Humayun, a prince of "cruel and sanguinary temper." In the

following year Humayun waged war against the country of the Telugus

and besieged Devarakonda, which made so stout a resistance that the

Dakhani armies were baffled, and retired. He died on the 5th September

1461,[152] to the great relief of all his subjects. Mallikarjuna

appears to have been then king of Vijayanagar.

Nizam Shah succeeded to the throne, being then only eight years old,

but his reign was of short duration. He was succeeded by his brother

Muhammad on July 30, A D. 1463,[153]

In the middle of the year 1469, while either Rajasekhara or Virupaksha

I. was the king of Vijayanagar, Mahmud Gawan, Muhammad's minister,

marched towards the west, and after a fairly successful campaign

attacked Goa, then in the possession of the Raya of Vijayanagar, both

by sea and land. He was completely victorious and captured the place.

The war was probably undertaken in revenge for a cruel massacre of

Muhammadans which took place in this Year A.D. 1469, according to

Barros.[154] At this period the coast trade was altogether in the hands

of the Muhammadans, and they used to import large numbers of horses,

principally for the use of the great contending armies in the Dakhan

and Vijayanagar. The Hindu king depended on this supply to a large

extent. In 1469 the Moors at Batecala (Bhatkal) having sold horses

to the "Moors of Decan," the king of Vijayanagar ordered his vassal

at Onor (Honawar) "to kill all those Moors as far as possible, and

frighten the rest away." The result of this was a terrible massacre, in

which 10,000 Musulmans lost their lives. The survivors fled and settled

themselves at Goa, thus founding the city that afterwards became

the capital of Portuguese India. Nuniz alludes to the loss of "Goa,

Chaull, and Dabull" by Vijayanagar in the reign of "Verupaca."[155]

(Purchas states that the massacre took place in 1479 A.D.)

Shortly afterwards there arose to power under the Sultan Muhammad

one Yusuf Adil Khan, a slave, who before long grew to such power

that he overthrew the Bahmani dynasty, and became himself the first

independent sovereign of Bijapur -- the first "Adil Shah." In 1470,

says the BURHAN-I MAASIR, the Sultan took Rajahmundry and Kondavid from

the king of Orissa. An inscription at Kondapalle, a fine hill-fort

beautifully situated on a range of hills, gives the date as 1470 or

1471; my copy is imperfect.

Firishtah tells us that --

"In the year 877 (A.D. 1472 -- 73) Perkna, roy of the fortress of

Balgoan, at the instigation of the prince of Beejanuggur, marched

to retake the island of Goa.... Mahummud Shaw, immediately upon

intelligence of this irruption, collected his forces and moved against

Balgoan, a fortress of great strength, having round it a deep wet

ditch, and near it a pass, the only approach, defended by redoubts."

The attack ended in the reduction of the place, when the Sultan

returned to Kulbarga.

The BURHAN-I MAASIR CALLS the chief of Belgaum "Parkatapah," and Major

King, the translator of the work, gives a large variety of spellings of

the name, viz.: "Birkanah," "Parkatabtah," "Parkatiyah," "Parkitah,"

"Barkabtah."[156] Briggs gives it as "Birkana." It has been supposed

that the real name was Vikrama.

About the year 1475 there was a terrible famine in the Dakhan and

the country of the Telugus, which lasted for two years. At its close

the Hindu population of Kondapalle revolted, murdered the Muhammadan

governor, and invited aid from the king of Orissa. This monarch

accordingly advanced and laid siege to Rajahmundry, which was then

the governorship of Nizam-ul-Mulkh, but on the Shah marching in person

to the relief of the place the army of Orissa retired. In the latter

part of the year 882, which corresponds to March 1478 A.D., Muhammad

penetrated to the capital of Orissa, "and used no mercy in slaughtering

the inhabitants and laying waste the country of the enemy." The Rajah

submitted, and purchased his immunity from further interference on

the part of the Sultan by a present of some valuable elephants.

Firishtah and the BURHAN-I MAASIR differ considerably as to what

followed. The former states that, after his raid into Orissa,

Muhammad Shah reduced Kondapalle, where he destroyed a temple,

slew the Brahman priests attached to it, and ordered a mosque to be

erected on its site. He remained nearly three years at Rajahmundry,

secured the Telingana country, expelled some refractory zamindars,

and "resolved on the conquest of Nursing Raya."

"Nursing," says Firishtah, "was a powerful raja, possessing the country

between Carnatic[157] and Telingana, extending along the sea-coast,

to Matchiliputtum,[158] and had added much of the Beejanuggur territory

to his own by conquest, with several strong forts."

This was probably the powerful chief Narasimha Raya, a relation of

the king of Vijayanagar, who, intrusted with the government of large

tracts, was rising rapidly to independence under the weak and feeble

monarch whom he finally supplanted. The Sultan went to Kondapalle,[159]

and there was told that, at a distance of ten days' journey, "was

the temple of Kunchy,[160] the walls and roof of which were plated

with gold, ornamented with precious stones;" upon receipt of which

intelligence the Sultan is said to have made a forced march thither,

taking with him only 6000 cavalry, and to have sacked the place.

The account given by the BURHAN-I MAASIR as to Muhammad Shah's

proceedings at this period is that on going to Rajahmundry he found

there Narasimha Raya "with 700,000 cursed infantry, and 500 elephants

like mountains of iron," who, in spite of all his pomp and power,

fled like a craven on the approach of the army of Islam. The Sultan

then reduced Rajahmundry, which had been held by a HINDU force --

not Muhammadan, as Firishtah declares. In November 1480[161] he

marched from Rajahmundry to Kondavid, going "towards the kingdom

of Vijayanagar." After reducing that fortress, he proceeded after

a while to Malur, which belonged to Narasimha, "who, owing to his

numerous army and the extent of his dominions, was the greatest and

most powerful of all the rulers of Telingana and Vijayanagar," and who

"had established himself in the midst of the countries of Kanara and

Telingana, and taken possession of most of the districts of the coast

and interior of Vijayanagar."

While at Malur the Sultan was informed that "at a distance of fifty

farsakhas from his camp was a city called Ganji," containing temples,

&c., to which he promptly marched, arriving before the place on 13th

March A.D. 1481.[162] He sacked the city and returned.

After this the Sultan went to Masulipatam, which he reduced, and thence

returned to Kondapalle. This was his last success. His cold-blooded

murder of the celebrated Mahmud Gawan, his loyal and faithful servant,

in 1481, so disgusted the nobles that in a short time the kingdom

was dismembered, the chiefs revolted, the dynasty was overthrown,

and five independent kingdoms were raised on its ruins.

Muhammad Shah died on 21st March. A.D. 1482. Shortly before his death

he planned an expedition to relieve Goa from a Vijayanagar army which

"Sewaroy, Prince of Beejanuggur," had sent there (Firishtah); but

the Sultan's death put a stop to this (BURHAN-I MAASIR).

We have some further information on the affairs of Kulbarga during

the reign of Muhammad Shah in the writings of the Russian traveller

Athanasius Nikitin, but it is very difficult to fix the exact date

of his sojourn there. Nikitin was a native of Twer, and set out on

his wanderings by permission of the Grand Duke Michael Borissovitch,

and his own bishop, Gennadius. This fixes the time of his start so

far that it must have taken place subsequent to 1462, and the author

of the "Bombay Gazetteer," RE Poonah, assigns the period 1468 to 1474

as that of Nikitin's stay in India.

Nikitin first went to Chaul, and thence travelled by land to Junir.

"Here resides Asat, Khan of Indian Jooneer, a tributary of

Meliktuchar.... He has been fighting the Kofars for twenty years,

being sometimes beaten but mostly beating them."

By "Meliktuchar" is probably meant the celebrated minister Mahmud

Gawan, who in 1457 A.D. received the title "Mallik-al-Tijar,"

a title which was borne by the chief amongst the nobility at the

Bahmani court. It meant literally "chief of the merchants." The

"Kofars" are, of course, the Kaffirs or Hindus. Firishtah tells us of

fighting having taken place in 1469 between the Mallik-al-Tijar and

"the roles of Songeer, Khalneh, and rebels in Kokun," when the troops

of Junir were under the Mallik's command. During the war he captured

Goa, as already stated. There were campaigns also against the Hindus

of Rajahmundry, Vinukonda, and other places, and in 1472 one against

Belgaum, which has been already described. Firishtah tells us that the

Daulatabad and Junir troops were sent against the powerful Hindu Raja

Narasimha on the east coast.[163] As to Kulbarga and his experiences

there, Nikitin writes as follows: --

"The Hindus ... are all naked and bare-footed. They carry a shield

in one hand and a sword in the other. Some of the servants are

armed with straight bows and arrows. Elephants are greatly used

in battle.... Large scythes are attached to the trunks and tusks

of the elephants, and the animals are clad in ornamental plates of

steel. They carry a citadel, and in the citadel twelve men in armour

with guns and arrows.... The land is overstocked with people; but those

in the country are very miserable, whilst the nobles are extremely

opulent and delight in luxury. They are wont to be carried on their

silver beds, preceded by some twenty chargers caparisoned in gold,

and followed by three hundred men on horseback and five hundred on

foot, and by horn-men, ten torch-bearers, and ten musicians.

"There may be seen in the train of the Sultan about a thousand ordinary

horses in gold trappings, one hundred carrels with torch-bearers,

three hundred trumpeters, three hundred dancers.... The Sultan, riding

on a golden saddle, wears a habit embroidered with sapphires, and on

his pointed headdress a large diamond; he also carries a suit of gold

armour inlaid with sapphires, and three swords mounted in gold.... The

brother of the Sultan rides on a golden bed, the canopy of which is

covered with velvet and ornamented with precious stones.... Mahmud

sits on a golden bed, with a silken canopy to it and a golden top,

drawn by four horses in gilt harness. Around him are crowds of people,

and before him many singers and dancers....

"Melikh Tuchar took two Indian Towns whose ships pirated on the Indian

Sea, captured seven princes with their treasures.... The town had

been besieged for two years by an army of two hundred thousand men,

a hundred elephants, and three hundred camels.[164] ...

"Myza Mylk, Mek-Khan, and Farat Khan took three large cities, and

captured an immense quantity of precious stones, the whole of which

was brought to Melik Tuchar.... They came to Beder on the day of

the Ascension."

The Sultan's brother "when in a campaign is followed by his mother

and sister, and 2000 women on horseback or on golden beds;[165]

at the head of his train are 300 ordinary horses in gold equipment."

"Melik Tuchar moved from Beder with his army, 50,000 strong, against

the Indians.... The Sultan sent 50,000 of his own army.... With this

force Melik Tuchar went to fight against the great Indian dominion

of CHENUDAR. But the king of BINEDAR[166] possessed 300 elephants,

100,000 men of his own troops, and 50,000 horse."

The writer then gives details as to the rest of the Sultan's forces,

and the total comes to the enormous amount of over 900,000 foot,

190,000 horse, and 575 elephants.

"The Sultan moved out with his army ... to join Melich Tuchar at

Kalbarga. But their campaign was not successful, for they took only one

Indian town, and that at the loss of many people and treasures.[167]

"The Hindu Sultan Kadam is a very powerful prince. He possesses

a numerous army and resides on a mountain at BICHENEGHER. This

vast city is surrounded by three forts and intersected by a river,

bordering on one side on a dreadful jungle, and on the other on a

dale; a wonderful place and to any purpose convenient. On one side

it is quite inaccessible; a road gives right through the town, and as

the mountain rises high with a ravine below, the town is impregnable.

"The enemy besieged it for a month and lost many people, owing to

the walls of water and food. Plenty of water was in sight but could

not be got at.

"This Indian stronghold was ultimately taken by Melikh Khan Khoda,

who stormed it, and fought day and night to reduce it. The army

that made the siege with heavy guns had neither eaten nor drunk for

twenty days. He lost 5000 of his best soldiers. On the capture of

the town 20,000 inhabitants men and women, had their heads cut off,

20,000 young and old were made prisoners and sold.... The treasury,

however, having been found empty, the town was abandoned."

It is impossible to decide to what this refers, as we have no other

information of any capture of Vijayanagar by the Sultan's forces

at this period. But the traveller may have confused the place with

Rajahmundry or one of the eastern cities of Telingana.

In 1482 A.D., as before stated, Mahmud Shah II. succeeded to the throne

of Kulbarga, being then a boy of twelve, but his sovereignty was only

nominal. Constant disturbances took place; the nobles in many tracts

rose against the sovereign, and amongst others the governor of Goa

attempted to assert his independence, seizing many important places

on the coast; civil war raged at the capital; and before long the

great chiefs threw off all semblance of obedience to the authority

of the Bahmanis, and at length divided the kingdom amongst themselves.

At Vijayanagar, too, there seems to have been chaos, and about the time

when the Dakhani nobles finally revolted, Narasimha Raya had placed

himself on the throne and established a new and powerful dynasty.

The five separate kingdoms which arose in the Dakhan were those of

the Adil Shahs of Bijapur, with whom we have most to do; the Barid

Shahs of Bidr or Ahmadabad; the Imad Shahs of Birar; the Nizam Shahs

of Ahmadnagar; and the Qutb Shahs of Golkonda.

Adil Shah was the first of his line at Bijapur, and he proclaimed

his independence in A.D. 1489. The unhappy king Mahmud II. lived in

inglorious seclusion till December 18, A.D. 1517, and was nominally

succeeded by his eldest son, Ahmad. Ahmad died after two years' reign,

and was followed in rapid succession by his two brothers, Ala-ud-din

III. (deposed) and Wali (murdered), after whom Kalim Ullah, son of

Ahmad II., was nominally placed on the throne but was kept a close

prisoner, and with his death the Bahmani dynasty fell for ever.

CHAPTER 9

The First Kings of the Second Dynasty (A.D. 1490 to 1509)

Narasimha usurps the throne -- Flight of the late king -- Saluva

Timma -- Vira Narasimha -- Bijapur again attacks Vijayanagar --

The Portuguese in India -- They seize Goa -- Varthema's record --

Albuquerque.

In my "Sketch of the Dynasties of Southern India," published in 1883

(p. 106), the following passage occurs: --

"We now come to the second or Narasimha dynasty, whose scions became

more powerful than any monarchs who had ever reigned over the south of

India. Dr. Burnell fixes A.D. 1490 as the initial date of Narasimha's

reign, and at present no inscription that I can be sure of appears to

overthrow that statement. I observe, however, that Bishop Caldwell, in

his 'History of Tinnevelly' (p. 48), fixes the date of the beginning

of Narasimha's ... reign as A.D. 1487.... WE HAVE YET TO LEARN THE

HISTORY OF HIS ACQUIRING THE SOVEREIGNTY OF VIJAYANAGAR AND OUSTING

THE OLDER DYNASTY."

Nothing has since transpired to throw light on this subject, and the

whole matter has remained up to the present in its primeval darkness;

but this newly-found chronicle of Nuniz gives us the entire story

in most interesting form though I can by no means vouch for its

accuracy. It is, nevertheless, a RESUME of the traditional history

of the early sixteenth century, written within fifty or sixty years

of the events with which it deals. He tells us that Virupaksha Raya

("Verupacarao") was a weak and unworthy sovereign, in whose days

large tracts of land were lost to the Muhammadans, including Goa,

Chaul, and Dabhol; and this statement, at least, is historically

accurate. Virupaksha was despotic, cruel, and sensuous, "caring for

nothing but women and to fuddle himself with drink," so that the whole

country was roused to indignation and rebellion. Eventually he was

murdered by his eldest son, who in his turn was slain by his brother

"Padearao," in whom the nation merely found repeated the crimes and

follies of his dead sire. Disgusted with this line of sovereigns,

the nobles rose, deposed their king, and placed on the throne one

of their own number, Narasimha -- "Narsymgua, WHO WAS IN SOME MANNER

AKIN TO HIM."

Nuniz gives us a graphic account of the last scenes; how Narasimha's

captain arrived at the city gates and found them undefended; how he

penetrated the palace and found no one to oppose him; how he even

went as far as the harem, "slaying some of the women;" and how at

last the craven king fled.

"After that, Narasymgua was raised to be king.... And as he had much

power and was beloved by the people, thence-forward this kingdom of

Bisnaga was called the kingdom of Narsymga."

The problem of Narasimha's relationship to the old royal line has never

yet been satisfactorily solved. He belonged to a family called SALUVA,

and we constantly hear, in the inscriptions and literary works of the

time, of powerful lords who were relations or descendants of his. Thus

our chronicle has much to say about the Saluva Timma, whom Nuniz

calls "Salvatinea," who was minister to King Krishna Deva Raya. An

inscription of the Saka year 1395, which corresponds to A.D. 1472 --

73, speaks of Narasimha as a great lord, but a great lord ONLY,[168]

and so does another of A.D. 1482 -- 83.[169] In one of A.D. 1495 -- 96,

however,[170] he is called "MAHA-RAYA," or the "king." But although

the exact date of the usurpation and the exact relationship of the

usurper to the deposed king may be difficult to ascertain, the fact

remains that Narasimha actually became sovereign about this time,

that Muhammadan aggression was stayed by his power and the force

of his arms, and that the empire of Vijayanagar was under him once

more consolidated.

The account of this period as given by Firishtah differs

altogether from that of Nuniz, and gives rise to much confusion and

difficulty. And as to the relationship of the succeeding sovereigns,

Narasa, Vira Narasimha, Krishna Deva Raya, Achyuta, and Sadasiva,

the native inscriptions themselves are totally at variance with one

another. Some few points, however, in the general scheme of history

of the second dynasty are quite certain, and these may be shortly

summarised. The last kings of the first dynasty were recognised down to

ABOUT the year 1490 A.D. Narasimha and Vira Narasimha ruled till the

accession of Krishna Deva Raya in 1509; Achyuta succeeded Krishna in

1530, and Sadasiva succeeded Achyuta in 1542. The latter was virtually

a prisoner in the hands of Rama Raya, the eldest of three brothers, at

first nominally his minister, but afterwards independent. The names of

the other brothers were Tirumala and Venkatadri. These three men held

the government of the kingdom till 1565, when the empire was utterly

overthrown by a confederation of the five Muhammadan kings of the

Dakhan, already mentioned, at the battle of Talikota -- so-called --

and the magnificent capital was almost wiped out of existence.

With these few facts to guide us, we turn to the chronicles of Nuniz

and Firishtah, trying in vain to obtain some points of contact

between them as to the origin of the second dynasty -- some clue

which will enable us to reconcile differences and arrive at the real

truth. If we are to be guided purely by probabilities, it would seem

that the history given by Nuniz is likely to be the more accurate of

the two. His chronicle was written about the year 1535, during the

reign of Achyuta; he lived at the Hindu capital itself, and he gained

his information from Hindu sources not long subsequent to the events

related. Firishtah did not write till about A.D. 1607, was not in any

sense a contemporary recorder, and did not live amongst the Hindus,

but at the court of Nizam Shah at Ahmadnagar. The lengths of reigns,

however, as given by Nuniz do not tally with the dates which we obtain

from sources undoubtedly reliable.

Nuniz has it that Virupaksha's son "Padearao," the last of the old

line, fled from the capital when the usurper Narasimha seized the

throne; that the latter reigned forty-four years, and died leaving

two sons. These youths being too young to govern, the dying king

intrusted the kingdom to his minister, Narasa Naik, and both the

princes were murdered. Narasa seized the throne, and held it till his

death. The length of his reign is not given. His son, "Busbalrao"

(? Basava Raya), succeeded, and reigned six years, being succeeded

by his brother, the great Krishna Deva Raya. Now we know that Krishna

Deva Raya began to reign in A.D. 1509. This gives 1503 for the date of

the accession of his predecessor, "Busbal." If we allow five years for

the reign of Narasa -- a pure guess -- we have his accession in 1498

A.D., and the forty-four years of Narasimha would begin in A.D. 1454;

but this would apparently coincide with the reign of Mallikarjuna,

son of Deva Raya II. It is perhaps possible that in after years the

usurper Narasimha's reign was measured by the Hindus from the time when

he began to attain power as minister or as a great noble, and not from

the date when he actually became king; but this is pure conjecture.

Firishtah mentions a certain "Sewaroy" as being raya of Vijayanagar in

1482, shortly before the death of Muhammad Shah Bahmani. Speaking of

the new sovereign of Bijapur, the first of the Adil Shahs, in 1489,

the historian tells us that the Adil's rival, Kasim Barid, asked

the then minister of Vijayanagar for aid against the rising power

of his enemy;[171] and that "the Roy being a child, his minister,

Heemraaje,[172] sent an army" and seized the country as far as Mudkal

and Raichur. This occurred in A.H. 895, which embraces the period from

November 1489 to November 1490. "HEEMraaje," therefore, is probably

for SIMHA or Narasimha Raja, or perhaps for Narasa, otherwise called

Vira Narasimha.

Firishtah also gives another account of the same event. According to

this, the Adil Shah, hearing of dissensions in the Hindu capital,

marched, apparently in 1493, against Raichur, when Heemraaje,

having settled these dissensions, advanced "with the young Raya" to

that city. A battle ensued, in which Heemraaje was defeated; and the

young king being mortally wounded, and dying before he reached home,

Heemraaje seized the government and the country.

There are, furthermore, two other passages in Firishtah dealing

with the overthrow of the old dynasty and the accession of

"Heemraaje." One[173] runs as follows: --

"Heemraaje was the first usurper. He had poisoned the young Raja of

Beejanuggur, son of Sheoroy, and made his infant brother a tool to

his designs, by degrees overthrowing the ancient nobility, and at

length establishing his own absolute authority over the kingdom."

The other[174] states: --

"The government of Beejanuggur had remained in one family, in

uninterrupted succession, for seven hundred years, when Seoroy dying,

was succeeded by his son, a minor, who did not live long after him, and

left the throne to a younger brother. He also had not long gathered the

flowers of enjoyment from the garden of royalty before the cruel skies,

proving their inconstancy, burned-up the earth of his existence with

the blasting wind of annihilation.[175] Being succeeded by an infant

only three months old, Heemraaje, one of the principal ministers of

the family, celebrated for great wisdom and experience, became sole

regent, and was cheerfully obeyed by all the nobility and vassals of

the kingdom for forty years; though, on the arrival of the young king

at manhood, he had poisoned him, and put an infant of the family on

the throne, in order to have a pretence for keeping the regency in

his own hands.[176] Heemraaje at his death was succeeded in office by

his son, Ramraaje, who having married a daughter of the son of Seoroy,

by that alliance greatly added to his influence and power."

He then proceeds to describe an event that took place in 1535 or

thereabouts, which will be considered in its place.

Writing of the events of the year 1530,[177] we find Firishtah

stating that the affairs of Vijayanagar were then in confusion

owing to the death of Heemraaje, who was newly succeeded by his son

Ramraaje. And this passage helps us definitely to the conclusion that

his Heemraaje, or Timma Raja, was the Muhammadan name for the ruler of

the state during the reigns of Narasimha, Narasa or Vira Narasimha,

and Krishna Deva Raya, the latter of whom died in 1530. Firishtah

seems to have confused Narasa's and Krishna Deva Raya's powerful

minister, Saluva Timma, with Narasimha and Narasa, and made all three

one person. "Ramraaje" is mentioned as king by Firishtah from the

accession of Achyuta in 1530 down to the year 1565.

Though names and details differ, it will be observed that there is

evidently a common basis of truth in the accounts given by Firishtah

and Nuniz. Both relate the deaths of two young princes, brothers,

the subsequent murder of two other heirs to the kingdom, and the

usurpation of the throne by a minister.

With these remarks we turn to the more reliable portion of Firishtah's

narrative.

Yusuf Adil Khan proclaimed himself independent king of Bijapur in

A.D. 1489. Shortly afterwards his rival, Kasim Barid, who ultimately

became sovereign of the territories of Ahmadabad, in a fit of jealousy

called in the aid of Vijayanagar against Bijapur, promising for reward

the cession of Mudkal and Raichur, or the country between the two

rivers. Narasimha collected the forces of the Hindus, crossed the

Tungabhadra with a large army, and after laying waste the country

seized the two cities Mudkal and Raichur, which thus once more passed

into the possession of Vijayanagar.

Shortly after this, probably about the year 1493 A.D., Sultan Yusuf

Adil again marched to recover the lost territory and advanced to

the Krishna, but falling ill he halted for two months; and Firishtah

gives us the following account of what occurred. This has been already

alluded to, but is now given in full: --

"In this interval Heemraaje, having settled his dissensions,[178]

advanced with the young roy at the head of a great army to Roijore,

which struck terror into the army of Adil Shaw, for whose recovery

earnest prayers were offered up by his subjects." ... (The prayers

were answered and the Sultan recovered.)

"Intelligence arriving that Heemraaje had crossed the Tummedra and

was advancing by hasty marches, Eusuff Adil Shaw ordered a general

review of his army ... (and advanced, entrenching his camp a short

distance from the Hindus). Several days passed inactively, till on

Saturday in Regib 898[179] both armies drew out, and in the beginning

of the action near five hundred of Adil Shaw's troops being slain,

the rest were disordered and fell back, but were rallied again by the

sultan. One of the officers, who had been taken prisoner and made his

escape, observed that the enemy were busily employed in plunder, and

might be attacked with advantage. The sultan relished this advice and

proceeded; when Heemraaje, not having time to collect his whole army,

drew out with seven thousand horse and a considerable number of foot,

also three hundred elephants. Adil Shaw charged his center with such

fury, that Heemraaje was unable to stand the shock. Victory waved the

royal standard, and the infidels fled, leaving two hundred elephants,

a thousand horses, and sixty lacs of OONS,[180] with many jewels

and effects, to the conquerors. Heemraaje and the young roy fled to

Beejanuggur, but the latter died on the road of a wound he had received

by an arrow in the action. Heemraaje seized the government of the

country; but some of the principal nobility opposing his usurpation,

dissensions broke out, which gave Adil Shaw relief from war for some

time from that quarter."

The disputed territory between the two rivers once more passed

into the hands of the Muhammadans. Goa also remained in the Bijapur

Sultan's possession.

The last historical event in the reign of Yusuf Adil Shah of Bijapur,

as narrated by Firishtah, is as follows: --

"In the year 915,[181] the Christians surprised the town of Goa, and

put to death the governor with many mussulmauns. Upon intelligence

of which, Adil Shaw, with three thousand chosen men, Dekkanees and

foreigners, marched with such expedition, that he came upon the

Europeans unawares, retook the fort, and put many to death; but some

made their escape in their ships out to sea."

These Christians were the Portuguese under Albuquerque, and the date

of their entry into Goa was March 1, A.D. 1510.

At this period there was a complete change in the PERSONNEL of the

chief actors on our Indian stage. Ahmad Nizam Shah, who had declared

himself independent at Ahmadnagar in A.D. 1490, died in 1508, and

was succeeded by his son, a boy of seven years of age named Burhan,

with whom the traveller Garcia da Orta[182] afterwards became very

friendly. Da Orta calls him "my friend."[183] Yusuf Adil Shah died

in A.D. 1510, and his successor on the throne of Bijapur was his son

Ismail. Krishna Deva Raya became Raya of Vijayanagar in 1509. The two

last-mentioned monarchs were frequently in contact with one another,

and in the end, according to our chronicles, the Hindu king was

completely victorious. Even Firishtah admits that he dealt Ismail a

crushing blow at the great battle of Raichur, a full description of

which is given by Nuniz.

But before dealing with the history of the reign of Krishna Deva Raya

it is necessary that we should learn how it came about that these

Portuguese Christians who seized Goa came to be living in India,

and some of them even resident at the Hindu capital.

The Portuguese Arrive in India.

King John of Portugal had acquired some knowledge of India in

A.D. 1484, and after causing inquiries to be made as to the possibility

of discovering the rich and interesting country in the Far East, had

begun to fit out three ships, but he died before they were ready. His

successor, Dom Manuel, took up the matter warmly, and sent these ships

out under Vasco da Gama and his brother Paulo, with orders to try and

double the Cape of Good Hope. The full account of the extraordinary

voyage made by them is given in the "Three Voyages of Vasco da Gama,"

translated and published in the Hakluyt edition; being a translation of

certain portions of Correa's LENDAS DA INDIA. Da Gama sailed on July

8, A.D. 1497, and arrived close to Calicut on August 26, 1498.[184]

The Samuri, or king, of Calicut was at first friendly, but there were

misunderstandings on the part of the Portuguese, and they made little

or no progress either in trade or in establishing amicable relations

with the Hindus. Da Gama returned shortly after to Portugal. Early

in 1500 A.D. Cabral took out another and larger fleet, and arrived

at Calicut on September 13th. He at once quarrelled with the Samuri,

and instead of peaceful commerce we read of attacks and counter-attacks

conducted in such sort by the Portuguese as irretrievably to alienate

the natives of the country. A few Europeans, however, settled in that

tract, and amongst them Duarte Barbosa, the celebrated chronicler of

the time.

Da Gama returned to India in 1504, proclaiming the king of Portugal

lord of the seas, and wantonly destroying with all hands a large

vessel having several hundred people on board near the Indian coast. He

reached Calicut on October 29th, and immediately bombarded the city,

seizing the inoffensive native fishermen in the port, eight hundred

of whom he massacred in cold blood under circumstances of brutal

atrocity. In 1503 he again left for Europe, after establishing a

factory at Cochin. In consequence of his violence a war ensued between

Cochin and Calicut. In 1504 Lopo Soares came out with a fleet of

fourteen caravels, and proclaimed a blockade of the port of Cochin,

in spite of the fact that the Rajah of that place had always shown

great kindness and hospitality to the Portuguese.

The next year, 1505, Almeida was appointed viceroy of the king of

Portugal on the Indian coast, and took out with him a large fleet and

1500 soldiers. After some preliminary fighting at Honawar, Almeida

began for the first time to perceive that the true interests of the

Portuguese lay in peaceful commerce, and not in sanguinary and costly

attacks on the natives; and he also learned from an influential native

of the existence of the great kingdom of Vijayanagar and the power

of its king, Narasimha (or Narasa). At Cannanore the viceroy's son,

Lourenco, in 1506, received further information as to the state of

the country from the Italian traveller Varthema, and in consequence

of this Almeida asked King Narasa to allow him to erect a fortress

at Bhatkal, but no answer was returned.

Varthema has left behind him a valuable account of his experiences[185]

at this period. He speaks of Goa as being then under the "Savain,"

which is this writer's form of expressing the ruler known to the

Portuguese as the "Sabayo,"[186] who was the governor of the place

under the Adil Shah of Bijapur. The Sabayo was then at war with

Narasimha of Vijayanagar.

He describes Vijayanagar as a great city, "very large and strongly

walled. It is situated on the side of a mountain,[187] and is seven

miles in circumference. It has a triple circlet of walls." It was very

wealthy and well supplied, situated on a beautiful site, and enjoying

an excellent climate. The king "keeps up constantly 40,000 horsemen"

and 400 elephants. The elephants each carry six men, and have long

swords fastened to their trunks in battle -- a description which agrees

with that of Nikitin and Paes. "The common people go quite naked,

with the exception of a piece of cloth about their middle. The king

wears a cap of gold brocade two spans long.... His horse is worth

more than some of our cities on account of the ornaments which it

wears."[188] Calicut, he says, was ruined in consequence of its wars

with the Portuguese.

Varthema saw forty-eight Portuguese traders massacred at Calicut by the

"Moors," and in consequence of the dangerous state of things existing

there he left the city and pursued his journey southwards round the

coast. Here we may leave him.

In March 1505 a Portuguese fleet destroyed, with immense loss of life,

a large flotilla of small boats belonging to the Rajah of Calicut. In

the next year an outrage committed by the Portuguese led to a siege

of their factory at Cannanore, but the timely arrival of Tristan da

Cunha with a new fleet from home relieved the beleaguered garrison. At

the end of 1507 Almeida and Da Cunha joined forces and again attacked

Calicut, with some measure of success.

Afonso d'Albuquerque was now in the Persian seas fighting with all

the "Moors" he could meet. At the end of 1509 he became "Governor of

India," I.E. of Portuguese India, in succession to Almeida; Diogo Lopes

de Sequeira receiving the governorship under the king of Portugal of

the seas east of Cape Comorin.

From the accession of Krishna Deva Raya to the throne of Vijayanagar in

A.D. 1509 we once more enter a period when the history of the country

becomes less confused, and we are able to trace the sequence of events

without serious difficulty. This was the period of Vijayanagar's

greatest successes, when its armies were everywhere victorious,

and the city was most prosperous.

CHAPTER 10

The Reign of Krishna Deva Raya (A.D. 1509 to 1530)

His character and person -- Bankapur -- Almeida and Fr. Luis's mission

-- Duarte Barbosa -- His description of the city -- The king's early

wars -- Kondapalle -- Rajahmundry -- Kondavid -- Udayagiri -- Wars

of the Qutb Shah of Golkonda in Telingana.

An inscription in the Pampapati temple at Hampe states that on

the occasion of a festival in honour of the coronation of Krishna

Deva Raya, the king built a hall of assembly and a GOPURA or tower

there, and the date is given as the 14th of the first half of the

lunar month Magha in the expired Saka year 1430, the year of the

cycle being "Sukla."[189] It so happens that the cyclic year Sukla

does not correspond to Saka 1430 expired, but to Saka 1431 expired;

and this unfortunate error leaves us in doubt as to the true date of

that important event. If we conceive the mistake as having occurred,

not in the NAME of the year, which was perhaps in constant daily use,

but in the number of the Saka year, then the date corresponds to 23rd

or 24th January A.D. 1510; but if the number of the Saka year was

correct and the name wrong, then the day must have been February 4,

1509, the cyclic year being properly "Vibhava." Even then it is not

certain whether this festival took place on the coronation day itself,

or on an anniversary of that event; and a considerable interval may

have elapsed between the king's accession and coronation. Probably

we shall not be wrong if we consider that the new king succeeded to

the throne in A.D. 1509.[190]

Krishna Raya seems to have possessed a very striking personality,

to judge from the glowing description given us by Paes, who saw

him about the year 1520. The account given by him is all the more

interesting and valuable because without it the world would have

remained justly in doubt as to whether this king really reigned at

all, in the usual acceptation of the word -- whether he was not a

mere puppet, entirely in the hands of his minister, perhaps even an

actual prisoner. For Firishtah never mentions him by name, and the

inscriptions which relate his conquests prove nothing beyond the fact

that they took place during a reign which, for all we know, might have

been a reign only in name, the real power being in the hands of the

nobles. But with the description of Paes in our hands there can be no

longer a shadow of doubt. Krishna Deva was not only monarch DE JURE,

but was in very practical fact an absolute sovereign, of extensive

power and strong personal influence. He was the real ruler. He was

physically strong in his best days, and kept his strength up to the

highest pitch by hard bodily exercise. He rose early, and developed

all his muscles by the use of Indian clubs and the use of the sword;

he was a fine rider, and was blessed with a noble presence which

favourably impressed all who came in contact with him. He commanded his

immense armies in person, was able, brave, and statesmanlike, and was

withal a man of much gentleness and generosity of character. He was

beloved by all and respected by all. Paes writes of him that he was

"gallant and perfect in all things." The only blot on his scutcheon

is, that after his great success over the Muhammadan king he grew to

be haughty and insolent in his demands. No monarch such as the Adil

Shah could brook for a moment such a humiliation as was implied by a

peace the condition of which was that he should kiss his triumphant

enemy's foot; and it was beyond all doubt this and similar contemptuous

arrogance on the part of successive Hindu rulers that finally led,

forty years later, to the downfall of the Hindu empire.

All Southern India was under Krishna Deva's sway, and several

quasi-independent chiefs were his vassals. These were, according to

Nuniz, the chief of Seringapatam, and those of Bankapur,[191] Garsopa,

Calicut, Bhatkal, and Barkur. The Portuguese treated these lesser

chiefs as if they were kings, called them so and sent embassies to

them, no doubt much to their satisfaction.

The present head of the Brahmanical establishment at the Hampe temple

informed me that Krishna Deva Raya celebrated his accession by erecting

the great tower at the entrance of the temple, and the next largest

tower shortly afterwards. Nuniz tells us that immediately on attaining

power, the king, making Saluva Timma his minister, sent his nephew,

the son of the last sovereign, and his own three brothers, to the

fortress of Chandragiri, 250 miles to the south-east, for his greater

security, and himself remained for some time at the capital. This

accords well with the writings of the other Portuguese, who relate

that at least on two occasions, when missions were sent from Calicut

and Goa, viz., those of Fr. Luis and Chanoca, the envoys saw the king

in person at Vijayanagar.

At the beginning of Krishna's reign, Almeida, as stated above,

was viceroy of the Portuguese settlements on the coast, but at the

end of the year 1509 Albuquerque succeeded him under the title of

governor. The latter suffered a severe reverse at Calicut, and from

thence despatched Fr. Luis, of the Order of St. Francis, as ambassador

to Vijayanagar, begging the Raya to come by land and reduce the Samuri

of Calicut, promising himself to assault simultaneously by sea.[192]

The governor declared that he had orders from his master, the king

of Portugal, to war against the Moors, but not against the Hindus;

that Calicut had been destroyed by the governor, and its king had

fled into the interior; that he (the governor) offered his fleet to

assist the king of Vijayanagar in his conquest of the place; that as

soon as Calicut was captured the Moors would be driven therefrom, and

that afterwards the Portuguese would assist the king of Vijayanagar

against his enemies, the "Moors" of the Dakhan. He promised in future

to supply Vijayanagar alone with Arab and Persian horses, and not to

send any to Bijapur. No answer was returned.

Albuquerque next attacked Goa, then under the Adil Shah, and

captured the place, making his triumphal entry into it on March 1,

A.D. 1510. Immediately afterwards he despatched Gaspar Chanoca on

a mission to Vijayanagar, renewing Almeida's request for a fort at

Bhatkal for the protection of Portuguese trade. Barros[193] states

that Chanoca reported that, though he was received "solemnly," Krishna

Deva Raya only made a general answer in courteous terms, and did not

specifically grant the governor's request; the reason being that the

king had then made peace with the Adil Shah. Presumably this peace

was made in order to enable the Adil Shah to retake Goa.[194]

Upon this a message was sent from Vijayanagar to Albuquerque

congratulating the Portuguese on their conquest of Goa, and promising

to aid them against the Adil Shah. This aid, however, does not appear

to have been given. The Muhammadan troops attacked Goa in May and after

a severe struggle were successful, Albuquerque evacuating the place

after decapitating a hundred and fifty of the principal Muhammadans

there, and slaughtering their wives and children.[195]

In November of the same year, Ismail Adil's attention being called off

by internal dissension at Bijapur, Albuquerque attacked Rasul Khan,

Ismail's deputy at Goa, and the eight thousand men under his command,

defeated them, retook the place on December 1, and slew six thousand

men, women, and children of the Muhammadans. Firishtah states that

the young Adil Shah's minister, Kummal Khan, after this made peace

with the Europeans, and left them securely established at Goa. This,

however, is not quite correct, for Rasul Khan made a desperate attempt

in 1512 to retake the place, but failed after severe fighting.[196]

As soon as the news reached Vijayanagar of Albuquerque's success

in December 1510, Krishna Deva Raya sent ambassadors to Goa, and

by them Fr. Luis sent letters to Albuquerque detailing the result

of his mission. He "had been well received by all except the king,"

but the king had nevertheless granted permission for the Portuguese

to build a fort at Bhatkal. Poor Fr. Luis never returned from his

embassy. History is silent as to what happened or what led to the

tragedy, but he was one day murdered in the city of Vijayanagar.[197]

His despatch is interesting as containing information regarding

Vijayanagar and the Sultan of Bijapur, part of which is certainly

accurate, while part tells us of Krishna Deva Raya's proceedings

at this period, regarding which we know nothing from any other

source. Fr. Luis wrote to Albuquerque that the Adil Shah had attacked

Bijapur, and had taken it after a siege of two months, while four lords

had risen against him "since the latter had carried off the king of

Decan as a prisoner." This king was the Bahmani king, while the Adil

Shah and the "four lords" were the revolting Muhammadan princes. He

added that the people of Belgaum had revolted from the Adil Shah and

submitted to the Hindu sovereign. As to Vijayanagar, he said that the

king was getting ready a small expedition of seven thousand men to send

against one of his vassals, who had risen up in rebellion and seized

the city of Pergunda (? Pennakonda), saying that it belonged to himself

by right; and that after he had taken the rebel the king would proceed

to certain places on the sea-coast. Fr. Luis professed himself unable

to understand the drift of this latter design, but warned Albuquerque

to be careful. He advised him to keep up friendly communications with

the king, and by no means to place any reliance on the man on whom, of

all others, the Portuguese had pinned their faith -- one Timoja,[198]

a Hindu who had befriended the new-comers. The priest declared that

Timoja was a traitor to them, and had, in conjunction with the king

of Garsopa, promised Krishna Deva Raya that he would deliver Goa to

him before the Portuguese could fortify their possessions therein,

if he should send a fully equipped army to seize the place.

After Albuquerque's second capture of Goa the chief of Bankapur

also sent messages of congratulation to the Portuguese, and asked

for permission to import three hundred horses a year. The request

was granted, as the place was on the road to Vijayanagar, and

it was important that its chief should be on friendly terms with

the Europeans. Moreover, Bankapur contained a number of superior

saddlers.[199]

Krishna Deva's anxiety was to secure horses. He must have thought

little of this foreign settlement on the coast as a political power,

but what he wanted was horses, and again horses, for his perpetual

wars against the Adil Shah; and Albuquerque, after toying a little

with the Muhammadan, gratified the Hindu by sending him a message in

which he declared that he would prefer to send cavalry mounts to him

rather than to supply them to the Sultan of Bijapur.

About the year 1512 Krishna Deva Raya, who had, taken advantage of

the times to invade the Sultan's dominions, attacked the fortress of

Raichur, which at last was given up to him by the garrison; Ismail

Adil being too much employed in attending to the internal affairs of

his government to afford it timely relief. So says Firishtah.[200]

This event is not noticed by Nuniz, who writes as if the Raya's first

campaign against the Adil Shah took place in 1520, when he advanced

to attack Raichur, it being then in the Shah's possession; and here we

see a difference between the story of Nuniz and the story of Firishtah,

for the latter, writing of the same event, viz., the campaign of 1520,

states that "Ismail Adil Shaw made preparations for marching to recover

Mudkal and Roijore from the Roy of Beejanuggar," he having taken these

cities about 1512, as narrated. Which account is correct I cannot say.

It appears[201] that in 1514 A.D. Krishna Deva offered Albuquerque

[pound sterling] 20,000 for the exclusive right to trade in horses, but

the Portuguese governor, with a keen eye to business, refused. A little

later the Hindu king renewed his proposal, declaring his intention of

making war against the Adil Shah; and the Adil Shah, hearing of this

message, himself sent an embassy to Goa. Albuquerque was now placed

in a position of some political importance, and he wrote first to

Vijayanagar saying that he would give the Raya the refusal of all his

horses if he would pay him 30,000 cruzados per annum for the supply,

and send his own servants to Goa to fetch away the animals, and also

that he would aid the king in his war if he was paid the expense of

the troops; and he wrote afterwards to Bijapur promising the Sultan

the refusal of all horses that came to Goa if he would surrender to

the king of Portugal a certain portion of the mainland opposite the

island. Before this matter was settled, however, Albuquerque died.

We learn from this narrative the Krishna Deva Raya was meditating a

grand attack on the Muhammadans at least five years before his advance

to Raichur -- a year even before his expedition against Udayagiri and

the fortresses on the east, the story of which campaign is given in

our chronicle.

We have an account of what Vijayanagar was like in A.D. 1504 --

14 in the narrative of Duarte Barbosa, a cousin of Magellan, who

visited the city during that period.

Speaking of the "kingdom of Narsinga," by which name the Vijayanagar

territories were always known to the Portuguese, Barbosa writes:[202]

"It is very rich, and well supplied with provisions, and is very full

of cities and large townships."

He describes the large trade of the seaport of Bhatkal on its western

coast, the exports from which consisted of iron, spices, drugs,

myrabolans, and the imports of horses and pearls; but as regards

he last two items he says, "They now go to Goa, on account of the

Portuguese." The governor of Bhatkal was a nephew of King Krishna

Deva. "He lives in great state and calls himself king, but is in

obedience to the king, his uncle."

Leaving the sea-coast and going inland, Barbosa passed upwards through

the ghats.

"Forty-five leagues from these mountains there is a very large city

which is called BIJANAGUER, very populous, and surrounded on one side

by a very good wall, and on another by a river, and on the other

by a mountain. This city is on level ground; the king of Narsinga

always resides in it. He is a gentile, and is called Raheni.[203]

He has in this place very large and handsome palaces, with numerous

courts.... There are also in this city many other palaces of great

lords, who live there. And all the other houses of the place are

covered with thatch, and the streets and squares are very wide. They

are constantly filled with an innumerable crowd of all nations and

creeds.... There is an infinite trade in this city.... In this city

there are many jewels which are brought from Pegu and Celani (Ceylon),

and in the country itself many diamonds are found, because there is

a mine of them in the kingdom of Narsinga and another in the kingdom

of Decani. There are also many pearls and seed-pearls to be found

there, which are brought from Ormuz and Cael ... also silk-brocades,

scarlet cloth, and coral....

"The king constantly resides in the before-mentioned palaces, and

very seldom goes out of them....

"All the attendance on the king is done by women, who wait upon him

within doors; and amongst them are all the employments of the king's

household; and all these women live and find room within these palaces,

which contain apartments for all....

"This king has a house[204] in which he meets with the governors and

his officers in council upon the affairs of the realm.... They come in

very rich litters on men's shoulders.... Many litters and many horsemen

always stand at the door of this palace, and the king keeps at all

times nine hundred elephants and more than twenty thousand horses,

all which elephants and horses are bought with his own money.... This

king has more than a hundred thousand men, both horse and foot,

to whom he gives pay....

"When the king dies four or five hundred women burn themselves with

him.... The king of Narsinga is frequently at war with the king of

Dacani, who has taken from him much of his land; and with another

gentile king of the country of Otira (apparently Orissa), which is

the country in the interior."

Barbosa mentions that the lord of Goa, before the Portuguese attack

on the place, was "Sabaym Delcani," meaning the king of the Dakhan,

and he alludes to its first capture by Albuquerque on 25th February

1510, and the second on 25th November of the same year.

We learn from other sources that about this time Krishna Deva Raya

was engaged with a refractory vassal in the Maisur country, the Ganga

Rajah of Ummatur, and was completely successful. He captured the

strong fortress of Sivasamudra and the fortress of Srirangapattana,

or Seringapatam, reducing the whole country to obedience.

In 1513 A.D. he marched against Udayagiri, in the present district

of Nellore, an exceedingly strong hill-fortress then under the king

of Orissa,[205] and after the successful termination of the war

he brought with him from a temple on the hill a statue of the god

Krishna, which he set up at Vijayanagar and endowed with a grant of

lands. This is commemorated by a long inscription still in existence

at the capital. It was then that the great temple of Krishnasvami was

built, which, though now in ruins, is still one of the most interesting

objects in the city. This is also attested by a long inscription

on stone, still in its place. The king further built the temple of

Hazara Ramasvami near, or in, his palace enclosure, at the same time.

Nuniz relates that at Udayagiri Krishna Raya captured an aunt of the

king of Orissa and took her prisoner to Vijayanagar. He next proceeded

against Kondavid, another very strong hill-fortress also in possession

of the king of Orissa, where he met and defeated the king in person

in a pitched battle, and captured the citadel after a two months'

siege. He left Saluva Timma here as a governor of the conquered

provinces, and went in pursuit of his enemy northwards. Nuniz says

that Saluva Timma appointed his own brother captain of Kondavid,

but an inscription at that place gives us the name of this man as

Nadendla Gopamantri, and calls him a nephew of Timma. Kondavid seems

to have been under the kings of Orissa since A.D. 1454; its capture

by Krishna Deva took place in 1515.[206] To confirm our chronicler's

account of the king's northward journey, I find that there is at the

town of Meduru, twenty-two miles south-east of Bezvada on the Krishna,

an inscription which states that in 1516 a battle took place there

between Krishna Deva and some enemy whose name is obliterated, in

which the former was victorious.

The king, advanced to Kondapalle, took the place after a three months'

siege, and captured therein a wife and son of the king of Orissa. The

unhappy fate of the latter is told in the chronicle. Thence he marched

to Rajahmundry and halted six months. Peace was made shortly after,

and Krishna Deva married a daughter of the Orissan king.[207] After

this marriage King Krishna made an expedition against a place in the

east which Nuniz calls "Catuir," on the Coromandel side, and took

it. I have been unable to locate this place.

By these conquests the whole of his eastern dominions were brought

into entire subjection to the sovereign.

Nuniz writes as though the attack on Raichur immediately followed the

campaign against Udayagiri, Kondavid, and "Catuir," but, according

to the evidence afforded by inscriptions, these expeditions were at

an end in 1515, and the battle of Raichur did not take place for at

least five years later.

A long account of wars in the south-eastern Dakhan country

between Sultan Quli Qutb Shah of Golkonda and his neighbours, both

Mussulman and Hindu, is given in the third volume of Colonel Briggs'

"Firishtah,"[208] translated from a Muhammadan historian -- not

Firishtah himself; and as this certainly covers the period of at least

a portion of Krishna Deva's reign, it is well to give a summary of

it. I cannot, however, as yet determine the exact dates referred to,

and the story differs from that acquired from Hindu and Portuguese

accounts, the dates of which are confirmed by epigraphical records.

Sultan Quli proclaimed himself an independent sovereign in 1512. The

historian referred to states that shortly after this Quli attacked and

took Razukonda and Devarakonda, fortresses respectively south-east

and south-south-east of Hyderabad in Telingana. After the second of

these places had fallen Krishna Raya of Vijayanagar marched against

the Sultan with an immense army and invaded his dominions. This must,

I think, refer to about the year 1513. The Hindu army encamped at

Pangul, in the angle of the Krishna river almost due east of Raichur,

and here a battle took place in which the Qutb Shah was victorious

The place was then besieged; it capitulated, and the Muhammadans

proceeded to Ghanpura, twenty miles to the north. This fort was

captured after heavy loss, and the Sultan led his army to Kovilkonda,

twenty miles to the north-west, on the borders of the country of Bidar,

the territory of Ala-ud-din Imad Shah. This place also fell.

A war with the Imad Shah followed, in which Sultan Quli was again

victorious. Shortly afterwards there were disturbances on the east

of the Golkonda territories. Sitapati, Rajah of Kambampeta, on the

Muniyer river, who possessed extensive territories -- including

Warangal and Bellamkonda, a fortress south of the Krishna -- rose

against the Muhammadans, and the Sultan marched against Bellamkonda,

which, after a long siege, he captured. Sitapati then fought a pitched

battle, was defeated, and fled, Quli returning to Golkonda. The Rajah

then stirred up a number of neighbouring chiefs and assembled large

forces at Kambampeta. Hearing of this, the Golkonda forces marched

to attack them, and met with complete success, Sitapati flying to

the protection of "Ramchunder Dew, the son of Gujputty, who held his

court at Condapilly," and was king of Orissa. The Sultan advanced

and attacked Kambampeta, where, after his capture of the place, he

slew every man, woman, and child in the city, seizing the females

of Sitapati's household for his own seraglio. Meanwhile an immense

Hindu host from all the countries about, under command of the king

of Orissa, prepared to do battle for their country, and a decisive

action took place near the river at Palinchinur, in which the Hindus

were completely defeated. Quli then seized Kondapalle, Ellore, and

Rajahmundry, and a treaty was made between him and Orissa fixing the

Godavari river as the eastern boundary of Golkonda. By this the Sultan

added the districts of Ellore and Bezvada to his own dominions.

Krishna Raya then advanced to the rescue and the Sultan marched to

Kondavid. He invested the place, but was forced to retreat owing to

attacks made on him from Bellamkonda and Vinukonda, the first of

which fortresses he succeeded in reducing after heavy loss. After

this he retired towards Kondapalle. Krishna Raya now arrived and

attacked the Muhammadan garrison in Bellamkonda, upon which the Sultan

counter-marched, and suddenly appeared in rear of the Hindu army. In

the battle which ensued he was victorious and the siege was raised,

after which he returned to Kondavid and took it. On learning of the

fall of Kondavid, Krishna Raya detached "his general and son-in-law

Seeva Ray"[209] with 100,000 foot and 8000 horse to march against

the Muhammadans. The Sultan retreated and encamped on the banks of

the Krishna, leaving Kondavid to the Hindus.[210] After settling

the place the Vijayanagar forces proceeded in pursuit of the Sultan,

were attacked by him, defeated, and retired to Kondavid, which was

a second time invested by the army of Golkonda. The Hindus then

submitted and agreed to become tributary.

On his return towards his capital the Sultan learned that Ismail

Adil Shah of Bijapur was besieging Kovilkonda, "at the instance of

the Raja of Beejanuggur."[211] He marched against him, and a series

of actions ensued, the campaign lasting eleven months, at the end of

which Ismail died of a fever, and was succeeded by his son Malu. In

one of the fights Sultan Quli was wounded severely by a sabre in the

face, and disfigured for life.[212]

I have given the whole of this story in this place because it

runs as a consecutive series of events in the original Muhammadan

account. But it really covers a period of at least twenty-one years;

for the narrative begins shortly after the beginning of Quli's reign

(1512), and ends with Ismail's death (1534). We are left, therefore,

entirely in the dark as to the exact years referred to. But there are

some points of agreement between our authorities. It is certain that

Krishna Deva took Kondavid in A.D. 1515, and fought battles in the

neighbourhood in the following year; and though Nuniz asserts that he

took Kondavid from the king of Orissa, he also alludes to the presence

of armed bodies of Muhammadans in that tract opposed to the Hindus.

With these remarks we return to Vijayanagar history.

From 1516 to 1520 we have no records from Hindu sources to guide us

as to events at the capital.

The Portuguese traded on the coast, and there were some fights with

the neighbouring Hindu chiefs, but they seem to have affected the

capital but little; the foreigners were generally on friendly terms

with the suzerain at Vijayanagar, and so far as he was concerned were

welcome to consolidate their commerce, since he benefited largely by

the import of horses and other requisites. The rest of his dominions

were tranquil and the inhabitants obedient to his rule.

The whole country was divided out -- so Nuniz tells us, and his

account is confirmed by other evidence -- into governorships. Each

chief was allowed entire independence in the territory allotted to

him so long as he maintained the quota of horse, foot, and elephants,

the maintenance of which was the price of his possession, in perfect

readiness for immediate action, and paid his annual tribute to the

sovereign. Failing these he was liable to instant ejection, as the

king was lord of all and the nobles held only by his goodwill.

But during this period of peace the king made extensive preparations

for a grand attack on the territory between the rivers, the

ever-debatable land which for nearly two centuries had been the subject

of dispute between his predecessors and their northern neighbours. His

objective was the city of Raichur, then under the Muhammadans,[213]

and when all was ready he marched to the attack with an immense force.

This event requires a chapter to itself.

CHAPTER 11

The Siege and Battle of Raichur, and Close of Krishna's Reign

(A.D. 1520 to 1530)

The date of the siege -- Evidence of Castanheda, Correa, Barros,

Faria y Souza, Osorio, Lafitau, Firishtah -- Ruy de Mello and the

mainlands of Goa -- Immense numbers engaged -- Firishtah's story

of the fight -- Portuguese present -- Christovao de Figueiredo --

Political effects of the Hindu victory, and the events that followed

it -- The mainlands of Goa.

I shall ask my readers to turn for an account of the great battle and

siege of Raichur to the narrative of Nuniz,[214] whose description

is so full and so vivid that it may well be allowed to stand by

itself. It is only necessary for me to add a few notes.

The following is a short summary of the story: --

Krishna Deva Raya, having determine to attack the Adil Shah

and once for all to capture the disputed fortress of Raichur,

collected all his forces, and marched with an immense host from

Vijayanagar in a north-easterly direction. It was the dry season,

and he probably set out in February or March. The weather must have

been intensely hot during his advance, and still more so during

the campaign; but the cotton plains that lay on his route out and

home were then in the best condition for the passage of his troops,

guns, and baggage. His enormous army consisted of about a million of

men, if the camp-followers be included; for the fighting men alone,

according to Nuniz, numbered about 736,000, with 550 elephants. The

troops advanced in eleven great divisions or army corps, and other

troops joined him before Raichur.

He pitched his camp on the eastern side of that citadel, invested

the place, and began a regular siege. After an interval he received

intelligence of the arrival of the Adil Shah from Bijapur, on the

north side of the Krishna, with an army of 140,000 horse and foot to

oppose him.

Having for a few days rested his troops, the Sultan crossed the river,

advanced (according to Nuniz) to within nine miles of Raichur, and

there entrenched himself, leaving the river about five miles in his

rear.[215] Firishtah, however, differs, and says that the Muhammadan

forces crossed directly in face of the Hindu army encamped on the

opposite bank.

On Saturday morning, May 19, in the year A.D. 1520, according to

my deductions, the forces became engaged, and a decisive pitched

battle was fought. Krishna Deva, making no attempt to outflank

his adversary, ordered an advance to his immediate front of his two

forward divisions. Their attack was so far successful that they drove

the Muhammadans back to their trenches. The Sultan had apparently

deployed his force over too wide an area, expecting that the Raya

would do the same; but finding himself weak in the centre he opened

fire from the guns that he had previously held in reserve, and by this

means caused great loss in the close ranks of the Hindus. The Raya's

troops fell back in face of this formidable bombardment, and at once

their enemies charged them. The retreat was changed to a rout, and for

a mile and a half to their direct front the Mussulman cavalry chased

the flying forces belonging to Krishna Deva's first line. The king

himself, who commanded the second line, began to despair of victory,

but rallied his troops, collected about him a number of his nobles, and

determined to face death with the bravery that had always characterised

him. Mounting his horse, he ordered a forward movement of the whole

of his remaining divisions, and charged the now disordered ranks of

the Mussulmans. This resulted in complete success, for the enemy,

scattered and unable to form, fled before his impetuous onslaught. He

drove them the whole way back to, and into, the river, where terrific

slaughter took place, and their entire army was put to flight.

The Raya then crossed the river and seized the Shah's camp, while

the Shah himself, by the counsel and help of Asada Khan, a man who

afterwards became very famous, escaped only with his life, and fled

from the field on an elephant.

While being driven back towards the river, Salabat Khan, the Shah's

general, made a valiant attempt to retrieve the fortunes of the day. He

had for his bodyguard 500 Portuguese "renegades," and with him these

men threw themselves into the advancing ranks of the Hindus, where they

"did such wonderful deeds" that ever after they were remembered. They

penetrated the king's host, and cut their way forwards till they

almost reached his person. Here Salabat Khan lost his horse, but at

once mounted another and pressed on. The little force was, however,

surrounded and annihilated, and the general, being a second time

overthrown, horse and all, was made prisoner.

The spoil was great and the result decisive. For years afterwards the

"Moors" cherished a wholesome dread of Krishna Raya and his valiant

troops, and the Sultan, panic-stricken, never again during his enemy's

lifetime ventured to attack the dominions of Vijayanagar. Krishna

Deva, flushed with victory, returned at once to the attack of Raichur,

and the fortress was after a short time captured.

Its fall was due in great measure to the assistance rendered by

some Portuguese, headed by Christovao de Figueiredo, who with their

arquebusses picked off the defenders from the walls, and thus enabled

the besiegers to approach close to the lines of fortification and

pull down the stones of which they were formed. Driven to desperation,

and their governor being slain, the garrison surrendered.

Date of the Battle.

Now as to the date of this battle.

I am bold enough to believe, and defend my belief, that when Nuniz

fixed the day of the great fight as the new moon day of the month of

May, A.D. 1522, he made a mistake in the year, and should have written

"1520."

The chronicler states that Krishna Deva was prepared to give battle on

a Friday, but was persuaded by his councillors to postpone his attack

till the following day, Friday being unlucky. The battle accordingly

took place on the Saturday, which was the new moon day.

Before proceeding to examine the month and day, let us consider the

year A.D. of the battle.

Paes describes two grand festivals at the capital of which he was an

eye-witness, and at which Christovao de Figueiredo was present. He

fixes definitely the days on which these occurred. The first was the

nine-days MAHANAVAMI festival, and the second was the festival of the

New Year's Day. Paes states that on the occasion when he was present

the MAHANAVAMI began on September 12 ("ESTAS FESTAS SE COMECAO A

DOSE DõAS DE SETEBRO E DURAO NOVE DIAS"[216]), and the latter began

on October 12 ("ENTRAMDO O MES D OUTUBRO A OMZE DIAS AMDADOS D ELE

... NESTE DIU COMECAO O ANNO, E DIA D ANNO BOM ... COMECAO O ANNO

NESTE MES COM A LUA NOVA, E ELLES NAO CONTAO O MES SE NAO DE LUA A

LUA").[217] Previously to this, when writing about Raichur, Paes has

described that place[218] as a city "that formerly belonged to the

king of Narsymga (I.E. Vijayanagar); there has been much war over it,

and THIS KING took it from the Ydallcao" (Adil Shah). The chronicler,

therefore, was present at these feasts on an occasion subsequent to

the date of Krishna Deva's conquest of Raichur.

Now the MAHANAVAMI festival begins in these tracts on the 1st of

the month of Asvina, and the New Year's Day in the time of Paes was

evidently celebrated on the 1st of the month Karttika, as was often the

case in former years both days being the days following the moment of

new moon. In what year, then, during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya,

did the 1st of Asvina and the 1st of Karttika fall respectively on

September 12 and on October 12? I have worked these dates out for all

the years of the reign, and I find that in no year except A.D. 1520

did this occur. In 1521 the MAHANAVAMI fell on September 2, and the

New Year's Day on October 1; in 1522 the former fell on September 20,

and the latter on October 20. This shows that Paes assisted at the

festivals of A.D. 1520, and that therefore the battle and capture

of Raichur must have taken place before the month of September in

that year.

This again throws fresh light on the magnificent reception accorded

to Christovao de Figueiredo by the king, and the latter's exceptional

kindness to the Portuguese at the time of these feasts.[219] Krishna

Raya cherished an especial fondness for Christovao on account of his

invaluable aid at the siege of the city, and for the fact that but

for him the war might have lasted much longer.

Let us now turn to the other Portuguese writers, and see whether they

confirm our date, 1520, for the fall of Raichur.

The decision of this question turns mainly on the date when the

Portuguese obtained the mainlands opposite the island of Goa,

consisting of the tracts called Salsette, Ponda, and Bardes. It seems

certain that this capture of the mainlands took place by Krishna Deva's

connivance shortly after the fall of Raichur, at a time when Diogo

Lopes de Sequeira, the governor-general, was away at the Red Sea,

and when Ruy de Mello was governor of Goa. Now Sequeira left Goa for

the Red Sea on February 13, A.D. 1520, and arrived again before Diu

in India on February 9, 1521.

Castanheda tells us (and he is a good authority, since he was in

India in 1529) that while Sequeira was absent at the Red Sea war

broke out between the king of Vijayanagar and the Adil Shah,[220]

at the close of which the latter was defeated and put to flight,

while the Hindus took Raichur and other places

"so that many of the TANADARIS[221] near Goa on the mainland were left

undefended. And since the king of Narsinga was very rich, and had no

need of these lands, and wanted that all the horses that came to Goa

should come to him and none to the HIDALCAO, he sent to say to Ruy

de Mello, captain of Goa, that he had taken Belgaum by force of arms

from the Hidalcao, with all the land appertaining to it as far as the

sea, in which were TANADARIS yielding more than 500,000 gold pardaos,

of which he desired to make a present to the king of Portugal ... and

that he wanted all the horses that came to Goa. He therefore said that

the captain of Goa could enter and take possession of the TANADARIS."

This was immediately done, and Ruy de Mello took possession of the

mainland of Goa, including Salsette, in ten days.

Correa, who was in India at the time, having gone thither in

1512 or 1514, mentions[222] that de Sequeira left Goa for the Red

Sea in January 1520, and that "at that time" (NESTE TEMPO -- the

expression is unfortunately vague) war broke out between Vijayanagar

and Bijapur. After its close the Hindu king sent a message to "Ruy

de Mello, captain of Goa," in the absence of the governor-general,

regarding the mainlands of Goa. Correa does not mention distinctly

the year in which this occurred, but the edition of 1860 at the head

of the page has the date "1521." This, however, must be an error

on the part of the editor, for in May 1521 Sequeira was not absent,

and therefore the year referred to cannot be 1521; while in May 1522

Dom Duarte de Menezes, and not Sequeira, was governor-general.[223]

Sequeira sailed for Portugal January 22, A.D. 1522.

Barros relates the departure of de Sequeira from India for the Red

Sea on February 13, 1520, and states that in his absence Ruy de

Mello was governor of Goa, under Sequeira's lieutenant, Aleixo de

Menezes. Ruy de Mello seized the mainland of Goa after the battle

of Raichur,[224] and at that time de Sequeira was absent at the Red

Sea. His description of the siege of Raichur and the great battle

in the vicinity clearly seems to have been taken from the chronicle

of Nuniz. It follows the latter blindly, even in the misspelling of

names, and therefore is really of no greater value. When, however,

Barros comes to deal with the acquisition of the mainlands of Goa,[225]

he is dependent on other information, and gives a much more detailed

account. The time is clearly fixed. After the battle and flight of

the Adil Shah the feeling between the two adversaries was naturally

highly strained, and this "enabled Ruy de Mello, captain of Goa, to

take the mainlands of Goa." Sequeira was at the Red Sea and Menezes

at Cochin. A very important passage for my present purpose occurs a

little later on in Barros's work:[226] --

"Diogo Lopes de Sequeira, AS soon as he arrived at Goa (from the Red

Sea), all necessary arrangements having been made for the government

of the city, AND PRINCIPALLY OF THE MAINLANDS, WHICH HE FOUND THAT

RUY DE MELLO HAD TAKEN ... went to Cochin;"

and thence to Diu, where he arrived on February 9, 1521.[227] Another

passage farther on in the narrative of Barros also establishes the

fact that Ruy de Mello took the lands during Sequeira's absence at

the Red Sea.[228]

Faria y Souza, a Spanish writer, whose work was first published a

century after these events, confirms the period, February 1520 to

February 1521, as that of Sequeira's absence at the Red Sea, and he

writes: --

"While the governor[229] was in the Red Sea, the King Crisnao Rao

of Bisnaga covered the plains and hills and stopped the flow of

the rivers[230] with an army of thirty-five thousand horse, seven

hundred and thirty-three thousand foot, and five hundred and eighty-six

elephants carrying castles with four men in each, and twelve thousand

watermen ... and baggage in such quantities that the courtesans alone

numbered more than twenty thousand."[231]

Souza also states, as does Nuniz, that after the defeat of the Adil

Shah, Krishna Deva Raya demanded that, as the price of peace, the

former should visit him and kiss his foot; and that, taking advantage

of the Adil Shah's difficulties, Ruy de Mello seized the mainlands

of Goa.[232] It is clear, therefore, that both authors are writing

of the same event.

Osorio, a later writer, confirms the story in most of its details,

stating that after the defeat of the Adil Shah, Krishna Raya sent

to Ruy de Mello ("Roderigo Melos"), captain of Goa, offering the

mainlands, and promising after the return of Sequeira to send a

regular embassy to conclude a solemn treaty. De Mello accordingly

took the mainlands.

Lafitau[233] also states that the war took place during Sequeira's

absence at the Red Sea, and that the mainlands were taken after the

Adil Shah's defeat.[234]

Turning to Firishtah, I find a difference. He states that the battle

of Raichur took place in Hijra 927 (December 22, 1520, to December

1, 1521, A.D.), which, if it was fought in May, as Nuniz declares,

makes the date May 1521. That he is speaking of the same affair is

obvious from the details given. He mentions, for instance, the vast

host constituting the Hindu army, the Shah's force advancing to the

river Krishna, the too hasty crossing of the river, the gallant fight

of the Muhammadans, their defeat and rout, the fact of the Adil Shah's

forces being driven to the river and perishing in large numbers while

attempting to re-cross it, the Shah's narrow escape, and his dependence

on Asada Khan. All this leaves no room for doubt. The only difference

is that, whereas we learn from the other authorities that the fortress

of Raichur was in the hands of the Muhammadans, Firishtah states that

the war arose because the Adil Shah "made preparations for marching

to recover Mudkul and Roijore from the Roy of Beejanuggur," as if the

latter were then in possession of those places. As to Firishtah's date,

I believe it to be wrong by one year, for the reasons given above. It

must be remembered that he wrote many years after the event.

Having thus, I hope satisfactorily, established the fact that the

date given by Nuniz for the battle of Raichur is wrong by two years,

and should be 1520, I turn to examine the day and month. It was the

new moon day of May, according to Nuniz, and a Saturday. Krishna Deva

Raya was ready for battle on the Friday, but postponed his attack to

the next day since Friday was considered an unlucky day.

The moment of the occurrence of new moon in May 120 was 2.27 A.M. on

the morning of Thursday, May 17. We do not know whether Nuniz

ascertained his facts from native almanacks or the calculations

of the astrologers, or whether he spoke from observations made by

himself or by some one who was present; but Nuniz was an ordinary

person, not a skilled astronomer, so far as we can tell, and he may

well have called the day on which the crescent of the new moon first

made its appearance just after sunset the "new moon day." This first

appearance actually took place on the Saturday following. The first

day of the Muhammadan month Jamada' l akhir, corresponding to the

heliacal rising of the moon on that occasion, was Saturday, May 19.

I therefore believe that this great battle took place on Saturday,

May 19, A.D. 1520,[235] a date almost synchronous with the of the

"Field of the Cloth of Gold."

The Number of Troops Engaged.

When we total up the list given by Nuniz of the columns that marched

from Vijayanagar for the campaign, the amount is so huge that we pause

in natural doubt as to whether the story could by any possibility be

true: 703,000 foot, 32,600 horse, and 551 elephants, BESIDES the camp

followers, merchants, &c., and "an infinitude of people" who joined

him at a place close to Raichur! It certainly demands a large strain

on our credulity.

Let every one form his own opinion. I can only call attention to

the fact that large armies seem to have always been the rule in

India, and that certainly Krishna Raya had the power to raise immense

numbers of troops,[236] though whether so many as is stated is another

question. His power to do so lay in his mode of government. Allusion

has already been made to this, and Nuniz gives us interesting

details. The whole empire was divided into provinces and estates,

held by chiefs bound to keep up masses of troops fit for immediate

service. It is, of course, natural to suppose that in this great war

the king would have put forth all his strength.

To prove that immense armies were often employed by Indian kings,

we have only to refer to a succession of writers. Barros notes the

great power of the sovereign of Vijayanagar and his almost incredible

richness, and is at pains to give an account of how these enormous

forces were raised, "lest his tale should not be believed."

In the second volume of Scott's "History of the Dekhan," a

translation is given of a journal kept by a Bondela officer in the

reign of Aurangzib, an officer who served under "Dulput Roy" in

A.D. 1690. Writing about Vijayanagar in former days, at the height

of its grandeur and importance, he says, "They kept an army of 30,000

horse, a million of infantry, and their wealth was beyond enumeration."

Conti, who was in India about a century earlier than the war in

question, told Bracciolini that the Vijayanagar army consisted of

"a million of men and upwards."

Abdur Razzak (1442 A.D.) tells the same story, putting the number at

1,100,000 with 1000 elephants.

Twenty years later Nikitin states that the Kulbarga forces marching

to attack the Hindus amounted to 900,000 foot, 190,000 horse, and

575 elephants.

The Sultan himself, independently of his nobles, took the field with

300,000 men, and even when he only went out on a hunting expedition

he took with him a train of 10,000 horse, 500,000 foot, and 200

elephants. He states that the Malik ul Tujar alone had an army of

200,000 employed in the siege of one city. The Hindus fought almost

nude, and were armed with shield and sword.

Even so far back as the time of Alexander the Great (about B.C. 320)

the army of Magadha was computed by the Greeks as consisting of

600,000 foot. 30,000 cavalry, and 9000 elephants, though Quintus

Curtius makes a much more modest estimate.

Lord Egerton of Tatton states[237] that an army of Hindu confederated

states, mustered for the defence of Northern indict against the

Muhammadan invasion in 1192 A.D., amounted, "according to the most

moderate estimate," to 300,000 horse, 3000 elephants, and a great

number of infantry.

In A.D. 1259 a Mogul embassy was received at Delhi by an escort of

50,000 horse, and was led past lines of infantry numbering as many

as 200,000 in their ranks.

It will be remembered how Muhammad Taghlaq of Delhi[238] raised,

according to Firishtah, an army of 370,000 men for the conquest

of Persia, and when he wanted to destroy the inhabitants of a

certain tract of country, he "ordered out his army as if he were

going hunting," surrounded the tract, and then, pressing inwards

towards the centre, slaughtered all the inhabitants therein. This

implies that he took, when merely hunting, immense numbers of men with

him. Shahab-ud-Din, indeed, declared that Muhammad Taghlaq had an army

of 900,000 horse;[239] and Nuniz, on the opening page of his chronicle,

says that this Sultan invaded the Balaghat with 800,000 horse.[240]

This estimate was, of course, only according to the tradition extant

in 1535.

Faria y Souza, writing in the seventeenth century, estimated the forces

of Bahadur, king of Cambay, in 1534, as 100,000 horse, 415,000 foot,

and 600 elephants.

As late as 1762 the Mahrattas are said to have had an army of 100,000

horse.

Nuniz[241] gives details of the provincial forces of Vijayanagar,

compulsorily maintained by eleven out of a total of two hundred nobles

amongst whom the empire was divided, and the total of the forces of

these eleven amounts to 19,000 horse, 171,700 foot, and 633 elephants.

Castanheda confirms other writers in this matter, stating that the

infantry of Vijayanagar were countless, the country being of large

extent and thickly populated, so that the king could call upon a

million, or even two millions, of men at will.[242] This writer visited

India just at the close of the reign of Krishna Deva Raya. He states

that the king kept up at his own cost an establishment of 100,000

horses and 4000 elephants.

As to all this, I repeat that every one is at liberty to form his

own opinion; but at least it seems certain that all the chroniclers

believed that the king of Vijayanagar could, if he so desired,

put into the field immense masses of armed men. They were probably

not all well armed, or well trained, or well disciplined, but as to

large numbers there can be little reasonable doubt. A relic of this

may be seen every year at modern Haidarabad, the capital city of

H.H. the Nizam, where, at the annual festival known as the "Langar,"

armed irregulars in very large numbers file through the principal

streets. They are for the most part a mere mob of men with weapons,

and are not maintained as State troops, but they are brought up by

the various nobles in separate bodies, each chief mustering for the

occasion all his hereditary retainers and forming them into rough

regiments and brigades.

As to the description given by Nuniz of the offensive armour of the

elephants, which are stated to have gone into battle with long swords

like scythes attached to their trunks, the story is confirmed by many

other writers.

Firishtah's Narrative.

Firishtah's account of the battle of Raichur is interesting, as

it gives a description of the affair from the enemy's point of

view. Ismail Adil Shah marched

"to recover Mudkul and Roijore from the roy of Beejanugger, who,

gaining early intelligence of his designs, moved with a great force,

and stationed his camp on the bank of the Kistnah, where he was joined

by many of his tributaries; so that the army amounted at least to

50,000 horse, besides a vast host of foot. The sultan would now have

delayed his expedition, as the enemy possessed all the ferries of

the Kistnah, but that his tents were pitched, and it would have been

disgraceful to retract from his declarations He therefore marched with

7000 horse, all foreign, and encamped on the bank of the river opposite

to the enemy, waiting to prepare floats to cross and attack them.

"Some days after his arrival, as he was reposing in his tent, he

heard one of the courtiers without the skreens reciting this verse:

-- 'Rise and fill the golden goblet with the wine of mirth before the

cup itself shall be laid in dust.' The sultan, inspired by the verse,

called his favourites before him, and spreading the carpet of pleasure,

amused himself with music and wine. When the banquet had lasted

longer than was reasonable, and the fumes of the wine had exercised

their power, a fancy seized the sultan to pass the river and attack

the enemy.... Warm with wine he resolved to cross immediately, and

mounting his elephant, without making his intentions known, proceeded

to the river, as if to reconnoitre, but suddenly gave orders for as

many of his troops as could to go upon the rafts, and others to follow

him on elephants through the river. The officers represented the folly

and danger of precipitation; but the sultan, without reply, plunged

his own elephant into the stream, and was followed involuntarily by

the amras and their followers; on about 250 elephants.

"By great good fortune, all reached the opposite shore in safety, and

as many troops as could cross on the floats at two embarkations had

time to arrive, when the enemy advanced to battle in so great force as

excluded every probable hope of escape to the sultan, who had not more

than 2000 men ready to oppose 30,000. The heroes of Islaam, animated

with one soul, made so gallant a resistance that about a thousand of

the infidels fell, among whom was Sunjeet Roy, the chief general of

Beejanuggur; but at last, harassed beyond all power of opposition by

cannon-shot, musquetry, and rockets, which destroyed near half their

numbers, the survivors threw themselves into the river in hopes of

escaping, and Nursoo Bahadur and Ibrahim Bey, who rode on the same

elephant with Ismaeel Adil Shaw, drove the animal across the stream,

but so great was the current, that except the royal elephant and seven

soldiers, all the rest were drowned. The sultan's rashness was heavily

punished by so great a loss. He took a solemn vow never to indulge in

wine till he had revenged his defeat; and then, throwing away despair,

busied his mind in repairing this unfortunate miscarriage.

"As Mirza Jehangeer had fallen in the action, the sultan consulted

with Assud Khan on what measures would be best to take in the present

crisis of his affairs. Assud Khan replied, that as his loss was

great and the troops dispirited, it would be better for the present

to retreat to Beejapore. The sultan approving the advice, marched

from the Kistnah to Beejapore, and conferring the dignity of Sippeh

Sallar[243] on Assud Khan, added several districts to his jaghire,

and made him his principal adviser in all important affairs."

Comparison of Accounts.

Comparing this account with that given by Nuniz, there can, I think,

be little doubt that both stories refer to the same event, though there

are of course several discrepancies. The origin of the war is related

differently. Firishtah states that on the arrival of the Sultan at

the river-bank he found the Hindu army encamped on the opposite side;

he crossed, after a few days' delay, with a small force, and was

driven into the river. Nuniz says that Krishna Deva Raya heard of

Ismail Adil's arrival on the river-bank while he himself was in camp

at Raichur, fifteen miles away; and that he advanced and gave battle

nine miles from the river, in the end driving the enemy across. But

taking the two narratives as a whole, there are too many points of

coincidence to leave any doubt in the mind that each chronicler is

writing of the same event.

As to which of the two is more accurate it is impossible now to

decide. But considering that Nuniz wrote only fifteen years afterwards,

and that there were Portuguese present at the battle, some of whom

Nuniz may have personally consulted as to what took place, it would

seem more reasonable to trust in him rather than in a Muhammadan

historian who did not compile his work till after an interval of

sixty years. Moreover, there are some inherent improbabilities in

Firishtah's narrative.

It is worthy of notice, too, that throughout the story of Nuniz at

this part of his chronicle there is much that impels the belief that

either himself or his informant was present at the Hindu camp while

these events were taking place. The narrative of the campaign, in

complete contrast to that of the remainder of the history, reads like

the account of an eye-witness; especially in the passages describing

the fortress of Raichur[244] and the camp -- where the supplies were

so great that "you could find everything that you wanted,"[245] where

"you saw"[246] the goldsmiths and artisans at work as if in a city,

where "you will find"[247] all kinds of precious stones offered for

sale, and where "no one who did not understand the meaning of what he

saw would ever dream that a war was going on, but would think that

he was in a prosperous city." Note also the description given of

the extraordinary noise made by the drums, trumpets, and shouts of

the men; so that even the birds fell down into the soldiers' hands

stricken with terror and "it seemed as if the sky would fall to the

earth," and "if you asked anything, you could not hear yourself speak,

and you had to ask by signs." Many such instances might be given,

but not to be tedious I will invite attention to only three more,

viz., the account given by Nuniz of how; when receiving the men of

the city after its surrender, the king, "casting his eye on Christovao

de Figueiredo, nodded his head, and turned to the people telling them

to observe what great things could be effected by one good man;"[248]

his description of the behaviour of the defeated citizens when Krishna

Deva made his triumphant entry into the city; and his narrative of the

ambassador's reception at Vijayanagar by the king after the conclusion

of the campaign.[249] It may be remembered that our other chronicler

Domingo Paes, was at Vijayanagar with Christovao de Figueiredo some

months after the battle, even if he were not personally present in

the fighting at Raichur.

The great interest of Nuniz's narrative lies in the fact that it

is the only detailed account extant. Barros related the events in

historical fashion, taking his facts from this very chronicle; but

he was never in India, and his brief summary is altogether wanting

in the power and force contained in the graphic story of Nuniz. The

other Portuguese writers pass over the war very lightly. It appears

as if it hardly concerned then;, further than that at its close Ruy

de Mello seized the mainlands near Goa.

Political Effects of the Battle.

And yet it had far-reaching effects. The Hindu victory so weakened

the power and prestige of the Adil Shah that he ceased altogether to

dream of any present conquest in the south, and turned his attention

to cementing alliances with the other Muhammadan sovereigns,

his neighbours. The victory also caused all the other Muhammadan

Powers in the Dakhan seriously to consider the political condition

of the country; and this eventually led to a combination without

which nothing was possible, but by the aid of which the Vijayanagar

Empire was finally overthrown and the way to the south opened. It

furthermore greatly affected the Hindus by raising in them a spirit

of pride and arrogance, which added fuel to the fire, caused them to

become positively intolerable to their neighbours, and accelerated

their own downfall.

It equally affected the fortunes of the Portuguese on the coast. Goa

rose and fell simultaneously with the rise and fall of the second

Vijayanagar dynasty; and necessarily so, considering that its entire

trade depended on Hindu support; for the king of Portugal was never

well disposed towards his hereditary enemies, the "Moors." This

is a point frequently left unnoticed by writers, on Portuguese

colonial history. The two most recent authors of works on the

subject, Mr. Danvers ("The Portuguese in India") and Mr. Whiteway

("The Rise of Portuguese Power in India"), pay very little attention

to the internal politics of the great country on the fringe alone

of which the Portuguese settled, and on the coast of which their

vessels came and went. Mr. Danvers devotes one short paragraph to

the battle of Raichur,[250] and another[251] to the destruction of

Vijayanagar. Mr. Whiteway does not even allude to the former event, and

concludes his history before arriving at the date of the latter. Yet

surely it is easy to see that the success or failure of maritime

trade on any given coast must depend on the conditions prevailing in

the empire for the supply of which that trade was established. When

Vijayanagar, with its grandeur, luxury, and love of display, its great

wealth and its enormous armies, was at the height of its power, the

foreign traders were eminently successful: when Vijayanagar fell,

and the city became desolate and depopulated, the foreign traders

had no market for their goods, and trade decayed. So that this great

Hindu victory at Raichur deserved a better fate than to be passed

over by the historians as if it had been an event of small importance.

The Events that followed the Battle.

Nuniz gives us in detail an account of the events that followed the

victory of Krishna Deva Raya, and considering that he wrote only about

fifteen years after their occurrence, we should do well to receive his

account as probably true in the main. Firishtah, perhaps naturally,

preserves a complete silence on the subject.

Nuniz tells us that when the city of Raichur surrendered, the Hindu

king made a triumphal entry into it, and treated the garrison with

kindness and consideration; while the other Muhammadan kings sent

envoys to Krishna Deva Raya on hearing of his success, and received a

haughty and irritating reply. Krishna Deva then returned to Vijayanagar

and held high festival. Shortly afterwards an ambassador arrived from

the defeated Shah, and was treated with scant courtesy for more than

a month, after which he was received in audience; when the king sent

answer by him to his enemy, that if the Adil Shah would come to him,

do obeisance, and kiss his foot, his lands and fortresses should be

restored to him. No attention being paid to this, the Raya set out

to search for the Shah, hoping, that he would be induced to do homage

in the manner demanded and appearing to ignore altogether the effect

which would necessarily be produced on the minds of the other kings

of the Dakhan by this contemplated supreme humiliation of one of

their number. The submission never took place. Krishna led his army

as far north as Bijapur, the Adil Shah's capital, which for a time

he occupied and left sadly injured. Then Asada Khan, the Shah's wily

courtier, successfully brought about the death of his personal enemy,

Salabat Khan, by inducing the Raya to order his execution; an act to,

which the king was led by the machinations of the arch-intriguer,

who subordinated his chief's interests to his own selfish ends.

King Krishna had, in the city of Bijapur, taken prisoner three sons of

a former king of the Bahmani dynasty, who had been held captive by the

Adil Shahs, and he proclaimed the eldest as king of the Dakhan.[252]

This abortive attempt to subvert the rule of the five kings who had

established themselves on the ruins of the single Dakhan sovereignty

naturally fell flat, and only resulted in stiffening the hostility

which these sovereigns felt towards their common foe.

A little later Krishna Raya's son, a young prince on whom he desired to

confer his crown, and in whose favour he had even gone so far as openly

to abdicate, died suddenly of poison, and the king, then himself in

a dying condition, arrested and imprisoned his own minister, Saluva

Timma, and his family. In this he was aided by some Portuguese who

happened to be present at the Durbar. On Saluva Timma's son escaping

to a "mountain range" -- perhaps Sandur, on the south of the capital,

where there are still to be seen the remains of a strong fortress

built of cyclopean masonry on the summit of the highest hill, now

known as Ramandrug -- the king summoned Timma and his brother and son,

and had their eyes put out.

About this time the Adil Shah advanced again to retrieve his broken

fortunes, but fled incontinently on hearing the news that Krishna Deva

was advancing in person to meet him. That the king, though sorely

ill, did indeed move in the manner stated, seems to be confirmed by

the statement of Nuniz that on the way he bought six hundred horses

from the Portuguese. Krishna began to make preparations for an attack

on Belgaum, then in the Adil Shah's possession, and sent an envoy to

invite the assistance in this enterprise of the Portuguese at Goa; but

he fell too seriously ill to carry out his project, and died shortly

afterwards at the age of from forty-two to forty-five years. It was

then the year 1530 A.D.

He was succeeded by Achyuta.

So far Nuniz. We learn something more from other writers. Barros

states that about the year 1523 Saluva Timma, the king's minister,

invaded the mainlands near Goa, which had been recently acquired by

the Portuguese under Ruy de Mello; that he advanced towards Ponda

with a small force, but that he was attacked and driven back.[253]

Shortly after this, viz., in April 1524, the Muhammadans of Bijapur

attacked these same mainlands with success, during the viceroyalty of

Dom Duarte de Menezes. On October 31 of that year the Chamber of Goa

wrote a report to the king of Portugal in which occurs the following

passage: --

"The mainland which Ruy de Mello, who was captain of this city,

conquered, was entered by the Moors, who used to possess it, in the

month of April of five hundred and twenty-four, and they hold it as

theirs, and the first Thanadar's district which they took was that of

Perna, which is by the seaside. There they captured two Portuguese,

and one of them was the Thanadar; these are prisoners in the fortress

of Bylgan (Belgaum), of which the Suffilarim is captain."[254]

It is evident, therefore, that "the Moors" were successful, and yet

it is curious that very little mention is made of this circumstance by

other historians. Firishtah does not mention it; and it may therefore

be reasonably inferred that the "Moors" in question were not the

royal troops acting under the orders of the Sultan, but belonged to

the local levies of Asada Khan, then chief of Belgaum.

According to Firishtah, the defeat at Raichur was followed by Ismail

Adil Shah's marrying his sister to Burhan Nizam Shah of Ahmadnagar;

quarrelling and fighting with him (A.D. 1523); again fighting with

him (1528); marrying another sister to Ala-ud-Din Ummad of Birar;

and fighting with and entirely defeating Sultan Amir Barid of Bidar,

then an old man, whom he captured. On the death of Krishna Deva,

Ismail took advantage of the confusion of the Hindus to retake

possession of Mudkal and Raichur.

Firishtah gives no dates for the two last of the event above noted,

but the submission of Amir Barid to the Adil Shah apparently did not

take place till 1529, for Barros[255] implies that it occurred after

an event which cannot have happened earlier than 1529 -- namely, an

attack on Ponda by three Hindu chiefs, which led to the inhabitants

appealing for help to the then governor of Goa, Nuno da Cunha. Da Cunha

was not governor till 1529. "AT THIS TIME," writes the historian,

"Melique Verido[256] submitted to the Hidalchan, by advice of Madre

Maluco and Cota Maluco, and came to his camp in poor clothes, and flung

himself at his feet." This evidently refers to what occurred after the

Barid's capture by the Adil Shah, if Firishtah's story is true.[257]

Let it be remembered, though the fact has no bearing on the history

of Vijayanagar at this date, that in 1526 the Emperor Babar captured

Delhi, and established himself as the first monarch of the great

Moghul dynasty. He was succeeded in 1530 by Humayun, and on the

latter's death in 1556 the great Akbar attained the throne.

CHAPTER 12

The Buildings, Works, and Inscriptions of Krishna Deva

Temples -- Irrigation works -- Statue of Narasimha -- Kamalapuram --

Inscriptions.

Were it not that the description given us by Nuniz and Paes of the

condition of the great city of Vijayanagar at this period is so

graphic, so picturesque, and so detailed as positively to require

no addition, I should have deemed it my duty to attempt to supply

the want; but with their narrative before us in all its original

freshness, it would be useless to attempt anything further. Both of

these writers were on the spot at the time of the city's greatest

grandeur and prosperity, though in the time of Nuniz the period of

its political decay had set in. With their descriptions I shall not

venture to interfere.

I cannot, however, pass on to the reign of Achyuta without calling

attention to some of the works carried out at the capital by Krishna

Deva, and to a few of the inscribed records of his reign.

At the beginning of his reign Krishna built a GOPURA or tower, and

repaired another, at the Hampe temple, which had been built by the

first kings in honour of Madhavacharya, the founder of the fortunes of

Vijayanagar. The great KRISHNASVAMI temple was built by him in 1513,

after his return from the successful campaign in the east. In the

same year he commenced the temple of HAZARA RAMASVAMI at the palace,

the architecture of which leads Mr. Rea[258] to think that it was

not finished till a later period.

Later in his reign the king busied himself in improving the irrigation

of the dry lands about Vijayanagar. He constructed in 1521 the great

dam and channel at Korragal, and the Basavanna channel, both of which

are still in use and of great value to the country.[259]

Another great work of his was the construction of an enormous tank or

dammed-up lake at the capital, which he carried out with the aid of

Joao de la Ponte, a Portuguese engineer, whose services were lent to

him by the governor-general of Goa. Both Paes and Nuniz mention this

lake, and as the former actually saw it under construction it may

have been begun in A.D. 1520. I think that this is the large lake,

now dry, to be seen at the north-western mouth of the valley entering

into the Sandur hills south-west of Hospett, the huge bank of which

has been utilised for the conveyance of the highroad from Hospett

to the southern taluqs. If so, the fact of its original failure

is interesting to us, because for many years past this vast work

has been entirely useless. The description given by Nuniz accords

with the position of this tank, which was doubtless intended partly

for irrigation purposes, and partly for the supply of water to the

"new city," Nagalapura, the king's favourite residence, now known

as Hospett. The chronicler mentions the existence of lofty ridges on

each side, strong gates and towers guarding the entrance, and states

that this was the principal approach to the capital from the south;

all which data coincide with the position of the tank and road in

question. It is through these gates that the Portuguese travellers

entered Vijayanagar. This view is supported by the account given by

Paes. Writing of the approach to Vijayanagar from the western coast,

and describing the "first range," I.E. the first that is seen on

passing upwards from the plains, he states that in these hills was the

principal entrance from that side. He alludes to the gates and wall,

and the city, Nagalapur, constructed by King Krishna. Then he writes,

"the king made a tank THERE," I.E. close to Hospett, at the mouth

of two hills, and in order to this end "broke down a hill." He saw

innumerable people at work on the tank. He confirms the story of

Nuniz as to the sixty human beings offered in sacrifice to ensure

the security of the dam. Both writers are therefore describing the

same tank, and, taking the chronicles together, I can have no doubt

as to the soundness of my identification.

Prior to 1520, Krishna Deva built the outlying town of Nagalapur,

to which allusion has just been made. It was constructed in honour

of his favourite wife, the quondam courtesan, Nagala Devi, and the

king made it his favourite residence.

He also appears to have begun the construction of the temple of

Vitthalasvami on the river-bank, the most ornate of an the religious

edifices of the kingdom. "It shows," writes Mr. Rea in the article

already referred to, "the extreme limit in florid magnificence to

which the style advanced." The work was continued during the reign

of Krishna Deva's successors, Achyuta and Sadasiva, and was probably

stopped only by the destruction of the city in 1565. An inscription

records a grant to the temple in 1561.

In 1528 was constructed one of the most curious and interesting

monuments to be seen in the city. This is an enormous statue of the

god Vishnu in his AVATARA as Narasimha, the man-lion. It was hewn

out of a single boulder of granite, which lay near the south-western

angle of the Krishnasvami temple, and the king bestowed a grant of

lands for its maintenance. Though it has been grievously injured,

probably by the iconoclastic Muhammadans in or after the year 1565,

it is still a most striking object.

I have already alluded to the grants made by Krishna Deva to the great

Virupaksha temple at Hampe, on the occasion of the festival of his

coronation. There is an inscription of his reign on the base of the

inner side of the front tower (GOPURA) of the temple at Virinchipuram,

dated in the year A.D. 1513 -- 14; and one dated Tuesday, September

20, 1513, at Sankalapura, close to the capital, recording a grant of

the lands of that village to the temple of Ganapati in the palace

enclosure.[260] Mr. Fleet[261] mentions others of his reign in

A.D. 1509 -- 10, 1512 -- 13, 1514 -- 15, 1522 -- 23, and 1527 -- 28.

The last inscription of the reign at present known is one which bears

a date corresponding to Friday, April 23, A.D. 1529.[262] It stands

in front of the great statue of Ugra Narasimha, described above.

CHAPTER 13

The Reign of Achyuta Raya

Achyuta Raya -- Fall of Raichur and Mudkal -- Asada Khan and Goa

-- Disturbances at Bijapur -- Ibrahim Shah at the Hindu capital --

Firishtah on Vijayanagar affairs -- Rise of Rama Raya and his brothers

-- "Hoje" -- Tirumala -- Varying legends -- Venkatadri defeated by

Asada Khan near Adoni -- Asada Khan's career -- Belgaum and Goa --

Asada's duplicity -- Portuguese aggressions -- Religious grants by,

and inscriptions relating to, Achyuta.

Achyuta, according to Nuniz and some other authorities, was a brother

of the late king,[263] and, in company with two other brothers

and a nephew, had been confined by Krishna Deva in the fortress of

Chandragiri, in order to prevent dissensions in the kingdom. The new

monarch is said by Nuniz to have been specially selected by Krishna

Deva. If so, the choice was singularly unfortunate, for Achyuta was

a craven and under him the Hindu empire began to fall to pieces.

His minister was one of the powerful Saluva family, to which also

had belonged Timma, the minister of King Krishna. Nuniz calls him

"Salvanay." The earliest known date of Achyuta's reign is gathered

from an inscription bearing a date corresponding to Monday, August 15,

A.D. 1530.[264]

The beginning of his reign was ominously signalised by the loss of the

frontier fortresses Mudkal and Raichur. Firishtah[265] states that

the Adil Shah had, some time before the death of Krishna Deva, made

preparations to recover possession of these cities, and proceeds: --

"The Sultan ... put his army in motion, attended by Ummad Shaw and

Ameer Bereed with their forces; and the affairs of Beejanuggur being in

confusion owing to the death of Heemraaje, who was newly succeeded by

his son Ramraaje,[266] against whom rebellions had arisen by several

roles, met with no interruptions to his arms. Roijore and Mudkul

were taken, after a siege of three months, by capitulation, after

they had been in possession of the infidels for seventeen years."[267]

The relief and delight of the Adil Shah at these successes, and at

the death of his mortal enemy Krishna, must have been great; and

Firishtah relates that the Sultan, "who had vowed to refrain from

wine till the reduction of these fortresses, at the request of his

nobility now made a splendid festival, at which he drank wine and

gave a full loose to mirth and pleasure." Raichur and Mudkal were

never again subject to Hindu princes.

Those who desire to obtain an insight into the character of the new

king of Vijayanagar should turn to the chronicle of Nuniz. It will

suffice here to say that he alienated his best friends by his violent

despotism, and at the same time proved to the whole empire that he

was a coward. His conduct and mode of government ruined the Hindu

cause in Southern India and opened the whole country to the invader,

though he himself did not live to see the end.

After the fall of Raichur and the Doab, Ismail Adil had another

fight (1531) with his rival at Ahmadnagar and defeated him; after

which the two brothers-in-law consolidated a strong alliance. Three

years later Ismail died, having contracted a fever while besieging a

fortress belonging to the Qutb Shah of Golkonda. His death occurred

on Thursday, August 13, 1534,[268] and he was succeeded by his son

Malu. Asada Khan was appointed regent of Bijapur, but immediately

on his accession the new sovereign so offended his powerful subject

that he retired to Belgaum, and Sultan Malu, giving himself up to all

kinds of excesses, was deposed after a reign of only six months. Malu

was blinded by the orders of his own grandmother, and Ibrahim Adil,

his younger brother, was raised to the throne. It was now 1535.

Da Cunha, the Portuguese governor of Goa, took advantage of these

events to erect a fortress at Diu, and early in 1536 to seize again

the mainlands of Goa, which had been for ten years in the possession

of Asada Khan. The Khan sent a force to recapture these lands, and

in February an engagement took place in which the Portuguese were

victorious. A second attack by the Moslems was similarly repulsed. A

third fight took place in July, and again the Muhammadans were beaten;

but Asada Khan then assembled a larger army, and the foreigners were

compelled to retire after blowing up their fortress.

About this time[269] Quli Qutb Shah is said to have attacked Kondavid

on account of its withholding payment of tribute, to have taken it,

and built a tower in the middle of the fort in commemoration of

its reduction.

Two inscriptions at Conjeeveram, dated respectively in 1532 and

1533,[270] imply that at that period King Achyuta reduced the country

about Tinnevelly; but apparently he was not present in person, and

nothing further is known regarding this expedition.

We now enter upon a period very difficult to deal with satisfactorily,

owing to the conflict of evidence in the works of the various writers.

"A year after his accession," writes Firishtah,[271] "Ibrahim, Adil

led his army to Beejanuggur on the requisition of the roy." This

would be the year 1536 A.D. But what led to such an extraordinary

complication of affairs? Can it be true that King Achyuta was so

humiliated and hard pressed as to be compelled to summon to his aid

the hereditary enemies of his country?

Nuniz is silent as to the cause, though he admits the fact. It is quite

possible that Firishtah is correct, that the public were not taken into

confidence by their despotic rulers, and that the troops of Bijapur

marched to the Hindu capital at the request of King Achyuta. That they

actually came there seems quite certain, and it is probable that Nuniz

was in Vijayanagar at the time; but there is a LACUNA in his story

which can only be filled up by reference to Firishtah. Accepting

Firishtah, we can readily understand why King Achyuta received the

Sultan and his army without open opposition, as Nuniz declares that

he did, and why the Muhammadan king received splendid presents before

he retired. To Nuniz, however, this conduct was inexplicable except on

the basis of Achyuta's craven spirit and utter unworthiness.[272] As to

the assertion of Nuniz that the Sultan entered Nagalapur or Hospett and

"razed it to the ground," we may remember the treatment of the city of

Bijapur by Krishna Deva Raya,[273] and surmise that the houses of the

Vijayanagar suburbs may have been pulled to pieces by the Mussalman

soldiery in search for firewood. However all this may be, my readers

have before them the story as given by Nuniz in Chapter XX. of his

chronicle, and the following is Firishtah's account of the event.[274]

"Heem" Rajah, or, as Briggs renders the name, "Tim" Rajah --

representing "Timma," and referring doubtless to Saluva Timma,

the great minister of Krishna Deva -- had, forty years earlier,

become DE FACTO ruler of Vijayanagar on the death of the two sons

of a former king, "Seo" Raya. He had poisoned the infant son of the

younger of these sons, and had thus succeeded in becoming head of

the state. During these forty years he had been obeyed by all. On his

death his son Rama Rajah became ruler. Rama's marriage to "a daughter

of the son of Seo" Raya[275] had greatly added to his dignity and

power, and he now tried to secure the throne for himself and his

family. He was, however, compelled by the nobles to recognise as

king an "infant of the female line," whose person he committed to the

care of the child's uncle, "Hoje" Tirumala Raya,[276] a man of weak

intellect if not absolutely insane. In five or six years Rama cut off

by treachery most of the chiefs who opposed him.[277] He then marched

on an expedition into Malabar, and afterwards moved against a powerful

zamindar to the south of Vijayanagar, who held out for six months and

in the end beat off the troops of Rama Raya. Vijayanagar was at that

time governed by a slave whom Rama had raised to high rank, and this

man, on being applied to by the minister to send supplies from the

capital, was so amazed at the wealth which he saw in the royal treasury

that he resolved to attempt to gain possession of it. He therefore

released the child-king, obtained the co-operation of Hoje Tirumala,

assumed the office of minister, and began to raise troops. "Several

tributary roies, who were disgusted with Ramraaje, flew with speed

to Beejanuggur to obey their lawful king; and in a short time thirty

thousand horse and vast hosts of foot were assembled under his standard

at the city." Tirumala then had the slave-governor assassinated. Rama

Rajah at once returned to the capital, but was unable at that juncture

to assert his authority. Finding himself deserted by many of the nobles

he concluded a treaty with his lawful sovereign, and retired to his

own province, which by agreement he was allowed to retain as his own

independent state. Tirumala shortly afterwards strangled the king and

seized the throne. The nobles submitted, since he was of royal blood,

and better, in their opinion, than Rama Rajah; but when afterwards

they found themselves unable to endure his tyranny and oppression,

they rebelled and invited Rama Rajah to return.

Tirumala then found himself in great straits, and sent ambassadors

with large presents to Ibrahim Adil Shah, begging him to march to

his assistance and promising that the Vijayanagar kingdom should

be declared tributary to Bijapur. Ibrahim, delighted beyond measure,

after consulting Asada Khan accepted the terms, moved from his capital,

and arrived before Vijayanagar "in the year 942," which corresponds

to the period from July 2, A.D. 1535, to June 20, 1536.[278] He

was conducted into the city by Hoje Termul Roy, who seated him on

the musnud of the raaje and made rejoicings for seven days." This

conduct led to a change of front on the part of Rama Rajah and his

supporters. They entreated Tirumala for the sake of the country to

procure the retreat of the Sultan to his own dominions, promising

submission and obedience if this should be done; and Tirumala,

thinking that now he had no further use for his allies, requested

the Sultan to return home. He paid over the subsidy agreed upon,

which was assessed at something approaching two millions sterling,

and made many other gifts. The story then ends with a tragedy.

"Ibrahim Adil Shaw had not yet recrossed the Kistnah, when Ramraaje

and the confederates, who had bribed many of the troops in the city,

broke their newly made vows, and hastened towards Beejanuggur, resolved

to put the roy to death, on pretence of revenging the murder of his

predecessor. Hoje Termul Roy, seeing he was betrayed, shut himself

up in the palace, and, becoming mad from despair, blinded all the

royal elephants and horses, also cutting off their tails, that they

might be of no use to his enemy. All the diamonds, rubies, emeralds,

other precious stones, and pearls, which had been collected in a

course of many ages, he crushed to powder between heavy millstones,

and scattered them on the ground. He then fixed a sword-blade into a

pillar of his apartment, and ran his breast upon it with such force

that it pierced through and came out at the back, thus putting an end

to his existence, just as the gates of the palace were opened to his

enemies. Ramraaje now became roy of Beejanuggur without a rival."

After this point in Firishtah's narrative we hear of no more "young

Roies" or imprisoned sovereigns of the Second Dynasty. "Ramraaje"

alone is spoken of as king, and Kings Achyuta and Sadasiva -- the

latter of whom was undoubtedly recognised as king for some years

though he was kept in custody -- are not so much as mentioned.

Thus Firishtah and Nuniz both agree that Ibrahim Adil advanced as

far as the city of Vijayanagar, and retired after payment of immense

sums of money and the gift of many valuable presents. The date was

A.D. 1535 -- 36. With this date ends the historical portion of the

chronicle of Nuniz.[279]

We continue the narrative of events in Achyuta's reign as gathered from

Firishtah.[280] As soon as he heard of the death of Hoje Tirumala and

the seizure of the throne by "Ramraaje," Ibrahim Adil Shah sent Asada

Khan to reduce the important fortress of Adoni, which was undisputedly

in Vijayanagar territory. Rama Rajah despatched his younger brother,

Venkatadri, to its relief, and the latter hastened thither with a

large force.

"Assud Khan, upon his approach, raised the siege and moved towards

him. A sharp engagement ensued, and Assud Khan, finding that he was

likely to have the worst of the action, from the vast superiority

in numbers of the enemy, retreated in good order, but was followed

fourteen miles by the victors, when he encamped; and Venkatadry,[281]

in order to be ready to harass the retreat the next day, halted in

full security at a distance of only two miles from him. Assud Khan,

who had ardently wished for such an event; towards the dawn of day,

with four thousand chosen horse, surprized the camp of Venkatadry,

whose self-confidence had left him wholly off his guard against such

a manoeuvre. Assud Khan penetrated to his tents before he received

the alarm, and he had scarce time to make his escape, leaving his

treasures, family, and elephants to the mercy of the victors. When

the day had fully cleared up, Venkatadry collected his scattered

troops, and drew up as if to engage; but seeing Assud Khan resolute

to maintain his advantage, and fearing for the personal safety of

his wife and children, he declined hazarding a battle, and, retiring

some miles off, fixed his camp: from whence he wrote Ramraaje an

account of his disaster, and requested reinforcements to enable him

to repair it. Ramraaje immediately sent supplies of men and money,

openly declaring his intentions of carrying on the war, but privately

informed his brother that he had reason to imagine that Ibrahim Adil

Shaw had not been led merely of his own will to besiege Oodnee; that he

suspected the zemindars of that quarter had invited him to make war,

and that many of the nobility with him were secretly in his interest;

therefore, he thought he would act prudently by making peace with

the mussulmauns at present, and procuring the release of his wife and

family from Assud Khan. Venkatadry, in consequence of the desires of

his brother, having procured the mediation and influence of Assud Khan,

addressed the sultan for peace, which being granted, and all affairs

settled to the satisfaction of both states, Ibrahim Adil Shaw returned

to Beejapore with Assud Khan and the rest of his nobility and army."

Asada Khan after this was greatly honoured by the Sultan, in spite

of the intrigues which were fomented against him. Quarrels and

disturbances, however, arose in the Bijapur dominions which lasted

during the whole of the year 1542; in the course of which year King

Achyuta died, and was succeeded nominally by Sadasiva, during whose

reign Vijayanagar was practically in the hands of Rama Rajah and of

his two brothers, Tirumala and Venkatadri.

Firishtah was a great admirer of Asada Khan and supported him

in all that he did.[282] Asada was a Turk, who, beginning life

under the simple name of Khusru in the service of Ismail Adil Shah,

distinguished himself in his sovereign's defence during the attack

on Bijapur in 1511, a defence celebrated on account of the heroic

conduct of the Sultan's aunt, Dilshad Agha. Khusru was rewarded by

Ismail with the title of "Asada Khan," a name which he bore for the

rest of his life, and a grant of the jaghir of Belgaum. He rose to

be chief minister and commander-in-chief of the army of his master,

and died full of years and honours in A.D. 1549.

The Portuguese at Goa had a very low opinion of Asada's character. They

held him to be an inveterate intriguer, ready at every moment to betray

his best friends, even his sovereign, if only by so doing he could

advance his own personal and selfish interests; and in this, owing to

his consummate skill and tortuous ways, he invariably succeeded. If

space permitted, many interesting stories could be narrated of him,

culled from the various writings of the day.[283]

Barros calls him "Sufo Larij,"[284] a name which some writers have

derived from "Yusuf of Lar." Castanheda spells the name "Cufolarim."

Asada Khan is entitled to a chapter to himself, but, to avoid

prolixity, I will only give one extract from the "Asia" of Barros.[285]

Allusion has been made above to an attack on the mainlands of Goa by

three Hindu chiefs, when Ponda was besieged. The inhabitants appealed

to Nuno da Cunha, the governor-general, who hesitated to interfere

for fear of bringing on a war with the Adil Shah. The principal danger

was the lord of Belgaum, Asada Khan.

"Acadachan, like one who in a safe and lofty place watches some

great fire spreading over the plains below, watched from his city

of Belgaum the events that were passing;" -- but did nothing till

the Adil Shah wrote desiring him to return to Bijapur, which he had

temporarily left owing to a disagreement, and to assist him in the

government of the kingdom. Asada Khan replied craftily that he had

done with the affairs of this life, and proposed to go and die at

Mecca. At this Ismail flew into a passion and vowed revenge against his

powerful subject, who, to save himself, wrote to Da Cunha, professing

his unalloyed friendship for the Portuguese, and inviting them to

take possession of certain tracts on the mainland; declaring that

his master, the Sultan, was powerless to defend himself against the

armies of Vijayanagar. This was, it must be borne in mind, long after

the Hindu victory at Raichur. Da Cunha sent Christovao de Figueiredo,

Krishna Deva's valiant friend, to bear his reply, since the latter was

on friendly terms with the lord of Belgaum. A conversation took place,

in which Asada Khan said that he was afraid of his master, who was of

variable and inconstant character, and that he desired of all things

to preserve friendship with the Portuguese. He therefore begged to be

allowed to visit Goa and cement an alliance with the governor-general,

to whom he faithfully promised that the lands in question should

become for ever the property of the king of Portugal. Accordingly

the lands were seized by Da Cunha.

Immediately afterwards Asada began to intrigue with the king of

Vijayanagar, and being invited to visit that city on the occasion of

one of the great MAHANAVAMI festivals, left Belgaum with 13,000 men

and 200 elephants. Before starting he wrote to Da Cunha, asking that

Figueiredo might be sent to accompany him, and promising to obtain for

the Portuguese a definite cession of the lands from the Raya, since

these had formerly been the latter's possession. Accordingly Figueiredo

left for Vijayanagar, but learned that the Khan had already arrived

there and had joined the king. The Raya received Asada favourably,

and, as a present, gave him two towns, "Tunge and Turugel,"[286]since

he hoped for his aid against the Sultan.

When the Sultan heard of Asada Khan's defection he gave himself up

for lost, but assembled an army and advanced to within twelve leagues

of the king's camp, where Asada Khan had pitched his tents at some

distance from those of the Hindu lords. The Sultan thence wrote to

the Raya demanding the delivery to him of his recalcitrant "slave,"

and the Raya sent on the letter to Asada Khan, who told the king

that he would never join the Muhammadans, but would remain faithful

to Vijayanagar. A short pause ensued, during which the Raya learned

that constant messages were passing between the camps of the Sultan

and Asada Khan. Both armies then marched towards Raichur, the Raya

to retake the place from the Sultan, the Sultan watching for an

opportunity to attack the Raya.

On the third day Asada Khan started with his forces two hours in

advance of the royal troops, crossed the river first, and hastened to

join the Sultan. Adil Shah received him with great apparent cordiality,

and at length freely forgave him on the Khan's protestations that

his intrigues with Vijayanagar and the Portuguese were only so

many moves in a game undertaken for the advancement of the Sultan's

interests. Previous to this move the Khan had held a conversation with

Figueiredo, in which he succeeded in totally deceiving him as to his

intentions, and reiterated his promises to obtain the cession of the

mainlands from the Raya, for whom he professed the greatest friendship.

In the end, says Barros, the Adil Shah, secretly fearful of Asada

Khan's duplicity, made a treaty of peace with the Raya, by which the

Muhammadans retained Raichur but gave up some other territory.

Though this story differs from Firishtah at almost every point,

it is permissible to think that it may refer to the events of 1535,

when the Sultan visited Vijayanagar; for in continuing his narrative,

Barros a little later mentions the year 1536. It seems hopeless to try

and reconcile the conflicting stories of Nuniz, Barros, and Firishtah,

but enough has been said to afford insight into the character of Asada

Khan. Nuniz echoes the general sentiment when he writes of the Khan's

rescue of the Adil Shah, after his defeat at Raichur in 1520 A.D.,

as being effected "by cunning," for his own purposes; and when he

describes how, by a series of lies, Asada contrived the execution of

Salabat Khan at the hands of Krishna Raya.

During this reign the Portuguese were busy establishing themselves

at various places on the coast, and they built several forts there

for the protection of their trade. They had been constantly at war

with the Samuri of Calicut and other feudatories of Vijayanagar;

but with the Raya himself they were on terms of friendship, and in

1540 they ratified a treaty of peace with the sovereigns of Bijapur

and Ahmadnagar as well as with the Samuri.

Throughout the whole of their dealings with the Portuguese I find

not a single instance where the Hindu kings broke faith with the

intruders,[287] but as much cannot, I fear, be said on the other

side. The Europeans seemed to think that they had a divine right to the

pillage, robbery, and massacre of the natives of India. Not to mince

matters, their whole record is one of a series of atrocities. It is

sad to turn from the description given us by Paes of the friendship

felt for the Portuguese, and especially for Christovao de Figueiredo,

by the "gallant and perfect" King Krishna Deva, and then to read of

the treachery of the Viceroy towards the great Hindu Government; with

which the Portuguese had made alliances and treaties, and for which

they openly professed friendship. Thus, to take one instance only,

in 1545 the governor of Goa made ready a large fleet and a force

of 3000 men, but kept all his preparations secret, for very good

reason. His object was to sail round the coast to San Thome, near

Madras, land his troops, march inland, and sack the great temple of

Tirumala or Tirupati, purely for lust of gain. Luckily a severe storm

prevented him from setting said, but he plundered and destroyed some

rich temples on the western coast, and enriched himself with the spoil

This was a mere wanton attack on property belonging to feudatories of

the Vijayanagar empire, for there has never been any pretence that

the peace-loving Brahmans attached to these temples had in any way

offended or interfered with the Portuguese.

In the time of Achyuta a large number of grants were made by the nobles

to temples throughout Southern India, and numerous inscriptions on

stone and copperplates are extant relating to these charitable and

religious donations. One of the most important has been published by

Professor Kielhorn.[288] It relates that the king, being on the banks

of the Tungabhadra on the 12th October A.D. 1540, at the temple of

Vitthalasvami or Vitthalesvara -- the splendidly sculptured pavilions

of which remain to this day, even in their ruin and decay, an object

of astonishment and admiration to all beholders -- gave a grant of

a village not far from Madras to the Brahmans learned in the Vedas.

The last date of Achyuta known to epigraphists at present is found

in an inscription[289] bearing a date corresponding to January 25,

A.D. 1541; and the earliest date similarly available of his successor,

Sadasiva, is July 27, A.D. 1542.

CHAPTER 14

The Beginning of the End

Reign of Sadasiva -- The king a prisoner but acknowledged -- Rama Raya

-- The Adil Shah again at Vijayanagar -- Bijapur in danger -- Saved by

Asada Khan -- Rebellion of Prince Abdullah -- Royal gratitude -- Death

of Asada at Belgaum -- The Portuguese support Abdullah -- Treaties --

Ain-ul-Mulkh -- Fights near Goa -- Rama Raya's threatened expedition

to Mailapur -- He joins the Adil Shah and wastes the territories

of Ahmadnagar -- Portuguese violence on the Malabar coast -- The

Inquisition at Goa.

Sadasiva, then, began to reign in 1541 or 1542 A.D., but was only

nominally king, the whole power of the state being in the hands of

Rama Raya and his two brothers, Tirumala and Venkatadri. That Sadasiva

was recognised by every one as the real sovereign is shown by a large

number of inscriptions, ranging from 1542 to 1568;[290] most of which,

however, have not yet been properly examined. A careful study has been

made by Dr. Hultzsch[291] of one of these, dated in A.D. 1566 -- 67,

a year or so after the great defeat of the Hindus at Talikota and

the destruction of the capital; and this is especially interesting

as it bears out my assertion that even the three brothers themselves

recognised Sadasiva as king, though he had no power and was kept

under constraint. In this document Rama Rajah's brother, Tirumala,

is the important personage, but he submits to the minor title,

MAHAMANDALESVARA, while Sadasiva is mentioned as sovereign. The

inscription states that a certain person presented a petition to the

"Mahamandalesvara Rama Raja Tirumala Raja," who, AFTER OBTAINING

SANCTION AT THE FEET OF SADASIVA-DEVA MAHARAYA, granted a village to

the great temple at Vellore. Rama Rajah and Venkatadri were both at

that time dead, and Tirumala was king DE FACTO. Couto[292] even goes

so far as to say that the three brothers "went on one day every year

and prostrated themselves before their lawful sovereign in token of

his rights over them." But as to the read relationship of Achyuta to

Krishna, and Sadasiva to both, we are still completely in doubt.

We saw that, according to Nuniz, Krishna Deva, immediately on his

accession to the throne, imprisoned his three brothers and a nephew,

then eight years old, son of the late king, "Busbalrao." This was in

the year 1509 A.D., and Krishna was then over twenty years old. We

hear of no king of the name of "Busbalrao," or anything like it,

from other sources; nor are the names of Krishna's three brothers

as given by Nuniz[293] at all like those of the two half-brothers

mentioned in some of the inscriptions.

More than one epigraphical record contains the following genealogy: --

Here we have two half-brothers of Krishna Deva named Ranga and Achyuta,

the latter being chosen king; and a nephew, Sadasiva.

Two inscriptions noted in my "Sketch of the Dynasties of Southern

India"[294] state that Achyuta was the son of Krishna Deva; while

a Telugu work, the MANUCHARITRAM, makes him son of the second

Narasimha. Couto[295] says that he was nephew of Krishna Raya.

As to Sadasiva, some authorities make him, as stated above, nephew

of Krishna Deva and son of Ranga, while another says that he was the

son of Achyuta.

An inscription at Conjeeveram[296] states that Achyuta had a wife

named Varada Devi who bore him a son, Venkata. Venkata was actually

raised to the throne, but lived only a short time, and then young

Sadasiva was crowned king.

If it is necessary to make any choice amid all this confusion, I

recommend my readers to accept provisionally the pedigree given in

the above table, leaving it for future research to finally settle

the question.

As to Rama Raya, several inscriptions state that he and his two

brothers were sons of one Ranga Raya, whose pedigree is given; and

Professor Kielhorn considers it established that Rama married Krishna

Deva's daughter.[297] She was probably a child at her marriage. She had

a brother eighteen months old at the time of Krishna Deva's death --

so Nuniz says -- but we hear nothing more about him, or what became

of him. Another daughter of Krishna Deva Raya's is said to have been

married to Rama Raya's brother, Tirumala. Some authorities state that

Rama's wife was Sadasiva's sister.[298]

That there were disturbances at the capital on the death of Achyuta

in 1542 seems clear; and indeed it could hardly be otherwise, for he

appears to have dislocated the whole empire, alienated the nobles,

upon whom the defence of the country rested, and aroused in them a

spirit of rebellion to the crown.

Gaspar Correa has left us an account of what took place at Vijayanagar

at that time, and I repeat his story for what it is worth; though it

certainly seems as if he had made a mistake and brought down to this

year the affairs of 1535 -- 36, the story of which has already been

told. For he alludes to a visit of the Adil Shah to Vijayanagar,

and unless there were two such visits, Correa would seem to be in

error, since Firishtah's date is confirmed by Nuniz, in whose time

King Achyuta was alive.

Correa[299] states that in 1542 Achyuta, king of Vijayanagar, died,

leaving a young son in the power of his uncle, brother of the dead

king, who had been king contrary to right.[300] The nobles wished

to keep the boy at liberty, nominating two ministers to carry on

the government; but the uncle disagreed, since in this way he would

lose all power, and he contrived to gain over some partisans to his

side. The nobles in disgust separated, returned to their estates,

and, in despair of good government, began to assume independence

each in his own province. The queen, mother of the boy, begged the

Adil Shah to come to her aid and secure the kingdom for her son,

promising him, in return for this favour, immense riches. The Sultan

set out for this purpose, intending to visit Vijayanagar, but on the

road he was met by emissaries from the minister, and bought off with

lavish gifts. The king by real right (probably the uncle, Ranga),

who had been detained in a fortress, was then liberated, and he also

sought aid from the Sultan of Bijapur. The Sultan took advantage of

the opportunity to set out afresh, nominally to aid the true king,

but really to acquire the kingdom for himself. The Hindus, in fear

for their safety, placed on the throne the brother of the dead king,

and succeeded in defeating the Adil Shah close to Vijayanagar. The

new king, in order to strengthen his position for the future, caused

the boy, his rival, to be assassinated, as also two of the latter's

uncles and a nephew of the dead king (Achyuta).[301] Then, in dread

of the power of the principal nobles, he summoned them to court,

and put out the eyes of those who arrived first; so that the rest

returned in great anger to their homes and began to intrigue with

the Sultan. They urged him to depose the tyrant, promising their

aid, and offering him the kingdom for himself if only the country

could be freed from this monster. The Adil Shah therefore advanced,

entered the kingdom of Vijayanagar, and was received as sovereign by

many; but he also assumed such intolerant and haughty airs that he

aroused the hatred of all around him, and in the end was obliged, in

fear for his own safety, to retire to Bijapur. "Meanwhile a new king

had seized the throne of Vijayanagar, a great lord from Paleacate,

married to a sister of the king that preceded the dead king,[302]

and in the end he secured the kingdom."[303]

It seems impossible, as Senhor Lopes justly observes, to get at the

truth of all this at present, and I think it best to abandon the

subject and pass on to consider the events of the reign of Sadasiva,

which lasted from 1542 to 1567. It is pretty evident that each

chronicler acquired his knowledge "from stories transmitted from

mouth to mouth and disfigured in the process."[304]

In 1543 Burhan Nizam Shah made an alliance with Rama Rajah and

Jamshid Qutb Shah, Sultan of Golkonda, and attacked the Adil Shah,

whereupon Rama Rajah, taking advantage of the latter's troubles,

sent Venkatadri to reduce Raichur and the Doab, "so that Beejapore,

attacked at the same time by three powerful princes in three separate

quarters, was full of danger and disorder."[305] True to the traditions

of his predecessors, the new Sultan of Bijapur "called Assud Khan

from Balgoan to his presence and demanded his advice on the alarming

state of affairs," with the result that he patched up a peace with

Burhan, making over to him the rich districts surrounding Sholapur,

and sent ambassadors to arrange terms with Vijayanagar. This done,

and the allies having retired, Asada Khan marched against the Qutb

Shah of Golkonda, defeated him under the walls of his capital,

and in a personal encounter grievously wounded him in the face with

his sabre.[306]

The Portuguese at this period had been very active, and amongst other

more or less successful enterprises the Governor, Affonso de Sousa,

attacked the territory of the Rani of Bhatkal on the pretext that

she had withheld tribute due to the king of Portugal, and wasted

her country with fire and sword. Her city was burnt, the Hindus were

slain in large numbers, and the Rani reduced to submission.

About the year 1544 -- the date is somewhat uncertain -- Sultan

Burhan again attacked Ibrahim Adil at the instigation of Rama Rajah,

but was completely defeated.

"The sultan (Ibrahim) after this victory growing haughty and imperious,

treated the ambassadors of Nizam Shah in a contemptuous manner,

and behaved tyrannically to his own subjects, putting to death many

and severely punishing others of his principal nobility for slight

offences, which occasioned disaffection to his government."

On Burhan again invading Bijapur territories, a party was formed to

depose Ibrahim and raise to the throne his brother Abdullah. This

prince, finding that the conspiracy had been discovered, fled for

safety to Goa, where he was well received. But when Ibrahim promised

certain provinces to the Portuguese if they would send Abdullah

away to a place where he could no longer disturb the peace of the

Bijapur territories, De Sousa accepted the conditions; receiving

the gift of Salsette and Bardes for the crown of Portugal, and the

whole of the vast treasures accumulated by Asada Khan at Belgaum as

a personal present for himself. Having pocketed as much as he could

of the bribe, however, he only took Abdullah as far as Cannanore

and then brought him back to Goa; and when, at the end of the next

year, De Castro succeeded De Sousa as Governor, the former refused

to surrender the rebel prince. This duplicity placed the Sultan in

great difficulty, and in February 1546 he executed a treaty of peace,

one of the terms of which was that no person belonging either to the

Dakhan, or to the territories of the Nizam Shah, or to those of the

king of Vijayanagar, with certain others specially mentioned, should

be permitted to have any communication with Abdullah or his family

until the reply of the king of Portugal was received to an embassy

which the Adil Shah proposed to send to him. There were other terms

also, and these not being acted up to by the Portuguese, the Sultan

in 1547 sent some troops into the provinces of Salsette and Bardes,

which were driven out by the Viceroy after a stubborn fight.

De Castro then concluded treaties with Vijayanagar on the 19th

September 1547, and with Ahmadnagar on the 6th October of the same

year, by the former of which the Hindu king was secured in the monopoly

of the Goa horse trade,[307] and by the latter a defensive alliance was

cemented between the Portuguese and the Nizam Shah. This constituted

a tripartite league against Bijapur.

Shortly afterwards a still more determined attack was made by the

Bijapur troops against the mainlands of Goa, and in the battle which

ensued one of the Adil Shah's principal generals was slain.

In 1548 the Viceroy concluded a more favourable arrangement with

Bijapur and also with the Rani of Bhatkal.

The Portuguese historians say that De Sousa and Asada Khan both joined

the ranks of the supporters of Abdullah, and that Asada Khan promised

to give the king of Portugal all the territories of the Konkan on the

downfall of Ibrahim, but the Viceroy changed his mind and withdrew,

while Asada Khans death put a stop to all intrigues in that quarter.

Firishtah's account, however, of the conduct of Asada at this period

totally differs, as do his dates. He states that, although the Khan

was much distressed at his master's neglect, his coldness towards him,

and his attitude of suspicion, yet he himself was consistently loyal

in his actions, and did his utmost to crush the conspiracy. As to

the Portuguese, this historian avers that, so far from abjuring the

cause of Abdullah, they actually marched with that prince from Goa

towards Bijapur, supported by the Nizam Shah, and even reached the

neighbourhood of Belgaum; but when it became evident that Asada could

not be corrupted, the nobles of Bijapur returned to their allegiance

to their sovereign, and the alliance broke up. Sultan Ibrahim advanced

to Belgaum in February 1549,[308] but on the road heard that Asada

had died.

Firishtah's account of the Bijapur Sultan's conduct when he arrived at

Belgaum is too suggestive to be omitted. The king, he says, "COMFORTED

HIS (ASADA KHAN'S) MOURNING FAMILY WITH KHELAUTS AND ASSURANCES OF

ROYAL FAVOUR, BUT ALL HIS ESTATES AND TREASURES HE TOOK FOR HIS OWN

USE" -- though these treasures were the accumulated property of a

man whom the historian declares to have been, during the whole of his

long life, the most faithful, courageous, and devoted adherent of his

royal master, whom on many occasions he had personally rescued from

difficulties which appeared almost insurmountable! The Portuguese

account as to the fate of the treasures accumulated by Asada Khan is

given by Mr. Danvers, who, treating the Khan as an unprincipled rebel,

writes: --

"In addition to making over Salsette and Bardes to the Crown of

Portugal, the Adil Khan had also given Martim Affonso (De Sousa,

the viceroy) the vast treasure which Acede Khan had collected for

the purpose of carrying out his rebellion, and which is said to have

amounted to ten millions of ducats, OF WHICH, HOWEVER, ONLY ONE MILLION

CAME INTO THE HANDS OF MARTIM AFFONSO. Some accounts state that he sent

about half of this amount to Portugal for his own use, but others aver

that he employed a great part of it in the public service in India,

besides sending some home for the king's use in Portugal." [309]

It will be seen that the two accounts differ widely in details.

At this time Ibrahim Qutb Shah, younger brother of Jamshid and

heir presumptive to the throne of Golkonda, was at Vijayanagar,

whither he had fled in fear of Jamshid's despotic and violent

temper. Firishtah[310] relates a story of him which is worth repeating

here, partly because the event occurred in the Hindu capital, partly

because it illustrates the practice of duelling which, as Nuniz tells

us, largely obtained at that time.[311] and partly because it confirms

the assertions of Nuniz that the king of Vijayanagar was in the habit

of disposing at will with the revenues of his provinces.

Rama Raya had despotically turned out of his estate an Abyssinian

officer in his employ named Ambur Khan, and conferred the same on

Prince Ibrahim for his support.

"Ambur Khan, enraged at the alienation of his estate, and meeting

Ibrahim Kootb Shah in the streets of Beejanuggur, accused him of

depriving him of it. The latter replied that monarchs were at liberty

to dispose of their own property, and that the king of Beejanuggur

had chosen to give him the estate. Ibrahim Kootb Shah proceeded on

his way; but the Abyssinian called him coward in refusing to dispute

his title with the sword. Ibrahim warned him of his imprudence;

but the Prince's mildness only added fury to the Abyssinian's anger,

who proceeded to abuse him in grosser language. On this the Prince

dismounted and drew. The Abyssinian rushed upon him, but the Prince's

temper giving him the advantage, he killed his antagonist, whose

brother, standing by, insisted on taking up the cause, and he also

fell a victim to his temerity."

Prince Ibrahim succeeded to the throne of Golkonda In A.D. 1550. In

the previous year, says Firishtah, an alliance was cemented between

Sultan Ibrahim of Bijapur and the new sovereign of Bidar, Ali Barid,

son of Amir Barid.

Rama Rajah having at this period accepted the presents and professions

of regard sent to him by the Nizam Shah with an embassy, Sultan

Ibrahim, roused to indignation, treated the Vijayanagar ambassadors

at Bijapur with such indignity that they fled in fear of their lives,

and Rama Rajah, offended in his turn, induced Burhan Nizam to attack

Ibrahim. He did so successfully, and captured the fortress of Kallian;

and on Ibrahim's retaliating by seizing one of the Ahmadnagar forts,

an open alliance was entered into between Burhan and Rama. The two

kings met near Raichur in 1551, laid siege to the place and took

it. Mudkul also capitulated, and the Doab was thus once more restored

to the Hindu sovereign.

About this time,[312] so we are told by a Muhammadan historian,

Rama Raya's two brothers rebelled against his authority during his

absence from the capital, and seized the fortress of Adoni; upon which

Rama begged aid from the Qutb Shah Ibrahim, and this being granted,

Rama besieged Adoni for six months. The place eventually capitulated,

and the brothers were then pardoned.

In 1553 Burhan died, and once more the two leading Muhammadan states

became friendly for a short time; but the air was too full of intrigue

and jealousy for this to last long. Sultan Ibrahim negotiated an

understanding with Vijayanagar, and this led to a renewal of the war,

in the course of which a battle took place at Sholapur, where Ibrahim

was worsted.

But the most serious reverse which he suffered was at the hands of

a chief named Ain-ul-Mulkh, whom by ingratitude and ill-treatment he

had driven into open rebellion. At the end of a short campaign against

this person the royal troops were completely beaten, and the Sultan

was driven to take refuge at Bijapur. In a state of desperation

he called on the Raya of Vijayanagar for aid, and Rama, as usual

representing the puppet sovereign, sent his brother, Venkatadri, with

a large force to expel the enemy from the Sultan's dominions.[313]

The story of the rebel "Ein-al-Moolk's" discomfiture at the hands of

Venkatadri is thus told by Firishtah:[314] --

"Syef Ein al Moolkh, imitating Assud Khan, resolved to surprize

the infidels; but Venkatadry, having intelligence of his designs,

ordered his troops to be on their guard; and having procured long

faggots, with cloth steeped in oil bound round one end of each,

commanded his followers upon the alarm being given to light them,

and holding them up as high as possible, give the troops a full sight

of the enemy. Ein al Moolk, agreeably to his intentions, having one

night chosen two thousand men for the purpose, marched with Sullabut

Khan to the enemy's camp, which he was allowed to enter unmolested;

but upon a signal given, all the brands were instantly lighted up,

and Venkatadry, who was prepared with his troops, rushed upon the

surprizers, who expected no resistance, with such success that above

five hundred of them were killed before the detachment could clear

the camp. Ein al Moolk and Sullabut with the greatest difficulty made

their escape; but, losing, the road through the darkness of the night,

a report spread in his camp on the return of some of the fugitives,

that he was killed; and his troops being immediately struck with a

panic, separated and fled to different quarters. Ein al Moolkh and

Sullabut Khan, with two hundred horse, about daylight arriving at

their ground, and seeing it deserted, fled in confusion by the route

of Maan to the dominions of Nizam Shaw, where they sought protection,

but were basely assassinated by his treachery."

In 1555 an attempt was made by the Portuguese under their new Viceroy,

Pedro de Mascarenhas, to place Prince Abdullah on the throne of

Bijapur, the foreigners being dazzled by the magnificent offers made

to them, should the joint efforts of the conspirators be crowned with

success. Abdullah was established at Ponda, and proclamation made of

his accession to the throne. On the death of De Mascarenhas in 1555,

Francisco Barreto succeeded him with the title of governor, and having

installed the prince at Ponda he proceeded to collect the revenues of

the country. He was, however, opposed by an officer of Ibrahim Adil

who was backed by seven thousand troops, and several fights took place.

Meanwhile Ibrahim himself had not been idle, and aided by fifteen

thousand of Sadasiva's troops from Vijayanagar he dethroned and

captured the ambitious prince, following this up by several attacks

on the Portuguese forces. The war lasted during the whole winter of

1556, but with no very decisive results. Next year a fresh relay of

troops from Bijapur attacked Salsette and Bardes, but were beaten by

a small force of Portuguese near Ponda, and hostilities were suspended

for a time.

Shortly after this, viz., in 1557, Sultan Ibrahim died. "During his

illness he put to death several physicians who had failed in cure,

beheading some, and causing others to be trodden to death by elephants,

so that all the surviving medical practitioners, alarmed, fled from

his dominions." He was succeeded by his eldest son, Ali Adil.

The new Sultan, immediately on his accession, cemented his father's

alliance with Sadasiva and Rama Rajah by the execution of a new

treaty, and sent ambassadors on a similar errand to Husain Nizam

Shah, the successor of Burhan at Ahmadnagar. These, however, were

badly received, and Sultan Ali, whose envoys at the Hindu capital had

been warmly welcomed and hospitably treated, determined to establish,

if possible, a real and lasting friendship with Vijayanagar. To this

end he adopted a most unusual course, the account of which will be

best given in Firishtah's own words.

"Ali Adil Shaw, who was intent on extricating his dominions from

the losses of his father by alliance with Ramraaje, on the death of

a son of that monarch,[315] with uncommon prudence and resolution

went, attended by one hundred horse, to Beejanuggur, to offer his

condolence on the melancholy occasion. Ramraaje received him with the

greatest respect,[316] and the sultan with the kindest persuasions

prevailed upon him to lay aside his mourning. The wife of Ramraaje

adopted the sultan as her son, and at the end of three days, which

were spent in interchanges of friendly professions, he took his leave;

but as Ramraaje did not attend him out of the city, he was disgusted,

and treasured up the affront in his mind, though too prudent to show

any signs of displeasure for the present."[317]

The incident thus entirely failed in its intended effect. It produced a

lasting irritation in the mind of the Sultan, and a haughty arrogance

on the part of Rama Raya, who conceived that the fortunes of his

hereditary enemy must be at a very low ebb when he could condescend

so far to humble himself.

In the next year, 1558, according to Couto,[318] Rama Raya made an

expedition to "Meliapor," or Mailapur, near Madras, where was an

important establishment of Roman Catholic monks and the Church of

St. Thomas. I quote the passage from the summary given by Senhor

Lopes in his introduction to the CHRONICA DOS REIS DE BISNAGA

(p. lxvi.). "The poor fathers of the glorious Order of St. Francis

having seized all the coast from Negapatam to San Thome, they being

the first who had begun to preach there the light of the Holy Gospel,

and having throughout that tract thrown down many temples and destroyed

many pagodas, a thing which grieved excessively all the Brahmans,

these latter reported the facts to Rama Raya, king of Bisnaga, whose

vassals they were, and begged him that he would hasten to their

assistance for the honour of their gods."

They succeeded in persuading him that the newcomers were possessed of

enormous riches, and he proceeded against the place, but afterwards

finding that this was not true, and that the inhabitants were loyal

to him, he spared them and left them in peace.

On his return to Bijapur, Ali Adil peremptorily demanded from Hussain

Nizam Shah the restoration of the fortresses of Kallian and Sholapur;

and on the latter's contemptuous refusal (he "sent back a reply so

indecent in expression as to be unfit to relate." says Firishtah)

another war broke out.

"In the year 966 (October 14, A.D. 1558 to October 3, 1559), Ali

Adil Shaw having called Ramraaje to his assistance, they in concert

divided the dominions of Houssein Nizam Shaw, and laid them waste in

such a manner that from Porundeh to Khiber, and from Ahmednuggur to

Dowlutabad, not a mark of population was to be seen. The infidels

of Beejanuggur, who for many years had been wishing for such an

event, left no cruelty unpractised. They insulted the honour of the

mussulmaun women, destroyed the mosques, and did not even respect

the sacred koraun."[319]

This behaviour on the part of the Hindus so incensed the followers of

Islam, not only the hostile subjects of Golkonda but even the allied

troops and inhabitants of the Bijapur territories, that it laid the

foundation for the final downfall and destruction of Vijayanagar.

In 1558 Dom Constantine de Braganza became Viceroy of Goa, and his

period of government was signalised by every kind of violence and

aggression. In 1559 Luiz de Mello carried fire and sword into the towns

along the Malabar coast. He attacked Mangalore, set fire to the town,

and put all the inhabitants to death. Later in the year he destroyed

in similar manner a number of towns and villages on the same coast,

and desolated the whole seaboard.

In 1560 the See of Goa was elevated into an arch-bishopric, and

the Inquisition, the horrors of which even excelled that of Spain,

was established. The inhabitants of Goa and its dependencies were

now forced to embrace Christianity, and on refusal or contumacy were

imprisoned and tortured. In this year also, and those following, the

predatory excursions of the Portuguese were continued. In 1564 the

Viceroy sent Mesquita with three ships to destroy a number of ships

belonging to the Malabarese. Mesquita captured twenty-four of these,

by twos and threes at a time, sunk them, beheaded a large number of

the sailors, and in the case of hundreds of others, sewed them up in

sails and threw them overboard. In these ways he massacred 2000 men.

This resulted in a serious war in Malabar, as the wretched inhabitants

of the country; driven to desperation, determined at all hazards

to destroy the ruthless invaders of their land. The Portuguese were

attacked at Cannanore, and a series of desperate struggles took place,

in the course of which Noronha, the commandant, desolated the country

and ruined many people by cutting down forty thousand palm trees. At

last, however, peace was made.

CHAPTER 15

Destruction of Vijayanagar (A.D. 1565)

Arrogance of Rama Raya -- Ahmadnagar attacked -- Muhammadans combine

against Vijayanagar -- The league of the five kings -- Their advance

to Talikota -- Decisive battle, 1565, and total defeat of the Hindus

-- Death of Rama Raya -- Panic at Vijayanagar -- Flight of the

royal family -- Sack of the great city -- Its total destruction --

Evidence of Federici, 1567 -- Downfall of Portuguese trade, and decay

of prosperity at Goa.

Meanwhile affairs were advancing rapidly in the interior. After

the Nizam Shah's dominions had been wasted, as already described,

by the Adil Shah and Rama Raya, peace was made by the restoration

of Kallian to Bijapur;[320] but as soon as the allies had retired,

Hussain entered into an alliance with Ibrahim Qutb Shah and again

marched to attack Ali Adil. Again Ali called in the aid of Vijayanagar,

and again Rama Raya marched to his aid, this time with 50,000 horse

and an immense force of infantry. The opposing forces met at Kallian,

when the Qutb Shah deserted to Ali Adil, and Hussain was compelled

to withdraw to Ahmadnagar. Attacked in his own capital, he retreated.

"The three sovereigns laid siege to Ahmednuggur, and despatched

detachments various ways to lay waste the country round. The Hindoos

of Beejanuggur committed the most outrageous devastations, burning

and razing the buildings, putting up their horses in the mosques,

and performing their idolatrous worship in the holy places; but,

notwithstanding, the siege was pushed with the greatest vigour, the

garrison held out with resolution, hoping that at the approach of

the rainy season, the enemy would be necessitated to raise the siege.

"when the rains had set in, from the floods, damp, and want of

provisions, distress began to prevail in the camp of the allies, and

Kootub Shaw also secretly corresponded with the besieged, to whom he

privately sent in grain."[321]

The siege was raised, therefore, and before long the allies separated,

and the Hindu army returned home.

"In the first expedition on which Ali Adil Shaw, pressed by

the behaviour of Houssein Nizam Shaw, had called Ramraaje to his

assistance, the Hindoos at Ahmednuggur committed great outrages, and

omitted no mark of disrespect to the holy religion of the faithful,

singing and performing their superstitious worship in the mosques. The

sultan was much hurt at this insult to the faith, but, as he had not

the ability to prevent it, he did not seem to observe it. Ramraaje

also, at the conclusion of this expedition, looking on the Islaam

sultans as of little consequence, refused proper honours to their

ambassadors. When he admitted them to his presence, he did not suffer

them to sit, and treated them with the most contemptuous reserve and

haughtiness. He made them attend when in publick in his train on foot,

not allowing them to mount till he gave orders. On the return from

the last expedition to Nuldirruk, the officers and soldiers of his

army in general, treated the mussulmauns with insolence, scoffing,

and contemptuous language; and Ramraaje, after taking leave, casting

an eye of avidity on the countries of Koottub Shaw and Adil Shaw,

dispatched armies to the frontiers of each."

Both the great Shahs, therefore, abandoned certain territories to

the Hindus, and from Golkonda Rama obtained Ghanpura and Pangul. It

was the last Hindu success.

"Ramraaje daily continuing to encroach on the dominions of the

mussulmauns, Adil Shaw at length resolved, if possible, to punish his

insolence and curtail his power by a general league of the faithful

against him; for which purpose he convened an assembly of his friends

and confidential advisers."

Some of these urged that the Raya was too wealthy and powerful, by

reason of his immense revenues, which were collected from no less than

sixty seaports in addition to very large territories and dependencies,

and the number of his forces was too vast, for any single Muhammadan

monarch to cope with him. They therefore pressed the Sultan to form a

federation of all the kings of the Dakhan and wage a joint war. Ali

Adil heartily concurred in their opinion, and began by despatching

a secret embassy to Ibrahim Qutb Shah.

Ibrahim eagerly accepted, and offered his services as mediator

between Ali Adil and his great rival at Ahmadnagar. An envoy was

sent to the latter capital, and the sovereign, Hussain Shah, warned

beforehand of the important proposals to be made, received him in

private audience. The ambassador then laid before the king all the

arguments in favour of the Bijapur plan.

"He represented to him that during the times of the Bhamenee princes,

when the whole strength of the mussulmaun power was in one hand,

the balance between it and the force of the roles of Beejanuggur

was nearly equal; that now the mussulmaun authority was divided,

policy demanded that all the faithful princes should unite as one,

and observe the strictest friendship, that they might continue secure

from the attacks of their powerful common enemy, and the authority of

the roles of Beejanuggur, who had reduced all the rajas of Carnatic

to their yoke, be diminished, and removed far from the countries of

Islaam; that the people of their several dominions, who ought to

be considered the charge of the Almighty committed to their care,

might repose free from the oppressions of the unbelievers, and their

mosques and holy places be made no longer the dwellings of infidels."

These arguments had their full weight, and it was arranged that Hussain

Nizam Shah should give his daughter Chand Bibi in marriage to Ali Adil

with the fortress of Sholapur as her DOT, and that his eldest son,

Murtiza, should espouse Ali's sister -- the two kingdoms coalescing

for the conquest and destruction of Vijayanagar. The marriages were

celebrated in due course, and the Sultans began their preparations

for the holy war.

"Ali Adil Shaw, preparatory to the war, and to afford himself a

pretence for breaking with his ally, dispatched an ambassador to

Ramraaje, demanding restitution of some districts that had been wrested

from him. As he expected, Ramraaje expelled the ambassador in a very

disgraceful manner from his court; and the united sultans now hastened

the preparations to crush the common enemy of the Islaam faith."

Ibrahim Qutb Shah had also joined the coalition, and the four princes

met on the plains of Bijapur, with their respective armies. Their

march towards the south began on Monday, December 25, A.D. 1564.[322]

Traversing the now dry plains of the Dakhan country, where the cavalry,

numbering many thousands, could graze their horses on the young crops,

the allied armies reached the neighbourhood of the Krishna near the

small fortress and town of Talikota, a name destined to be for ever

celebrated in the annals of South India.[323]

It is situated on the river Don, about sixteen miles above its

junction with the Krishna, and sixty-five miles west of the point

where the present railway between Bombay and Madras crosses the great

river. The country at that time of the year was admirably adapted

for the passage of large bodies of troops, and the season was one of

bright sunny days coupled with cool refreshing breezes.

Here Ali Adil, as lord of that country, entertained his allies in royal

fashion, and they halted for several days, attending to the transport

and commissariat arrangements of the armies, and sending out scouts

to report on the best locality for forcing the passage of the river.

At Vijayanagar there was the utmost confidence. Remembering how often

the Moslems had vainly attempted to injure the great capital, and how

for over two centuries they had never succeeded in penetrating to the

south, the inhabitants pursued their daily avocations with no shadow

of dread or sense of danger; the strings of pack-bullocks laden with

all kinds of merchandise wended their dusty way to and from the several

seaports as if no sword of Damocles was hanging over the doomed city;

Sadasiva, the king, lived his profitless life in inglorious seclusion,

and Rama Raya, king de facto, never for a moment relaxed his attitude

of haughty indifference to the movements of his enemies. "He treated

their ambassadors," says Firishtah, "with scornful language, and

regarded their enmity as of little moment."[324]

Nevertheless he did not neglect common precautions. His first action

was to send his youngest brother, Tirumala, the "Yeltumraj" or

"Eeltumraaje" of Firishtah, to the front with 20,000 horse, 100,000

foot, and 500 elephants, to block the passage of the Krishna at all

points. Next he despatched his second brother, Venkatadri, with another

large army; and finally marched in person towards the point of attack

with the whole power of the Vijayanagar empire. The forces were made

up of large drafts from all the provinces -- Canarese and Telugus

of the frontier, Mysoreans and Malabarese from the west and centre,

mixed with the Tamils from the remoter districts to the south; each

detachment under its own local leaders, and forming part of the levies

of the temporary provincial chieftain appointed by the crown. According

to Couto, they numbered 600,000 foot and 100,000 horse. His adversaries

had about half that number. As to their appearance and armament, we

may turn for information to the description given us by Paes of the

great review of which he was an eye-witness forty-five years earlier

at Vijayanagar,[325] remembering always that the splendid troops

between whose lines he then passed in the king's procession were

probably the ELITE of the army, and that the common soldiers were

clad in the lightest of working clothes, many perhaps with hardly

any clothes at all, and armed only with spear or dagger.[326]

The allies had perhaps halted too long. At any rate, their scouts

returned to their sovereigns with the news that all the passages of the

river were defended, and that their only course was to force the ford

immediately in their front. This was in possession of the Hindus, who

had fortified the banks on the south side, had thrown up earthworks,

and had stationed a number of cannon to dispute the crossing.

The defenders of the ford anxiously awaited intelligence of their

enemy's movements, and learning that he had struck his camp and marched

along the course of the river, they quitted their post and followed,

keeping always to the south bank in readiness to repel any attempt to

cross directly in their front. This manoeuvre, a ruse on the part of

the Mussulmans, was repeated on three successive days. On the third

night the Sultans hastily left their camp, returned to the ford,

and, finding it deserted, crossed with a large force. This movement

covered the transit of the whole of their army, and enabled them to

march southwards to the attack of Rama Raya's main body.

Rama Raya, though surprised, was not alarmed, and took all possible

measures for defence. In the morning the enemy was within ten miles

of his camp, and Venkatadri and Tirumala succeeded in effecting a

junction with their brother.

On the following day, Tuesday, January 23; 1565,[327] both sides

having made their dispositions, a pitched battle took place[328] in

which all the available forces of both sides were engaged. In one of

his descriptions Firishtah estimates the Vijayanagar army alone as

amounting to 900,000 infantry, 45,000 cavalry, and 2000 elephants,

besides 15,000 auxiliaries; but he himself varies so greatly in the

numbers he gives in different parts of his narrative that there is no

necessity to accept these figures as accurate. There can be little

doubt, however, that the numbers were very large. The Hindu left,

on the west, was entrusted to the command of Tirumala; Rama Raya in

person was in the centre, and the right was composed of the troops

of Venkatadri. Opposed to Tirumala were the forces of Bijapur under

their Sultan Ali Adil; the Mussalman centre was under the command of

Hussain Nizam Shah; and the left of the allied army, in Venkatadri's

front, consisted of the forces brought from Ahmadabad and Golkonda by

the two Sultans, Ali Barid and Ibrahim Qutb. The allied forces drew

up in a long line with their artillery in the centre, and awaited

the enemy's attack, each division with the standards of the twelve

Imams waving in the van. The Nizam Shah's front was covered by six

hundred pieces of ordnance disposed in three lines, in the first of

which were heavy guns, then the smaller ones, with light swivel guns

in the rear. In order to mask this disposition two thousand foreign

archers were thrown out in front, who kept up a heavy discharge as the

enemy's line came on. The archers fell back as the Hindus of Rama's

division approached, and the batteries opened with such murderous

effect that the assailants retreated in confusion and with great loss.

Rama Rajah was now a very old man -- Couto says "he was ninety-six

years old, but as brave as a man of thirty" -- and, against the

entreaties of his officers, he preferred to superintend operations from

a litter rather than remain for a long time mounted -- a dangerous

proceeding, since in case of a reverse a rapid retreat was rendered

impossible. But he could not be induced to change his mind, remarking

that in spite of their brave show the enemy were children and would

soon be put to flight. So confident was he of victory that it is

said he had ordered his men to bring him the head of Hussain Nizam,

but to capture the Adil Shah and Ibrahim of Golkonda alive, that he

might keep them the rest of their lives in iron cages.

The battle becoming more general, the Hindus opened a desolating fire

from a number of field-pieces and rocket-batteries. The left and right

of the Muhammadan line were pressed back after destructive hand-to-hand

fighting, many falling on both sides. At this juncture Rama Raya,

thinking to encourage his men, descended from his litter and seated

himself on a "rich throne set with jewels, under a canopy of crimson

velvet, embroidered with gold and adorned with fringes of pearls,"

ordering his treasurer to place heaps of money all round him, so

that he might confer rewards on such of his followers as deserved his

attention. "There were also ornaments of gold and jewels placed for the

same purpose." A second attack by the Hindus on the guns in the centre

seemed likely to complete the overthrow of the whole Muhammadan line,

when the front rank of pieces was fired at close quarters, charged

with bags of copper money; and this proved so destructive that 5000

Hindus were left dead on the field in front of the batteries. This

vigorous policy threw the Hindu centre into confusion, upon which

5000 Muhammadan cavalry charged through the intervals of the guns and

cut their way into the midst of the disorganised masses, towards the

spot where the Raya had taken post. He had again changed his position

and ascended his litter; but hardly had he done so when an elephant

belonging to the Nizam Shah, wild with the excitement of the battle,

dashed forward towards him, and the litter-bearers let fall their

precious burden in terror at the animal's approach. Before he had

time to recover himself and mount a horse, a body of the allies was

upon him, and he was seized and taken prisoner.

This event threw the Hindus into a panic, and they began to give

way. Rama Raya was conducted by the officer who commanded the artillery

of Hussain Nizam to his Sultan, who immediately ordered his captive

to be decapitated, and the head to be elevated on a long spear,

so that it might be visible to the Hindu troops.

On seeing that their chief was dead, the Vijayanagar forces broke

and fled "They were pursued by the allies with such successful

slaughter that the river which ran near the field was dyed red with

their blood. It is computed on the best authorities that above one

hundred thousand infidels were slain in fight and during the pursuit."

The Mussulmans were thus completely victorious, and the Hindus fled

towards the capital; but so great was the confusion that there was not

the slightest attempt made to take up a new and defensive position

amongst the hills surrounding the city, or even to defend the walls

or the approaches. The rout was complete.

"The plunder was so great that every private man in the allied army

became rich in gold, jewels, effects, tents, arms, horses, and slaves,

as the sultans left every person in possession of what he had acquired,

only taking elephants for their own use."

De Couto, describing the death of Rama Raya, states[329] that Hussain

Nizam Shah cut off his enemy's head with his own hand, exclaiming, "Now

I am avenged of thee! Let God do what he will to me!" The Adil Shah,

on the contrary, was greatly distressed at Rama Raya's death.[330]

The story of this terrible disaster travelled apace to the city of

Vijayanagar. The inhabitants, unconscious of danger, were living in

utter ignorance that any serious reverse had taken place; for their

leaders had marched out with countless numbers in their train, and

had been full of confidence as to the result. Suddenly, however, came

the bad news. The army was defeated; the chiefs slain; the troops in

retreat. But still they did not grasp the magnitude of the reverse;

on all previous occasions the enemy had been either driven back,

or bought off with presents from the overstocked treasury of the

kings. There was little fear, therefore, for the city itself. That

surely was safe! But now came the dejected soldiers hurrying back

from the fight, and amongst the foremost the panic-stricken princes

of the royal house. Within a few hours these craven chiefs hastily

left the palace, carrying with them all the treasures on which they

could lay their hands. Five hundred and fifty elephants, laden with

treasure in gold, diamonds, and precious stones valued at more than

a hundred millions sterling, and carrying the state insignia and the

celebrated jewelled throne of the kings, left the city under convoy

of bodies of soldiers who remained true to the crown. King Sadasiva

was carried off by his jailor, Tirumala, now sole regent since the

death of his brothers; and in long line the royal family and their

followers fled southward towards the fortress of Penukonda.

Then a panic seized the city. The truth became at last apparent. This

was not a defeat merely, it was a cataclysm. All hope was gone. The

myriad dwellers in the city were left defenceless. No retreat, no

flight was possible except to a few, for the pack-oxen and carts

had almost all followed the forces to the war, and they had not

returned. Nothing could be done but to bury all treasures, to arm

the younger men, and to wait. Next day the place became a prey to

the robber tribes and jungle people of the neighbourhood. Hordes of

Brinjaris, Lambadis, Kurubas, and the like,[331] pounced down on the

hapless city and looted the stores and shops, carrying off great

quantities of riches. Couto states that there were six concerted

attacks by these people during the day.

The third day[332] saw the beginning of the end. The victorious

Mussulmans had halted on the field of battle for rest and refreshment,

but now they had reached the capital, and from that time forward for

a space of five months Vijayanagar knew no rest. The enemy had come

to destroy, and they carried out their object relentlessly. They

slaughtered the people without mercy, broke down the temples and

palaces; and wreaked such savage vengeance on the abode of the kings,

that, with the exception of a few great stone-built temples and walls,

nothing now remains but a heap of ruins to mark the spot where once

the stately buildings stood. They demolished the statues, and even

succeeded in breaking the limbs of the huge Narasimha monolith. Nothing

seemed to escape them. They broke up the pavilions standing on the

huge platform from which the kings used to watch the festivals, and

overthrew all the carved work. They lit huge fires in the magnificently

decorated buildings forming the temple of Vitthalasvami near the

river, and smashed its exquisite stone sculptures. With fire and

sword, with crowbars and axes, they carried on day after day their

work of destruction. Never perhaps in the history of the world has

such havoc been wrought, and wrought so suddenly, on so splendid a

city; teeming with a wealthy and industrious population in the full

plenitude of prosperity one day, and on the next seized, pillaged,

and reduced to ruins, amid scenes of savage massacre and horrors

beggaring description.

Caesaro Federici, an Italian traveller -- or "Caesar Frederick," as he

is often called by the English -- visited the place two years later,

in 1567. He relates that, after the sack, when the allied Muhammadans

returned to their own country, Tirumala Raya tried to re-populate

the city, but failed, though some few people were induced to take up

their abode there.

"The Citie of BEZENEGER is not altogether destroyed, yet the houses

stand still, but emptie, and there is dwelling in them nothing,

as is reported, but Tygres and other wild beasts."[333]

The loot must have been enormous. Couto states that amongst other

treasures was found a diamond as large as a hen's egg, which was kept

by the Adil Shah.[334]

Such was the fate of this great and magnificent city. It never

recovered, but remained for ever a scene of desolation and ruin. At

the present day the remains of the larger and more durable structures

rear themselves from amongst the scanty cultivation carried on by

petty farmers, dwellers in tiny villages scattered over the area once

so populous. The mud huts which constituted the dwelling-places of by

far the greater portion of the inhabitants have disappeared, and their

materials overlie the rocky plain and form the support of a scanty and

sparse vegetation. But the old water-channels remain, and by their aid

the hollows and low ground have been converted into rich gardens and

fields, bearing full crops of waving rice and sugar-cane. Vijayanagar

has disappeared as a city, and a congeries of small hamlets with an

industrious and contented population has taken its place.

Here my sketch of Vijayanagar history might well end, but I have

thought it advisable to add a few notes on succeeding events.

Tirumala took up his abode at Penukonda, and shortly afterwards

sent word to the Portuguese traders at Goa that he was in need of

horses. A large number were accordingly delivered, when the despotic

ruler dismissed the men to return to Goa as best they could without

payment. "He licensed the Merchants to depart," writes Federici,

"without giving them anything for their Horses, which when the poore

Men saw, they were desperate, and, as it were, mad with sorrow and

griefe." There was no authority left in the land, and the traveller

had to stay in Vijayanagar seven months, "for it was necessarie to

rest there until the wayes were clear of Theeves, which at that time

ranged up and downe." He had the greatest difficulty in making his

way to Goa at all, for he and his companions were constantly seized

by sets of marauders and made to pay heavy ransom for their liberty,

and on one occasion they were attacked by dacoits and robbed.

Tirumala being now with King Sadasiva in Penukonda, the nobles of the

empire began to throw off their allegiance, and one after another to

proclaim their independence. The country was in a state of anarchy. The

empire, just now so solid and compact, became disintegrated, and from

this time forward it fell rapidly to decay.

To the Portuguese the change was of vital importance. Federici has

left us the following note on their trade with Vijayanagar, which I

extract from "Purchas's Pilgrims:" --

"The Merchandize that went every yeere from Goa to Bezeneger were

Arabian Horses, Velvets, Damaskes, and Sattens, Armesine[335]

of Portugall, and pieces of China, Saffron, and Scarletts; and

from Bezeneger they had in Turkie for their commodities, Jewels and

Pagodas,[336] which be Ducats of Gold; the Apparell that they use in

Bezeneger is Velvet, Satten, Damaske, Scarlet, or white Bumbast cloth,

according to the estate of the person, with long Hats on their heads

called Colae,[337] &c."

Sassetti, who was in India from 1578 to 1588, confirms the others as

to Portuguese loss of trade on the ruin of the city: --

"The traffic was so large that it is impossible to imagine it; the

place was immensely large; and it was inhabited by people rich, not

with richness like ours, but with richness like that of the Crassi

and the others of those old days.... And such merchandise! Diamonds,

rubies, pearls ... and besides all that, the horse trade. That alone

produced a revenue in the city (Goa) of 120 to 150 thousand ducats,

which now reaches only 6 thousand."

Couto tells the same story:[338] --

"By this destruction of the kingdom of Bisnaga, India and our State

were much shaken; for the bulk of the trade undertaken by all was

for this kingdom, to which they carried horses, velvets, satins and

other sorts of merchandize, by which they made great profits; and

the Custom House of Goa suffered much in its Revenue, so that from

that day till now the inhabitants of Goa began to live less well;

for paizes and fine cloths were a trade of great importance for

Persia and Portugal, and it then languished, and the gold pagodas,

of which every year more than 500,000 were laden in the ships of the

kingdom, were then worth 7 1/2 Tangas, and to day are worth 11 1/2,

and similarly every kind of coin."

Sassetti gives another reason, however, for the decay of Portuguese

trade and influence at Goa, which cannot be passed over without

notice. This was the terrible Inquisition. The fathers of the Church

forbade the Hindus under terrible penalties the use of their own sacred

books, and prevented them from all exercise of their religion. They

destroyed their temples and mosques, and so harassed and interfered

with the people that they abandoned the city in large numbers,

refusing to remain any longer in a place where they had no liberty,

and were liable to imprisonment, torture, and death if they worshipped

after their own fashion the gods of their fathers.[339]

About this period, therefore (1567), the political condition of

Southern India may be thus summed up: -- The Muhammadans of the Dakhan

were triumphant though still divided in interest, and their country

was broken up into states each bitterly hostile to the other. The

great empire of the south was sorely stricken, and its capital was

for ever destroyed; the royal family were refugees at Pennakonda;

King Sadasiva was still a prisoner; and Tirumala, the only survivor

of the "three brethren which were tyrants,"[340] was governing the

kingdom as well as he could. The nobles were angry and despondent,

each one seeking to be free; and the Portuguese on the coast were

languishing, with their trade irretrievably injured.

Firishtah summarises the events immediately succeeding the great

battle in the following words: --

"The sultans, a few days after the battle, marched onwards into the

country of Ramraaje as far as Anicondeh,[341] and the advanced troops

penetrated to Beejanuggur, which they plundered, razed the chief

buildings, and committed all manner of excess. When the depredations

of the allies had destroyed all the country round, Venkatadri,[342]

who had escaped from the battle to a distant fortress, sent humble

entreaties of peace to the sultans, to whom he gave up all the places

which his brothers had wrested from them; and the victors being

satisfied, took leave of each other at Roijore (Raichur), and returned

to their several dominions. The raaje of Beejanuggur since this battle

has never recovered its ancient splendour; and the city itself has been

so destroyed that it is now totally in ruins and uninhabited,[343]

while the country has been seized by the zemindars (petty chiefs),

each of whom hath assumed an independent power in his own district."

In 1568 (so it is said) Tirumala murdered his sovereign, Sadasiva,

and seized the throne for himself; but up to that time he seems to

have recognised the unfortunate prince as his liege lord, as we know

from four inscriptions at Vellore bearing a date corresponding to

5th February 1567 A.D.[344]

And thus began the third dynasty, if dynasty it can be appropriately

called.

CHAPTER 16

The Third Dynasty

Genealogy -- The Muhammadan States -- Fall of Bankapur, Kondavid,

Bellamkonda and Vinukonda -- Haidarabad founded -- Adoni under the

Muhammadans -- Subsequent history in brief.

The following is the genealogy of this third family.[345] They came

apparently of the old royal stock, but their exact relationship to

it has never been conclusively settled. The dates appended are the

dates of inscriptions, not necessarily the dates of reigns.

The present Rajah of Anegundi, whose family name is Pampapati, and who

resides on the old family estate as a zamindar under H.H. the Nizam

of Haidarabad, has favoured me with a continuation of the family tree

to the present day.

Ranga VI., or, as he is generally styled, Sri Ranga, is said to have

been the youngest of three brothers, sons of Chinna Venkata III.,

Vira Venkatapati Raya being the eldest. Gopala, a junior member of

the family, succeeded to the throne and adopted Ranga VI., who was

thus a junior member of the eldest branch. The eldest brother of

Ranga VI. was ousted.

I have no means of knowing whether this information is correct,

but the succession of the eldest is given on the following page.

Pampapati Rajah is recognised by his Government as head of the family

for two reasons: first and foremost, because the elder line is extinct

and he was adopted by his sister Kuppamma, wife of Krishna Deva of the

elder line; secondly, because his two elder brothers are said to have

resigned their claims in his favour. The title of the present chief

is "Sri Ranga Deva Raya." Whether or no he has better title than his

nephew, Kumara Raghava, need not here be discussed. The interest to

the readers of this history lies in the fact that these two are the

only surviving male descendants of the ancient royal house.

To revert to the history, which need only be shortly summarised since

we have seen Vijayanagar destroyed and its territories in a state of

political confusion and disturbance.

I omit altogether the alternate political combinations and

dissolutions, the treacheries, quarrels, and fights of the various

Muhammadan states after 1565, as unnecessary for our purpose and

in order to avoid prolixity, summarising only a few matters which

more particularly concern the territories formerly under the great

Hindu Empire.

According to Golkonda accounts, a year after the great battle which

resulted in the destruction of Vijayanagar, a general of the Qutb Shah,

Raffat Khan Lari, ALIAS Malik Naib, marched against Rajahmundry, which

was finally captured from the Hindus in A.D. 1571 -- 72 (A.H. 979).

Shortly after his return to Bijapur (so says Firishtah), Ali Adil

Shah moved again with an army towards Vijayanagar, but retired on the

Ahmadnagar Sultan advancing to oppose him; and not long afterwards he

made an ineffectual attempt to reduce Goa. Retiring from the coast,

he marched to attack Adoni, then under one of the vassal chiefs of

Vijayanagar, who had made himself independent in that tract. The

place was taken, and the Nizam Shah agreed with the king of Bijapur

that he would not interfere with the latter's attempts to annex the

territories south of the Krishna, if he on his part were left free

to conquer Berar.

In 1573, therefore, Ali Adil moved against Dharwar and Bankapur. The

siege of the latter place under its chief, Velappa Naik, now

independent, lasted for a year and six months, when the garrison,

reduced to great straits, surrendered. Firishtah[346] states that

the Adil Shah destroyed a "superb temple" there, and himself laid

the first stone of a mosque which was built on its foundation. More

successes followed in the Konkan. Three years later Bellamkonda was

similarly attacked, and the Raya in terror retired from Penukonda to

Chandragiri. This campaign, however, resulted in failure, apparently

owing to the Shah of Golkonda assisting the Hindus. In 1579 the king

of Golkonda, in breach of his contract, attacked and reduced the

fortresses of Vinukonda and Kondavid as well as Kacharlakota and

Kammam,[347] thus occupying large tracts south of the Krishna.

In 1580 Ali Adil was murdered. Firishtah in his history of the Qutb

Shahs gives the date as Thursday, 23rd Safar, A.H. 987, but the true

day appears to have been Monday, 24th Safar, A.H. 988, corresponding

to Monday, April 11, A.D. 1580. This at least is the date given

by an eye-witness, one Rafi-ud-Din Shirazi, who held an important

position at the court at the time. (The question is discussed by

Major King in the INDIAN ANTIQUARY, vol. xvii. p. 221.) Ibrahim Qutb

Shah of Golkonda also died in 1580 and was succeeded by Muhammad

Quli, his third son, who in 1589 founded the city of Haidarabad,

originally carted Bhagnagar. He carried on successful wars in the

present Kurnool and Cuddapah districts, capturing Kurnool, Nandial,

Dole, and Gandikota, following up these successes by inroads into

the eastern districts of Nellore.

King Tirumala of Vijayanagar was in 1575 followed apparently by his

second son, Ranga II., whose successor was his brother Venkata I.[348]

(1586). The latter reigned for at least twenty-eight years, and

died an old man in 1614. At his death there were widespread revolts,

disturbances, and civil warfare, as we shall presently see from the

account of Barradas given in the next chapter. An important inscription

of his reign, dated in A.D. 1601 -- 2, and recorded on copper-plates,

has been published by Dr. Hultzsch.[349]

In 1593 the Bijapur Sultan, Ibrahim Adil, invaded Mysore, which then

belonged to the Raya, and reduced the place after a three months'

siege. In the same year this Sultan's brother, Ismail, who had been

kept prisoner at Belgaum, rose against his sovereign and declared

himself independent king of the place. He was besieged there by the

royal troops' but owing to treachery in the camp they failed to take

the place, and the territories in the neighbourhood were for some

time a prey to insurrections and disturbances. Eventually they were

reduced to submission and the rebel was killed. Contemporaneously

with these events, the Hindus again tried to obtain possession of

Adoni, but without success;[350] and a war broke out between the

rival kingdoms of Bijapur and Ahmadnagar.

With this period ends abruptly the narrative of Firishtah relating to

the Sultans of Bijapur. The Golkonda history[351] appears to differ

widely from it, but I have not thought it necessary here to compare

the two stories.

The history of the seventeenth century in Southern India is

one of confusion and disturbance. The different governors became

independent. The kings of the decadent empire wasted their wealth and

lost their territories, so that at length they held a mere nominal

sovereignty, and nothing remained but the shadow of the once great

name -- the prestige of family. And yet, even so late as the years

1792 and 1793, I find a loyal Reddi in the south, in recording on

copper-plates some grants of land to temples, declaring that he did so

by permission of "Venkatapati Maharaya of Vijayanagar;"[352] while I

know of eight other grants similarly recognising the old Hindu royal

family, which were engraved in the eighteenth century.[353]

The Ikkeri or Bednur chiefs styled themselves under-lords of

Vijayanagar till 1650.[354] A Vijayanagar viceroy ruled over Mysore

till 1610, after which the descendants of the former viceroys became

Rajahs in their own right. In Madura and Tanjore the Nayakkas became

independent in 1602.

All the Muhammadan dynasties in the Dakhan fell under the power of the

Mogul emperors of Delhi towards the close of the seventeenth century,

and the whole of the south of India soon became practically theirs. But

meanwhile another great power had arisen, and at one time threatened to

conquer all India. This was the sovereignty of the Mahrattas. Sivaji

conquered all the Konkan country by 1673, and four years later he

had overthrown the last shreds of Vijayanagar authority in Kurnool,

Gingi, and Vellore; while his brother Ekoji had already, in 1674,

captured Tanjore, and established a dynasty there which lasted for

a century. But with this exception the Mahrattas established no real

domination in the extreme south.

Mysore remained independent under its line of Hindu kings till the

throne was usurped by Haidar Ali and his son and successor, "Tippoo,"

who together ruled for about forty years. After the latter's defeat

and death at Seringapatam in 1799, the country was restored by the

English to the Hindu line.

The site on which stands Fort St. George at Madras was granted to

Mr. Francis Day, chief factor of the English there, by Sri Ranga Raya

VI. in March 1639, the king being then resident in Chandragiri.

The first English factory at Madras had been established in 1620.

CHAPTER 17

The Story of Barradas (1614)

Chandragiri in 1614 -- Death of King Venkata -- Rebellion of Jaga

Raya and murder of the royal family -- Loyalty of Echama Naik --

The Portuguese independent at San Thome -- Actors in the drama --

The affair at "Paleacate." -- List of successors -- Conclusion.

The following note of occurrences which took place at Chandragiri

in 1614 on the death of King Venkata I. will be found of singular

interest, as it relates to events of which we in England have hitherto,

I think, been in complete ignorance. In consists of an extract from a

letter written at Cochin on December 12, A.D. 1616, by Manuel Barradas,

and recently found by Senhor Lopes amongst a quantity of letters

preserved in the National Archives at Lisbon.[355] He copied it from

the original, and kindly sent it to me. The translation is my own.

"I will now tell you ... about the death of the old King of

Bisnaga, called Vencattapatti Rayalu,[356] and of his selection

as his successor of a nephew by name Chica Rayalu; setting aside

another who was commonly held to be his son, but who in reality was

not so. The true fact was this. The King was married to a daughter

of Jaga Raya by name Bayama, and though she eagerly longed for a

son she had none in spite of the means, legitimate or illegitimate,

that she employed for that purpose. A Brahman woman of the household

of the Queen's father, knowing how strong was the Queen's desire

to have a son, and seeing that God had not granted her one, told

her that she herself was pregnant for a month; and she advised her

to tell the King, and to publish it abroad, that she (the Queen)

had been pregnant for a month, and to feign to be in that state, and

said that after she (the Brahman woman) had been delivered she would

secretly send the child to the palace by some confidant, upon which

the Queen could announce that this boy was her own son. The advice

seemed good to the Queen, and she pretended that she was pregnant,

and no sooner was the Brahman woman delivered of a son than she sent

it to the palace, and the news was spread abroad that Queen Bayama

had brought forth a son. The King, knowing all this, yet for the love

he bore the Queen, and so that the matter should not come to light,

dissembled and made feasts, giving the name 'Chica Raya' to the boy,

which is the name always given to the heir to the throne.[357] Yet he

never treated him as a son, but on the contrary kept him always shut

up in the palace of Chandigri,[358] nor ever allowed him to go out

of it without his especial permission, which indeed he never granted

except when in company of the Queen. Withal, the boy arriving at the

age of fourteen years, he married him to a niece of his, doing him

much honour so as to satisfy Obo Raya, his brother-in-law.[359]

"Three days before his death, the King, leaving aside, as I say, this

putative son, called for his nephew Chica Raya, in presence of several

of the nobles of the kingdom, and extended towards him his right hand

on which was the ring of state, and put it close to him, so that he

should take it and should become his successor in the kingdom. With

this the nephew, bursting into tears, begged the King to give it to

whom he would, and that for himself he did not desire to be king,

and he bent low, weeping at the feet of the old man. The King made

a sign to those around him that they should raise the prince up, and

they did so; and they then placed him on the King's right hand, and

the King extended his own hand so that he might take the ring. But the

prince lifted his hands above his head, as if he already had divined

how much ill fortune the ring would bring him, and begged the King

to pardon him if he wished not to take it. The old man then took the

ring and held it on the point of his finger offering it the second

time to Chica Raya, who by the advice of the captains present took

it, and placed it on his head and then on his finger, shedding many

tears. Then the King sent for his robe, valued at 200,000 cruzados,

the great diamond which was in his ear, which was worth more than

500,000 cruzados, his earrings, valued at more than 200,000, and his

great pearls, which are of the highest price. All these royal insignia

he gave to his nephew Chica Raya as being his successor, and as such

he was at once proclaimed. While some rejoiced, others were displeased.

"Three days later the King died at the age of sixty-seven years. His

body was burned in his own garden with sweet-scented woods, sandal,

aloes, and such like; and immediately afterwards three queens burned

themselves, one of whom was of the same age as the King, and the

other two aged thirty-five years. They showed great courage. They went

forth richly dressed with many jewels and gold ornaments and precious

stones, and arriving at the funeral pyre they divided these, giving

some to their relatives; some to the Brahmans to offer prayers for

them, and throwing some to be scrambled for by the people. Then they

took leave of all, mounted on to a lofty place, and threw themselves

into the middle of the fire, which was very great. Thus they passed

into eternity.

"Then the new King began to rule, compelling some of the captains to

leave the fortress, but keeping others by his side; and all came to him

to offer their allegiance except three. These were Jaga Raya, who has

six hundred thousand cruzados of revenue and puts twenty thousand men

into the field; Tima Naique, who has four hundred thousand cruzados of

revenue and keeps up an army of twelve thousand men; and Maca Raya,

who has a revenue of two hundred thousand cruzados and musters six

thousand men. They swore never to do homage to the new King, but, on

the contrary, to raise in his place the putative son of the dead King,

the nephew of Jaga Raya,[360] who was the chief of this conspiracy. In

a few days there occurred the following opportunity.

"The new King displeased three of his nobles; the first, the Dalavay,

who is the commander of the army and pays a tribute of five hundred

thousand cruzados, because he desired him to give up three fortresses

which the King wished to confer on two of his own sons; the second,

his minister, whom he asked to pay a hundred thousand cruzados,

alleging that he had stolen them from the old King his uncle; the

third, Narpa Raya, since he demanded the jewels which his sister,

the wife of the old King, had given to Marpa. All these three answered

the King that they would obey his commands within two days; but they

secretly plotted with Jaga Raya to raise up the latter's nephew to

be King. And this they did in manner following: --

"Jaga Raya sent to tell the King that he wished to do homage to him,

and so also did Tima Maique and Maca Raya. The poor King allowed

them to enter. Jaga Raya selected five thousand men, and leaving

the rest outside the city he entered the fortress with these chosen

followers. The two other conspirators did the same, each of them

bringing with them two thousand selected men. The fortress has two

walls. Arrived at these, Jaga Raya left at the first gate a thousand

men, and at the second a thousand. The Dalavay seized two other

gates of the fortress, on the other side. There being some tumult,

and a cry of treason being raised, the King ordered the palace

gates to be closed, but the conspirators as soon as they reached

them began to break them down. Maca Raya was the first to succeed,

crying out that he would deliver up the King to them; and he did so,

seeding the King a message that if he surrendered he would pledge his

word to do him no ill, but that the nephew of Jaga Raya must be King,

he being the son of the late King.

"The poor surrounded King, seeing himself without followers and

without any remedy, accepted the promise, and with his wife and

sons left the tower in which he was staying. He passed through the

midst of the soldiers with a face grave and severe, and with eyes

downcast. There was none to do him reverence with hands (as is the

custom) joined over the head, nor did he salute any one.

"The King having left, Jaga Raya called his nephew and crowned him,

causing all the nobles present to do him homage; and he, finding

himself now crowned King, entered the palace and took possession of

it and of all the riches and precious stones that he found there. If

report says truly, he found in diamonds alone three large chests full

of fine stones. After this (Jaga Raya) placed the deposed King under

the strictest guard, and he was deserted by all save by one captain

alone whose name was Echama Naique, who stopped outside the fortress

with eight thousand men and refused to join Jaga Raya. Indeed,

hearing of the treason, he struck his camp and shut himself up in

his own fortress and began to collect more troops.

"Jaga Raya sent a message to this man bidding him come and do homage to

his nephew, and saying that if he refused he would destroy him. Echama

Naique made answer that he was not the man to do reverence to a boy

who was the son of no one knew whom, nor even what his caste was;

and, so far as destroying him went, would Jaga Raya come out and meet

him? If so, he would wait for him with such troops as he possessed!

"When this reply was received Jaga Raya made use of a thousand gentle

expressions, and promised honours and revenues, but nothing could turn

him. Nay, Echama took the field with his forces and offered battle to

Jaga Raya; saying that, since the latter had all the captains on his

side, let him come and fight and beat him if he could, and then the

nephew would become King unopposed. In the end Jaga Raya despaired

of securing Echama Naique's allegiance, but he won over many other

nobles by gifts and promises.

"While Jaga Raya was so engaged, Echama Naique was attempting to obtain

access to the imprisoned King by some way or other; but finding this

not possible, he sought for a means of at least getting possession of

one of his sons. And he did so in this manner. He sent and summoned

the washerman who washed the imprisoned King's clothes, and promised

him great things if he would bring him the King's middle son. The

washerman gave his word that he would so do if the matter were kept

secret. When the day arrived on which it was the custom for him to

take the clean clothes to the King, he carried them (into the prison)

and with them a palm-leaf letter from Echama Naique, who earnestly

begged the King to send him one at least of the three sons whom

he had with him, assuring him that the washerman could effect his

escape. The King did so, giving up his second son aged twelve years,

for the washerman did not dare take the eldest, who was eighteen years

old. He handed over the boy, and put him in amongst the dirty clothes,

warning him to have no fear and not to cry out even if he felt any

pain. In order more safely to pass the guards, the washerman placed on

top of all some very foul clothes, such as every one would avoid; and

went out crying 'TALLA! TALLA!' which means 'Keep at a distance! keep

at a distance!' All therefore gave place to him, and he went out of

the fortress to his own house. Here he kept the prince in hiding for

three days, and at the end of them delivered him up to Echama Naique,

whose camp was a league distant from the city, and the boy was received

by that chief and by all his army with great rejoicing.

"The news then spread abroad and came to the ears of Jaga Raya, who

commanded the palace to be searched, and found that it was true. He

was so greatly affected that he kept to his house for several days;

but he doubled the guards on the King, his prisoner, closed the gates,

and commanded that no one should give aught to the King to eat but

rice and coarse vegetables.[361]

"As soon as it was known that Echama Naique had possession of the

King's son, there went over to him four of Jaga Raya's captains

with eight thousand men; so that he had in all sixteen thousand,

and now had good hope of defending the rightful King. He took,

therefore, measures for effecting the latter's escape. He selected

from amongst all his soldiers twenty men, who promised to attempt to

dig an underground passage which should reach to where the King lay in

prison. In pursuance of this resolve they went to the fortress, offered

themselves to the Dalavay as entering into his service, received pay,

and after some days began to dig the passage so as to gain entrance

to the King's prison. The King, seeing soldiers enter thus into his

apartment, was amazed, and even more so when he saw them prostrate

themselves on the ground and deliver him a palm-leaf letter from Echama

Naique, in which he begged the King to trust himself to these men,

as they would escort him out of the fortress. The King consented. He

took off his robes hastily and covered himself with a single cloth;

and bidding farewell to his wife, his sons, and his daughters, told

them to have no fear, for that he, when free, would save them all.

"But it so happened that at this very moment one of the soldiers

who were guarding the palace by night with torches fell into a hole,

and at his cries the rest ran up, and on digging they discovered the

underground passage. They entered it and got as far as the palace,

arriving there just when the unhappy King was descending into it

in order to escape. He was seized and the alarm given to Jaga Raya,

who sent the King to another place more confined and narrower, and

with more guards, so that the poor prisoner despaired of ever escaping.

"Echama Naique, seeing that this stratagem had failed, bribed heavily a

captain of five hundred men who were in the fortress to slay the guards

as soon as some good occasion offered, and to rescue the King. This

man, who was called Iteobleza,[362] finding one day that Jaga Raya

was leaving the palace with all his men in order to receive a certain

chief who had proffered his submission, and that there only remained

in the fortress about five thousand men, in less than an hour slew

the guards, seized three gates, and sent a message to Echama Naique

telling him to come at once and seize the fortress. But Jaga Raya was

the more expeditious; he returned with all his forces, entered by a

postern gate, of the existence of which Iteobleza had not been warned,

and put to death the captain and his five hundred followers.

"Enraged at this attempt, Jaga Raya, to strengthen the party of his

nephew, resolved to slay the King and all his family. He entrusted this

business to a brother of his named Chinaobraya,[363] ordering him to

go to the palace and tell the poor King that he must slay himself,

and that if he would not he himself would kill him with stabs of

his dagger.

"The prisoner attempted to excuse himself, saying that he knew

nothing of the attempted revolt. But seeing the determination of

Chinaobraya, who told him that he must necessarily die, either by

his own hand or by that of another -- a most pitiful case, and one

that I relate full of sorrow! -- the poor King called his wife, and

after he had spoken to her awhile he beheaded her. Then he sent for

his youngest son and did the same to him. He put to death similarly

his little daughter. Afterwards he sent for his eldest son, who was

already married, and commanded him to slay his wife, which he did by

beheading her. This done, the King took a long sword of four fingers'

breadth, and, throwing himself upon it, breathed his last; and his

son, heir to the throne, did the same to himself in imitation of his

father. There remained only a little daughter whom the King could

not bring himself to slay; but Chinaobraya killed her, so that none

of the family should remain alive of the blood royal, and the throne

should be secured for his nephew.

"Some of the chiefs were struck with horror at this dreadful deed, and

were so enraged at its cruelty that they went over to Echama Naique,

resolved to defend the prince who had been rescued by the washerman,

and who alone remained of all the royal family. Echama Naique, furious

at this shameful barbarity and confident in the justice of his cause,

selected ten thousand of his best soldiers, and with them offered

battle to Jaga Raya, who had more than sixty thousand men and a number

of elephants and horses. Echama sent him a message in this form: --

'Now that thou hast murdered thy king and all his family, and there

alone remains this boy whom I rescued from thee and have in my keeping,

come out and take the field with all thy troops; kill him and me,

and then thy nephew will be secure on the throne!'

"Jaga Raya tried to evade this for some time; but finding that Echama

Naique insisted, he decided to fight him, trusting that with so great

a number of men he would easily not only be victorious, but would

be able to capture both Echama Naique and the prince. He took the

field, therefore, with all his troops. Echama Naique entrusted the

prince to a force of ten thousand men who remained a league away,

and with the other ten thousand he not only offered battle, but was

the first to attack; and that with such fury and violence that Jaga

Raya, with all the people surrounding his nephew, was driven to one

side, leaving gaps open to the enemy, and many met their deaths in

the fight. Echama Naique entered in triumph the tents of Jaga Raya,

finding in them all the royal insignia belonging to the old King

and these he delivered to the young prince, the Son of Chica Raya,

proclaiming him rightful heir and King of all the empire of Bisnaga.

"The spoil which he took was very large, for in precious stones alone

they say that he found two millions worth.

"After this victory many of the nobles joined themselves to Echama

Naique. So much so, that in a short time he had with him fifty thousand

fighting men in his camp; while Jaga Raya, with only fifteen thousand,

fled to the jungles. Here, however, he was joined by more people, so

that the war has continued these two years,[364] fortune favouring

now one side now the other. But the party of the young prince has

always been gaining strength; the more so because, although the great

Naique of Madura[365] -- a page of the betel to the King of Bisnaga,

who pays a revenue every year of, some say, 600,000 pagodas, and has

under him many kings and nobles as vassals, such as he of Travancor --

took the side of Jaga Raya, and sustained him against the Naique of

Tanjaor. Yet the latter, though not so powerful, is, with the aid of

the young King, gradually getting the upper hand. Indeed there are now

assembled in the field in the large open plains of Trinchenepali[366]

not only the hundred thousand men that each party has, but as many

as a million of soldiers.

"Taking advantage of these civil wars, the city of San Thome[367] --

which up to now belonged to the King of Bisnaga, paying him revenues

and customs which he used to make over to certain chiefs, by whom

the Portuguese were often greatly troubled determined to liberate

itself, and become in everything and for everything the property

of the King of Portugal. To this end she begged the Viceroy to send

and take possession of her in the name of his Majesty, which he did,

as I shall afterwards tell you. Meanwhile the captain who governed

the town, by name Manuel de Frias, seeing that there was close to the

town a fortress that commanded it, determined to seize it by force,

seeing that its captain declined to surrender it. So he laid siege

to it, surrounding it so closely that no one could get out."

In the end the Portuguese were successful. The fortress was taken,

its garrison of 1500 men capitulated, and a fleet came round by sea

to complete the conquest.

The foregoing story relates to events never before, I think, made

known to English readers, and so far is of the highest interest. Let

us, for the moment, grant its accuracy, and read it by the light of

the genealogical table already given.[368]

King Venkata I. (1586 -- 1614) had a sister who was married to a

chief whom Barradas calls "Obo" (perhaps Obala) Raya. So far as

we know, his only nephews were Tirumala II. and Ranga III., sons

of his brother, Rama III. Since Tirumala II. appears to have had

no sons, and Ranga III. had a son, Rama IV, who is asserted in the

inscriptions to have been "one of several brothers," it is natural

to suppose that the nephew mentioned by Barradas, who was raised to

be king on the death of the old King Venkata I. in 1614, and who had

three sons, was Ranga III., called "Chikka Raya" or "Crown-prince"

in the text. He, then, succeeded in 1614, but was afterwards deposed,

imprisoned, and compelled to take his own life. His eldest son at the

same time followed his example, and his youngest son was slain by his

father. The "middle son" escaped, and was raised to the throne by a

friendly chief named Echama Naik. This second son was probably Ranga

IV. Two of King Venkata's wives were Bayama, daughter of Jaga Raya,

and a lady unnamed, sister of Narpa Raya. A niece of Venkata I. had

been given in marriage to a Brahman boy, who had been surreptitiously

introduced into the palace by Bayama and educated in the pretence

that he was son of King Venkata. The plot to raise him to the throne

was temporarily successful, and Ranga III. and all the royal family

were killed, saving only Ranga IV., who afterwards came to the throne.

How much of the story told is true we cannot as yet decide; but it

is extremely improbable that the whole is a pure invention, and we

may for the present accept it, fixing the date of these occurrences

as certainly between the years 1614 and 1616 A.D. -- the date of

Barradas's letter being December 12 in the latter year.

It will be observed that the inscriptions upon which the genealogical

table given above, from the EPIGRAPHIA INDICA, is founded do not yield

any date between A.D. 1614 and 1634, when Pedda Venkata II. is named

as king. In 1883 I published[369] a list of Vijayanagar names derived

from reports of inscriptions which had then reached me. I am by no

means certain of their accuracy, and it is clear that they must all

be hereafter carefully examined. But so far as it goes the list runs

thus: --

A.D.

Ranga 1619

Rama 1620, 1622

Ranga 1623

Venkata 1623

Rama 1629

Venkata 1636

The last-mentioned name and date are apparently correct.

In 1633 the Portuguese, encouraged by the Vijayanagar king, still

at Chandragiri, attempted to eject the Dutch from "Paleacate," or

Pulicat. An arrangement was made by which the Portuguese were to

attack by sea and the Rajah by land; but while the Viceroy sent his

twelve ships as agreed on, the Rajah failed to attack, alleging in

explanation that he was compelled to use his army to put down internal

disturbances in the kingdom. A second expedition met with no better

success, the plans of the Portuguese being again upset by the non

fulfilment of the king's part of the bargain. On the departure of the

fleet the king did attack the Dutch settlement, but was bought off by

a large payment, and the Hollanders remained subsequently undisturbed.

Senhor Lopes tells me that he has found in the National Archives

in the Torre do Tombo, amongst the "Livros das Moncoes," a number

of papers bearing on this subject. The most interesting are those

contained in Volume xxxiv. (fol. 91 -- 99). These were written by the

Captain-General of Meliapor (St. Thome), by Padre Pero Mexia of the

Company of Jesus, and by the Bishop; and amongst the other documents

are to be seen translations of two palm-leaf letters written by the

king of Vijayanagar, then at Vellore. It appears from these that

the king was devoid of energy, and that one Timma Raya had revolted

against him.

We know that in 1639 the king of Vijayanagar was named Ranga or

Sri-Ranga, and that he was at that time residing at Chandragiri;

because in that year Mr. Day, the head of the English trading station

a Madras, obtained from the king a grant of land at that place,

one mile broad by five miles long, on which Fort St. George was

afterwards constructed. The country about Madras was then ruled over

by a governor or Naik, and so little heed did he pay to the wishes or

commands of his titular sovereign, that although the Raya had directed

that the name of the new town should be "Srirangarayalapatnam" ("city

of Sri Ranga Raya"), the Naik christened it after the name of his own

father, Chenna, and called it "Chennapatnam," by which appellation it

has ever since been known to the Hindus. Such, at least, is the local

tradition. This king was probably the Ranga VI. of the Epigraphia list,

mentioned as living in 1644 A.D.

After this date my (doubtful and unexamined) inscriptions yield the

following names and dates: --

A.D.

Ranga 1643, 1647, 1655, 1662, 1663, 1665, 1667, 1678

Venkata 1678, 1680

Ranga 1692

Venkata 1706

Ranga 1716

Mahadeva 1724

Ranga 1729

Venkata 1732

Rama 1739 (?)

Venkata 1744

Venkata 1791, 1792, 1793

From Sir Thomas Munro's papers I gather that the territory about the

old family estate of Anegundi was early in the eighteenth century

held by the Rayas from the Mogul emperor of Delhi as a tributary

state. In 1749 it was seized by the Mahrattas, and in 1775 it was

reduced by Haidar Ali of Mysore, but continued to exist as a tributary

quasi-independent state till the time of Tipu (Tippoo Sultan).

Tipu, who never suffered from an excess of compunction or compassion

when his own interests were at stake, annexed the estate bodily to his

dominions in 1786. Thirteen years later he was killed at Seringapatam,

and in the settlement that followed the little territory was made over

to the Nizam of Haidarabad, the English Government retaining all lands

on their side of the Tungabhadra. Partly in compensation for this loss

of land the Government has till very recently paid an annual pension

to the head of the Anegundi family. This has now been abolished.

Chronicles of Paes and Nuniz

Letter

(? to the historian Barros) which accompanied the Chronicles when

sent from India to Portugal about the year 1537 A.D.

Since I have lived till now in this city (? Goa), it seemed necessary

to do what your Honour desired of me, namely, to search for men who had

formerly been in Bisnaga; for I know that no one goes there without

bringing away his quire of paper written about its affairs. Thus I

obtained this summary from one Domingos Paes, who goes there, and who

was at Bisnaga in the time of Crisnarao when Cristovao de Figueiredo

was there. I obtained another from Fernao Nuniz, who was there three

years trading in horses (which did not prove remunerative). Since one

man cannot tell everything -- one relating some things which another

does not -- I send both the summaries made by them, namely, one in

the time of Crisnarao, as I have said, and the other sent from there

six months since. I desire to do this because your honour can gather

what is useful to you from both, and because you will thus give the

more credit to some things in the chronicle of the kings of Bisnaga,

since they conform one to the other. The copy of the summary which

he began to make[370] when he first went to the kingdom of Bisnaga

is as follows: --

Narrative of Domingos Paes

(written probably A.D. 1520 -- 22)

Of the things which I saw and contrived to learn concerning the kingdom

of Narsimga, etc.[371]

On leaving India[372] to travel towards the kingdom of Narsymga from

the sea-coast, you have (first) to pass a range of hills (SERRA),

the boundary of the said kingdom and of those territories which are

by the sea. This SERRA runs along the whole of the coast of India,

and has passes by which people enter the interior; for all the rest

of the range is very rocky and is filled with thick forest. The said

kingdom has many places on the coast of India; they are seaports with

which we are at peace, and in some of them we have factories, namely,

Amcola, Mirgeo, Honor, Batecalla, Mamgalor, Bracalor, and Bacanor. And

as soon as we are above this SERRA we have a plain country in which

there are no more ranges of hills, but only a few mountains, and these

small ones; for all the rest is like the plains of Ssantarem.[373] Only

on the road from Batecala[374] to a town called ZAMBUJA, there are some

ranges with forests; nevertheless the road is very even. From Batecala

to this town of Zambur[375] is forty leagues; the road has many streams

of water by its side, and because of this so much merchandise flows

to Batecala that every year there come five or six thousand pack-oxen.

Now to tell of the aforesaid kingdom. It is a country sparsely wooded

except along this SERRA on the east,[376] but in places you walk for

two or three leagues under groves of trees; and behind cities and towns

and villages they have plantations of mangoes, and jack-fruit trees,

and tamarinds and other very large trees, which form resting-places

where merchants halt with their merchandise. I saw in the city of

Recalem[377] a tree under which we lodged three hundred and twenty

horses, standing in order as in their stables, and all over the country

you may see many small trees. These dominions are very well cultivated

and very fertile, and are provided with quantities of cattle, such as

cows, buffaloes, and sheep; also of birds, both those belonging to the

hills and those reared at home, and this in greater abundance than

in our tracts. The land has plenty of rice and Indian-corn, grains,

beans, and other kind of crops which are not sown in our parts; also an

infinity of cotton. Of the grains there is a great quantity, because,

besides being used as food for men, it is also used for horses, since

there is no other kind of barley; and this country has also much wheat,

and that good. The whole country is thickly populated with cities and

towns and villages; the king allows them to be surrounded only with

earthen walls for fear of their becoming too strong. But if a city

is situated at the extremity of his territory he gives his consent

to its having stone walls, but never the towns; so that they may make

fortresses of the cities but not of the towns.

And because this country is all flat, the winds blow here more than

in other parts. The oil which it produces comes from seeds sown and

afterwards reaped, and they obtain it by means of machines which they

make. This country wants water because it is very great and has few

streams; they make lakes in which water collects when it rains, and

thereby they maintain themselves. They maintain themselves by means

of some in which there are springs better than by others that have

only the water from rain; for we find many quite dry, so that people

go about walking in their beds, and dig holes to try and find enough

water, even a little, for their maintenance. The failure of the water

is because they have no winter as in our parts and in (Portuguese)

India, but only thunder-storms that are greater in one year than

in another. The water in these lakes is for the most part muddy,

especially in those where there are no springs, and the reason why it

is so muddy is because of the strong wind and the dust that is in this

country, which never allows the water to be clear, and also because of

the numbers of cattle, buffaloes, cows, oxen, and other small cattle

that drink in them. For you must know that in this land they do not

slaughter oxen or cows; the oxen are beasts of burden and are like

sumpter-mules; these carry all their goods. They worship the cows,

and have them in their pagodas made in stone, and also bulls; they

have many bulls that they present to these pagodas, and these bulls go

about the city without any one causing them any harm or loss. Further,

there are asses in this country, but they are small, and they use them

only for little things; those that wash clothes lay the cloths on them,

and use them for this more than for anything else. You must know that

this kingdom of Narsymga has three hundred GRAOS of coast, each GRAO

being a league, along the hill-range (SERRA) of which I have spoken,

until you arrive at Ballagate and Charamaodel,[378] which belong to

this kingdom; and in breadth it is one hundred and sixty-four GRAOS;

each large GRAO measures two of our leagues, so that it has six

hundred leagues of coast, and across it three hundred and forty-eight

leagues... across from Batacalla to the kingdom of Orya.[379]

And this kingdom marches[380] with all the territory of Bengal, and on

the other side with the kingdom of Orya, which is to the east, and on

the other side to the north with the kingdom of Dakhan, belonging to

which are the lands which the Ydallcao[381] has, and Ozemelluco.[382]

Goa is at war with this Ydallcao, because that city was his, and we

have taken it from him.

And this kingdom of Orya, of which I have spoken above, is said

to be much larger than the kingdom of Narsymga, since it marches

with all Bengal, and is at war with her; and it marches with all the

kingdom of Pegu and with the MALLACA Sea. It reaches to the kingdom of

Cambaya, and to the kingdom of Dakhan; and they told me with positive

certainty that it extends as far as Persia. The population thereof

is light coloured, and the men are of good physique. Its king has

much treasure and many soldiers and many elephants, for there are

numbers of these in this country. (My informants) know this well,

and they say that there is no ruler greater than he. He is a heathen.

Coming back to our subject, I say that I will not mention here the

situation of the cities, and towns, and villages in this kingdom

of Narsymga, to avoid prolixity; only I shall speak of the city

of Darcha,[383] which has a monument such as can seldom be seen

elsewhere. This city of Darcha is very well fortified by a wall,

though not of stone, for the reason that I have already stated. On the

western side, which is towards (Portuguese) India, it is surrounded

by a very beautiful river, and on the other, eastern side the interior

of the country is all one plain, and along the wall is its moat. This

Darcha has a pagoda, which is the monument I speak of, so beautiful

that another as good of its kind could not be found within a great

distance. You must know that it is a round temple made of a single

stone, the gateway all in the manner of joiners work, with every art of

perspective. There are many figures of the said work, standing out as

much as a cubit from the stone, so that you see on every side of them,

so well carved that they could not be better done -- the faces as well

as all the rest; and each one in its place stands as if embowered in

leaves; and above it is in the Romanesque style, so well made that

it could not be better. Besides this, it has a sort of lesser porch

upon pillars, all of stone, and the pillars with their pedestals[384]

so well executed that they appear as if made in Italy; all the cross

pieces and beams are of the same stone without any planks or timber

being used in it, and in the same way all the ground is laid with

the same stone, outside as well as in. And all this pagoda, as far

round as the temple goes, is enclosed by a trellis made of the same

stone, and this again is completely surrounded by a very strong wall,

better even than the city has, since it is all of solid masonry. It

has three entrance gates, which gates are very large and beautiful,

and the entrance from one of these sides, being towards the east and

facing the door of the pagoda, has some structures like verandahs,

small and low, where sit some JOGIS;[385] and inside this enclosure,

which has other little pagodas of a reddish colour, there is a stone

like the mast of a ship, with its pedestal four-sided, and from thence

to the top eight-sided, standing in the open air. I was not astonished

at it, because I have seen the needle of St. Peters at Rome, which

is as high, or more.[386]

These pagodas are buildings in which they pray and have their idols;

the idols are of many sorts, namely, figures of men and women, of

bulls, and apes, while others have nothing but a round stone which

they worship. In this temple of Darcha is an idol in the figure of a

man as to his body, and the face is that of an elephant with trunk and

tusks,[387] and with three arms on each side and six hands, of which

arms they say that already four are gone, and when all fall then the

world will be destroyed they are full of belief that this will be,

and hold it as a prophecy. They feed the idol every day, for they

say that he eats; and when he eats women dance before him who belong

to that pagoda, and they give him food and all that is necessary,

and all girls born of these women belong to the temple. These women

are of loose character, and live in the best streets that there are

in the city; it is the same in all their cities, their streets have

the best rows of houses They are very much esteemed, and are classed

amongst those honoured ones who are the mistresses of the captains;

any respectable man may go to their houses without any blame attaching

thereto. These women (are allowed) even to enter the presence of the

wives of the king, and they stay with them and eat betel with them,

a thing which no other person may do, no matter what his rank may

be. This betel is a herb which has a leaf like the leaf of the pepper,

or the ivy of our country; they always eat this leaf, and carry it in

their mouths with another fruit called areca. This is something like a

medlar, but it is very hard, and it is very good for the breath and has

many other virtues; it is the best provision for those who do not eat

as we do. Some of them eat flesh; they eat all kinds except beef and

pork, and yet, nevertheless, they cease not to eat this betel all day.

Afterwards going from this city of Darcha towards the city of

Bisnaga,[388] which is eighteen leagues distant, and is the capital

of all the kingdom of Narsymga, where the king always resides,

you have many cities and walled villages; and two leagues before

you arrive at the city of Bisnaga you have a very lofty SERRA which

has passes by which you enter the city. These are called "gates"

(PORTAS). You must enter by these, for you will have no means of

entrance except by them. This range of hills surrounds the city

with a circle of twenty-four leagues, and within this range there

are others that encircle it closely. Wherever these ranges have

any level ground they cross it with a very strong wall, in such a

way that the hills remain all closed, except in the places where

the roads come through from the gates in the first range, which are

the entrance ways to the city. In such places there are some small

pits (or caves?)[389] which could be defended by a few people; these

SERRAS continue as far as the interior of the city. Between all these

enclosures are plains and valleys where rice is grown, and there are

gardens with many orange-trees, limes, citrons, and radishes (RABAOS),

and other kinds of garden produce as in Portugal, only not lettuces

or cabbages. Between these hill-ranges are many lakes by which they

irrigate the crops mentioned, and amongst all these ranges there

are no forests or patches of brushwood, except very small ones, nor

anything that is green. For these hills are the strangest ever seen,

they are of a white stone piled one block over another in manner most

singular, so that it seems as if they stood in the air and were not

connected one with another; and the city is situated in the middle

of these hills and is entirely surrounded by them.

The SERRAS reach as far as the kingdom of Daquem,[390] and border upon

the territories belonging to the Ydallcao, and upon a city called

Rachol that formerly belonged to the king of Narsymga; there has

been much war over it, and this king took it from the Ydallcao. So

that these ranges are in a way the cause (of the two kingdoms) never

uniting and always being at war; and even on the side of Orya also

there are ranges, but they are different from these, since like ours

they have scrub and small patches of brushwood; these ranges are low

and between them are great plains. On the extreme east of these two

kingdoms you must know that the country is all covered with scrub,

the densest possible to be seen, in which there are great beasts,

and (this) forms so strong a fortress for it that it protects both

sides; it has its entrances by which they pass from one kingdom to

the other. In these passes on the frontier the king of Narsymga has

a captain with a quantity of troops, but on the side of (Portuguese)

India he has none, except as I have said.

Now turning to the gates of the first range, I say that at the entrance

of the gate where those pass who come from Goa, which is the principal

entrance on the western side; this king has made within it a very

strong city[391] fortified with walls and towers, and the gates at the

entrances very strong, with towers at the gates; these walls are not

like those of other cities, but are made of very strong masonry such as

would be found in few other parts, and inside very beautiful rows of

buildings made after their manner with flat roofs. There live in this

many merchants, and it is filled with a large population because the

king induces many honourable merchants to go there from his cities,

and there is much water in it. Besides this the king made a tank[392]

there, which, as it seems to me, has the width of a falcon-shot,[393]

and it is at the mouth of two hills, so that all the water which comes

from either one side or the other collects there; and, besides this,

water comes to it from more than three leagues by pipes which run

along the lower parts of the range outside. This water is brought

from a lake which itself overflows into a little river. The tank has

three large pillars handsomely carved with figures; these connect above

with certain pipes by which they get water when they have to irrigate

their gardens and rice-fields. In order to make this tank the said

king broke down a hill which enclosed the ground occupied by the said

tank. In the tank I saw so many people at work that there must have

been fifteen or twenty thousand men, looking like ants, so that you

could not see the ground on which they walked, so many there were;

this tank the king portioned out amongst his captains, each of whom

had the duty of seeing that the people placed under him did their work,

and that the tank was finished and brought to completion.

The tank burst two or three times, and the king asked his Brahmans

to consult their idol as to the reason why it burst so often,

and the Brahmans said that the idol was displeased, and desired

that they should make a sacrifice, and should give him the blood

of men and horses and buffaloes; and as soon as the king heard this

he forthwith commanded that at the gate of the pagoda the heads of

sixty men should be cut off, and of certain horses and buffaloes,

which was at once done.

These Brahmans are like friars with us, and they count them as holy men

-- I speak of the Brahman priests and the lettered men of the pagodas

-- because although the king has many Brahmans, they are officers of

the towns and cities and belong to the government of them; others are

merchants, and others live by their own property and cultivation, and

the fruits which grow in their inherited grounds. Those who have charge

of the temples are learned men, and eat nothing which suffers death,

neither flesh nor fish, nor anything which makes broth red, for they

say that it is blood. Some of the other Brahmans whom I mentioned,

who seek to serve God, and to do penance, and to live a life like

that of the priests, do not eat flesh or fish or any other thing that

suffers death, but only vegetables[394] and butter and other things

which they make of fruit,[395] with their rice. They are all married,

and have very beautiful wives; the wives are very retiring, and very

seldom leave the house. The women are of light colour, and in the

caste of these Brahmans are the fairest men and women that there are

in the land; for though there are men in other castes commonly of

light complexion, yet these are few. There are many in this country

who call themselves Brahmans, but they lead a life very different

from those of whom I have spoken, for these last are men to whom the

king pays much honour, and he holds them in great favour.

This new city that the king made bears the name of his wife for love of

whom he made it,[396] and the said city stands in a plain, and round it

the inhabitants make their gardens as the ground suits, each one being

separate. In this city the king made a temple with many images. It is

a thing very well made, and it has some wells very well made after

their fashion; its houses are not built with stories like ours, but

are of only one floor, with flat, roofs and towers,[397] different

from ours, for theirs go from storey to storey. They have pillars,

and are all open, with verandahs inside and out, where they can easily

put people if they desire, so that they seem like houses belonging to

a king. These palaces have an enclosing wall which surrounds them all,

and inside are many rows of houses. Before you enter the place where

the king is there are two gates with many guards, who prevent any one

from entering except the captains and men who have business there;

and between these two gates is a very large court with its verandahs

round it, where these captains and other honoured people wait till

the king summons them to his presence.

This king is of medium height, and of fair complexion and good figure,

rather fat than thin, he has on his face signs of small-pox. He is

the most feared and perfect king that could possibly be, cheerful of

disposition and very merry; he is one that seeks to honour foreigners,

and receives them kindly, asking about all their affairs whatever

their condition may be He is a great ruler and a man of much justice,

but subject to sudden fits of rage,[398] and this is his title --

"Crisnarao Macacao,[399] king of kings, lord of the greater lords of

India, lord of the three seas and of the land." He has this title[400]

because he is by rank a greater lord than any, by reason of what he

possesses in (?) armies and territories, but it seems that he has (in

fact) nothing compared to what a man like him ought to have, so gallant

and perfect is he in all things. This king was constantly at war with

the king of Orya, and entered his kingdom, taking and destroying many

cities and towns; he put to rout numbers of his soldiers and elephants,

and took captive his son, whom he kept for a long time in this city of

Bisnaga, where he died; and in order to make a treaty and (preserve)

peace, the king of Orya gave him a daughter whom the king of Bisnaga

married and has as his wife.

This king has twelve lawful wives, of whom there are three principal

ones, the sons of each of these three being heirs of the kingdom,

but not these of the others; this is (the case) when there are sons

to all of them, but when there is only one son, whosesoever he may

be, he is heir. One of these principal wives is the daughter of the

king of Orya, and others daughters of a king his vassal who is king

of Serimgapatao; another wife is a courtezan whom in his youth he had

for mistress before he became king, and she made him promise that if

he came to be king he would take her to wife, and thus it came to

pass that this courtezan became his wife. For love of her he built

this new city, and its name was ... (SIC IN ORIG.) ... Each one of

these wives has her house to herself, with her maidens and women of

the chamber, and women guards and all other women servants necessary;

all these are women, and no man enters where they are, save only the

eunuchs, who guard them. These women are never seen by any man, except

perhaps by some old man of high rank by favour of the king. When they

wish to go out they are carried in litters shut up and closed,[401]

so that they cannot be seen, and all the eunuchs with them fully

three or four hundred; and all other people keep a long distance

from them. They told us that each of these queens has a very large

sum of money and treasure and personal ornaments, namely armlets,

bracelets, seed-pearls,[402] pearls and diamonds, and that in great

quantity: and they also say that each of them has sixty maidens

adorned as richly as could possibly be with many jewels, and rubies

and diamonds and pearls and seed-pearls. These we afterwards saw,

and stood astonished; we saw them at certain festivals which I will

afterwards speak of, and of the manner in which they came. Within,

with these maidens, they say that there are twelve thousand women;

for you must know that there are women who handle sword and shield,

and others who wrestle, and others who blow trumpets, and others

pipes, and others instruments which are different from ours; and in

the same way they have women as bearers (BOOIS) and washing-folk,

and for other offices inside their gates, just as the king has the

officers of his household. These three principal wives have each

the same, one as much as the other, so that there may never be any

discord or ill feeling between them; all of them are great friends,

and each one lives by herself. It may be gathered from this what a

large enclosure there must be for these houses where so many people

live, and what streets and lanes they must have.

The king lives by himself inside the palace, and when he wishes to have

with him one of his wives he orders a eunuch to go and call her. The

eunuch does not enter where she is, but tells it to the female guards,

who make known to the queen that there is a message from the king,

and then comes one of her maidens or chamber-women and learns what

is wanted, and then the queen goes where the king is, or the king

comes where she is, and so passes the time as it seems good to him

without any of the others knowing. Amongst these eunuchs the king

has some who are great favourites, and who sleep where he sleeps;

they receive a large salary.

This king is accustomed every day to drink QUARTILHO (three-quarter

pint) of oil of GINGELLY[403] before daylight, and anoints himself

all over with the said oil; he covers his loins with a small cloth,

and takes in his arms great weights made of earthenware, and then,

taking a sword, he exercises himself with it till he has sweated out

all the oil, and then he wrestles with one of his wrestlers. After this

labour he mounts a horse and gallops about the plain in one direction

and another till dawn, for he does all this before daybreak. Then he

goes to wash himself, and a Brahman washes him whom he holds sacred,

and who is a great favourite of his and is a man of great wealth; and

after he is washed he goes to where his pagoda is inside the palace,

and makes his orisons and ceremonies, according to custom. Thence

he goes to a building made in the shape of a porch without walls,

which has many pillars hung with cloths right up to the top, and

with the walls handsomely painted; it has on each side two figures of

women very well made. In such a building he despatches his work with

those men who bear office in his kingdom, and govern his cities,

and his favourites talk with them. The greatest favourite is an

old man called Temersea;[404] he commands the whole household,

and to him all the great lords act as to the king. After the king

has talked with these men on subjects pleasing to him he bids enter

the lords and captains who wait at the gate, and these at once enter

to make their salaam to him. As soon as they appear they make their

salaam to him, and place themselves along the walls far off from him;

they do not speak one to another, nor do they chew betel before him,

but they place their hands in the sleeves of their tunics (CABAYAS)

and cast their eyes on the ground; and if the king desires to speak

to any one it is done through a second person, and then he to whom the

king desires to speak raises his eyes and replies to him who questions

him, and then returns to his former position. So they remain till the

king bids them go, and then they all turn to make the salaam to him

and go out. The salaam, which is the greatest courtesy that exists

among them, is that they put their hands joined above their head as

high as they can. Every day they go to make the salaam to the king.

When we came to this country the king was in this new town, and

there went to see him Christovao de Figueiredo[405] with all of us

Portuguese that came with him, and all very handsomely dressed after

our manner, with much finery; the king received him very well, and

was very complacent to him. The king was as much pleased with him as

if he had been one of his own people, so much attention did he evince

towards him; and also towards those amongst us who went with him he

showed much kindness. We were so close to the king that he touched us

all and could not have enough of looking at us. Then Christovao de

Figueiredo gave him the letters from the Captain-Major[406] and the

things he had brought for him, with which he was greatly delighted;

principally with certain organs[407] that the said Christovao de

Figueiredo brought him, with many other things (PECAS). The king was

clothed in certain white cloths embroidered with many roses in gold,

and with a PATECA[408]of diamonds on his neck of very great value,

and on his head he had a cap of brocade in fashion like a Galician

helmet, covered with a piece of fine stuff all of fine silk, and he

was barefooted; for no one ever enters where the king is unless he has

bare feet, and the majority of the people, or almost all, go about the

country barefooted. The shoes have pointed ends, in the ancient manner,

and there are other shoes that have nothing but soles, but on top are

some straps which help to keep them on the feet. They are made like

those which of old the Romans were wont to wear, as you will find on

figures in some papers or antiquities which come from Italy. The king

gave to Christovao de Figueiredo on dismissing him a CABAYA (tunic)

of brocade, with a cap of the same fashion as the king wore,[409]

and to each one of the Portuguese he gave a cloth embroidered with

many pretty figures, and this the king gives because it is customary;

he gives it in token of friendship and love.

When Christovao de Figueiredo had been dismissed by the king we

came to the city of Bisnaga, which is a league from this new city,

and here he commanded us to be lodged in some very good houses; and

Figueiredo was visited by many lords and captains, and other persons

who came on behalf of the king. And the king sent him many sheep

and fowls, and many vessels (CALOEES) full of butter and honey and

many other things to eat, which he at once distributed amongst all

the foot-soldiers and people whom he had brought with him. The king

said many kind and pleasant things to him, and asked him concerning

the kind of state which the king of Portugal kept up; and having been

told about it all he seemed much pleased.

Returning then to the city of Bisnaga, you must know that from it

to the new city goes a street as wide as a place of tourney, with

both sides lined throughout with rows of houses and shops where they

sell everything; and all along this road are many trees that the

king commanded to be planted, so as to afford shade to those that

pass along. On this road he commanded to be erected a very beautiful

temple of stone,[410] and there are other pagodas that the captains

and great lords caused to be erected.

So that, returning to the city of Bisnaga, you must know that before

you arrive at the city gates there is a gate with a wall that encloses

all the other enclosures of the city, and this wall is a very strong

one and of massive stonework; but at the present time it is injured

in some places. They do not fail to have citadels[411] in it. This

wall has a moat of water in some places, and in the parts where it was

constructed on low ground. And there is, separate from it, yet another

(defence) made in the following manner. Certain pointed stones of great

height are fixed in the ground as high as a man's breast; they are

in breadth a lance-shaft and a half, with the same distance between

them and the great wall. This wall rises in all the low ground till

it reaches some hill or rocky land. From this first circuit until

you enter the city there is a great distance, in which are fields

in which they sow rice and have many gardens and much water, which

water comes from two lakes. The water passes through this first line

of wall, and there is much water in the lakes because of springs; and

here there are orchards and a little grove of palms, and many houses.

Returning, then, to the first gate of the city, before you arrive at

it you pass a little piece of water and then you arrive at the wall,

which is very strong, all of stonework, and it makes a bend before

you arrive at the gate; and at the entrance of this gate are two

towers, one on each side, which makes it very strong. It is large and

beautiful. As soon as you pass inside there are two little temples;

one of them has an enclosing wall with many trees, while the whole

of the other consists of buildings; and this wall of the first gate

encircles the whole city. Then going forward you have another gate with

another line of wall, and it also encircles the city inside the first,

and from here to the king's palace is all streets and rows of houses,

very beautiful, and houses of captains and other rich and honourable

men; you will see rows of houses with many figures and decorations

pleasing to look at. Going along the principal street, you have one

of the chief gateways,[412] which issues from a great open space[413]

in front of the king's palace; opposite this is another which passes

along to the other side of the city; and across this open space pass

all the carts and conveyances carrying stores and everything else,

and because it is in the middle of the city it cannot but be useful.

This palace of the king is surrounded by a very strong wall like

some of the others, and encloses a greater space (TERAA MOOR CERCA)

than all the castle of Lisbon.

Still going forward, passing to the other gate you see two temples

connected with it, one on each side, and at the door of one of these

they kill every day many sheep, for in all the city they do not kill

any sheep for the use of the heathen (Hindus), or for sale in the

markets, except at the gate of this pagoda. Of their blood they make

sacrifices to the idol that is in the temple. They leave the heads

to him, and for each sheep they give a SACO (CHAKRAM), which is a

coin like a CARTILHA (QUARTILHA -- a farthing).

There is present at the slaughter of these beasts a JOGI (priest)

who has charge of the temple, and as soon as they cut off the head

of the sheep or goat this JOGI blows a horn as a sign that the idol

receives that sacrifice. Hereafter I shall tell of these JOGIS,

what sort of men they are.[414]

Close to these pagodas is a triumphal car covered with carved work

and images, and on one day in each year during a festival they drag

this through the city in such streets as it can traverse. It is large

and cannot turn corners.

Going forward, you have a broad and beautiful street, full of rows

of fine houses and streets of the sort I have described, and it

is to be understood that the houses belong to men rich enough to

afford such. In this street live many merchants, and there you will

find all sorts of rubies, and diamonds, and emeralds, and pearls,

and seed-pearls, and cloths, and every other sort of thing there

is on earth and that you may wish to buy. Then you have there every

evening a fair where they sell many common horses and nags (ROCIS E

SEMDEIROS), and also many citrons, and limes, and oranges, and grapes,

and every other kind of garden stuff, and wood; you have all in this

street. At the end of it you have another gate with its wall, which

wall goes to meet the wall of the second gate of which I have spoken

in such sort that this city has three fortresses, with another which

is the king's palace. Then when this gate is passed you have another

street where there are many craftsmen, and they sell many things; and

in this street there are two small temples. There are temples in every

street, for these appertain to institutions like the confraternities

you know of in our parts,[415] of all the craftsmen and merchants;

but the principal and greatest pagodas are outside the city. In this

street lodged Christovao de Figueiredo. On every Friday you have a

fair there, with many pigs and fowls and dried fish from the sea,

and other things the produce of the country, of which I do not know

the name; and in like manner a fair is held every day in different

parts of the city. At the end of this street is the Moorish quarter,

which is at the very end of the city, and of these Moors there are

many who are natives of the country[416] and who are paid by the king

and belong to his guard. In this city you will find men belonging

to every nation and people, because of the great trade which it has,

and the many precious stones there, principally diamonds.

The size of this city I do not write here, because it cannot all

be seen from any one spot, but I climbed a hill whence I could see

a great part of it; I could not see it all because it lies between

several ranges of hills. What I saw from thence seemed to me as large

as Rome, and very beautiful to the sight; there are many groves of

trees within it, in the gardens of the houses, and many conduits of

water which flow into the midst of it, and in places there are lakes

(TAMQUES); and the king has close to his palace a palm-grove and other

rich-bearing fruit-trees. Below the Moorish quarter is a little river,

and on this side are many orchards and gardens with many fruit-trees,

for the most part mangoes and areca-palms and jack-trees, and also

many lime and orange trees, growing so closely one to another that

it appears like a thick forest; and there are also white grapes. All

the water which is in the city comes from the two tanks of which I

have spoken, outside the first enclosing wall.

The people in this city are countless in number, so much so that I

do not wish to write it down for fear it should be thought fabulous;

but I declare that no troops, horse or foot, could break their way

through any street or lane, so great are the numbers of the people

and elephants.

This is the best provided city in the world, and is stocked with

provisions such as rice, wheat, grains, Indian-corn, and a certain

amount of barley and beans, MOONG,[417] pulses, horse-gram,[418]

and many other seeds which grow in this country which are the food

of the people, and there is large store of these and very cheap;

but wheat is not so common as the other grains, since no one eats

it except the Moors. But you will find what I have mentioned. The

streets and markets are full of laden oxen without count, so that you

cannot get along for them, and in many streets you come upon so many

of them that you have to wait for them to pass, or else have to go by

another way. There is much poultry; they give three fowls in the city

for a coin worth a VINTEM,[419] which coins are called FAVAOS;[420]

outside the city they give four fowls for a VINTEM.

In this country there are many partridges, but they are not of the

same sort or quality as ours: they are like the ESTARNAS[421] of Italy.

There are three sorts of these: one class has only a small spur such

as those of Portugal have; another class has on each foot two very

sharp spurs, almost as long and thick as one's finger; the other class

is painted, and of these you will find the markets full; as also

of quails, and hares, and all kinds of wild fowl, and other birds

which live in the lakes and which look like geese. All these birds

and game animals they sell alive, and they are very cheap, for they

give six or eight partridges for a VINTEM, and of hares they give two

and sometimes one. Of other birds they give more than you can count,

for even of the large ones they give so many that you would hardly

pay any attention to the little ones they give you, such as doves

and pigeons and the common birds of the country. The doves are of

two kinds; some are like those in Portugal, others are as large as

thrushes; of the doves they give twelve or fourteen for a FAVAO; the

pigeons are the same price as the other birds. Then the sheep that

they kill every day are countless, one could not number them, for in

every street there are men who will sell you mutton, so clean and so

fat that it looks like pork; and you also have pigs in some streets of

butchers' houses so white and clean that you could never see better

in any country; a pig is worth four or five FANAMS.[422] Then to see

the many loads of limes that come each day, such that those of Povos

are of no account,[423] and also loads of sweet and sour oranges,

and wild BRINJALS, and other garden stuff in such abundance as to

stupefy one. For the state of this city is not like that of other

cities, which often fail of supplies and provisions, for in this one

everything abounds; and also the quantity of butter and oil and milk

sold every day, that is a thing I cannot refrain from mentioning; and

as for the rearing of cows and buffaloes which goes on in the city,

there is so much that you will go very far before you find another

like it. There are many pomegranates also; grapes are sold at three

bunches a FANAM, and pomegranates ten for a FANAM.

On the north side of the city is a very great river with much water,

in which are many fish, which fish are very unwholesome, and in

this river there is that which passes for ... (SIC. IN ORIG.); other

streams flow into it, which make it very large.

Now as to the places on the bank of this river. There is a city built

there which they call SENAGUMDYM,[424] and they say that of old it

was the capital of the kingdom, but there now live in it few people;

it still has good walls and is very strong, and it lies between two

hill-ranges which have only two entrances. A captain lives in this

city for the king. People cross to this place by boats which are

round like baskets;[425] inside they are made of cane, and outside

are covered with leather; they are able to carry fifteen or twenty

persons, and even horses and oxen can cross in them if necessary,

but for the most part these animals swim across. Men row them with

a sort of paddle, and the boats are always turning round, as they

cannot go straight like others; in all the kingdom where there are

streams there are no other boats but these.[426]

There are also in this city places where they sell live sheep; you

will see the fields round the city full of them, and also of cows and

buffaloes -- it is a very pretty sight to see, -- and also the many

she-goats and kids, and the he-goats so large that they are bridled

and saddled. Many sheep are like that also, and boys ride them.

Outside the city walls on the north there are three very beautiful

pagodas, one of which is called VITELLA,[427] and it stands over

against this city of Nagumdym; the other is called AOPERADIANAR,[428]

and this is the one which they hold in most veneration, and to which

they make great pilgrimages.

In this pagoda, opposite to its principal gate which is to the

east, there is a very beautiful street of very beautiful houses with

balconies and arcades, in which are sheltered the pilgrims that come

to it, and there are also houses for the lodging of the upper classes;

the king has a palace in the same street, in which he resides when

he visits this pagoda. There is a pomegranate tree [429] above this

first gate, the gate has a very lofty tower all covered with rows of

men and women and hunting scenes and many other representations, and

as the tower goes narrowing towards the top so the images diminish

in size. Passing this first gate, you come at once into a large

courtyard with another gate of the same sort as the first, except

that it is rather smaller throughout; and passing this second gate,

there is a large court with verandahs all round on pillars of stone,

and in the middle of this court is the house of the idol.

Opposite the principal gate stand four columns, two gilded and the

other two copper, from which, owing to their great age as it seems to

me, the gold has worn off; and the other two are also of copper, for

all are of copper. That which stands nearest the gate of the temple

was given by this King Crisnarao who now reigns here, and the others

by his predecessors. All the outer side of the gate of the temple up

to the roof is covered with copper and gilded, and on each side of the

roof on the top are certain great animals that look like tigers, all

gilt. As soon as you enter this idol-shrine, you perceive from pillar

to pillar on which it is supported many little holes in which stand

oil lamps, which burn, so they tell me, every night, and they will

be in number two thousand five hundred or three thousand lights. As

soon as you pass this shrine you enter another small one like the

crypt (CINZEYRO)[430] of some church; it has two doors at the sides,

and thence onward this building is like a chapel, where stands the

idol which they adore. Before you get to it there are three doors;

the shrine is vaulted and dark without any light from the sky; it is

always lit with candles. At the first gate are doorkeepers who never

allow any one to enter except the Brahmans that have charge of it,

and I, because I gave something to them, was allowed to enter. Between

gate and gate are images of little idols. The principal idol is a

round stone without any shape; they have great devotion for it. This

building outside is all covered with copper gilt. At the back of

the temple outside, close to the verandahs of which I have spoken,

there is a small idol of white alabaster with six arms;[431] in one

it has a ...[432] and in the other a sword, and in the others sacred

emblems (ARMAS DE CASA), and it has below its feet a buffalo, and a

large animal which is helping to kill that buffalo. In this pagoda

there burns continually a lamp of GHEE, and around are other small

temples for houses of devotion.

The other temples aforesaid are made in the same manner, but this one

is the principal one and the oldest; they all have many buildings

and gardens with many trees, in which the Brahmans cultivate their

vegetables[433] and the other herbs that they eat. Whenever the

festival of any of these temples occurs they drag along certain

triumphal cars which run on wheels, and with it go dancing-girls and

other women with music to the temple, (conducting) the idol along the

said street with much pomp. I do not relate the manner in which these

cars are taken, because in all the time that I was in this city none

were taken round. There are many other temples in the city of which

I do not here speak, to avoid prolixity.

You should know that among these heathen there are days when they

celebrate their feasts as with us; and they have their days of fasting,

when all day they eat nothing, and eat only at midnight. When the

time of the principal festival arrives the king comes from the new

city to this city of Bisnaga, since it is the capital of the kingdom

and it is the custom there to make their feasts and to assemble. For

these feasts are summoned all the dancing-women of the kingdom, in

order that they should be present; and also the captains and kings

and great lords with all their retinues, -- except only those whom the

king may have sent to make war, or those who are in other parts, or at

the far end of the kingdom on the side where (an attack) is feared,

such as the kingdom of Oria and the territories of the Ydallcao;

and even if such captains are absent in such places, there appear

for them at the feasts those whom I shall hereafter mention.

These feasts begin on the 12th of September,[434] and they last nine

days, and take place at the king's palace.

The palace is on this fashion: it has a gate opening on to the open

space[435] of which I have spoken, and over this gate is a tower of

some height, made like the others with its verandahs; outside these

gates begins the wall which I said encircled the palace. At the gate

are many doorkeepers[436] with leather scourges in their hands, and

sticks, and they let no one enter but the captains and chief people,

and those about whom they receive orders from the Chief of the

Guard. Passing this gate you have an open space, and then you have

another gate like the first, also with its doorkeepers and guards;

and as soon as you enter inside this you have a large open space,

and on one side and the other are low verandahs where are seated the

captains and chief people in order to witness the feasts, and on the

left side of the north of this open space is a great one-storeyed

building (TERREA); all the rest are like it. This building stands on

pillars shaped like elephants and with other figures, and all open

in front, and they go up to it by staircases of stone; around it,

underneath, is a terrace (CORREDOR) paved with very good flagstones,

where stand some of the people looking at the feast. This house

is called the House of Victory, as it was made when the king came

back from the war against Orya, as I have already told you. On the

right side of the open space were some narrow scaffoldings, made of

wood and so lofty that they could be seen over the top of the wall;

they were covered at the top with crimson and green velvet and other

handsome cloths, and adorned from top to bottom. Let no one fancy that

these cloths were of wool, because there are none such in the country,

but they are of very fine cotton. These scaffoldings are not always

kept at that place, but they are specially made for these feasts;

there are eleven of them. Against the gates there were two circles in

which were the dancing-women, richly arrayed with many jewels of gold

and diamonds and many pearls. Opposite the gate which is on the east

side of the front of the open space, and in the middle of it, there

are two buildings of the same sort as the House of Victory of which

I have spoken; these buildings are served by a kind of staircase of

stone beautifully wrought, -- one is in the middle and the other at

the end. This building was all hung with rich cloths, both the walls

and the ceiling, as well as the supports, and the cloths of the walls

were adorned with figures in the manner of embroidery; these buildings

have two platforms one above the other, beautifully sculptured, with

their sides well made and worked, to which platforms the sons of the

king's favourites come for the feasts, and sometimes his eunuchs. On

the upper platform, close to the king, was Christovao de Figueiredo,

with all of us who came with him, for the king commanded that he should

be put in such a place as best to see the feasts and magnificence. That

I may not forget to tell of the streets that are in the palace I here

mention them. You must know that inside the palace that I have spoken

of is the dwelling of the king and of his wives and of the other women

who serve them; as I have already said, who are twelve thousand in

number; and they have an entrance to these rows of houses so that they

can go inside. Between this palace and the House of Victory is a gate

which serves as passage to it. Inside there are thirty-four streets.

Returning to the feasts, you must know that in this House of Victory

the king has a room (CASA) made of cloth, with its door closed,

where the idol has a shrine; and in the other, in the middle (of the

building), is placed a dais opposite the staircase in the middle; on

which dais stands a throne of state made thus, -- it is four-sided,

and flat, with a round top, and a hollow in the middle for the

seat. As regards the woodwork of it, you must know that it is all

covered with silk cloths (?SOAJES),[437] and has lions all of gold,

and in the spaces between the cloths (SOAJES) it has plates of gold

with many rubies and seed-pearls, and pearls underneath; and round

the sides it is all full of golden images of personages, and upon

these is much work in gold, with many precious stones. In this chair

is placed an idol, also of gold, embowered in roses and flowers. On

one side of this chair, on the dais below, stands a head-dress; this

also is made in the same manner; it is upright and as high as a span,

the top is rounded, it is all full of pearls and rubies and all other

precious stones, and on the top of it is a pearl as large as a nut,

which is not quite round. On the other side is an anklet for the foot

made in the same fashion; it is another state jewel, and is full of

large pearls and of many rubies, emeralds, and diamonds, and other

stones of value; it will be of the thickness of a man's arm. In front

of all this, at the edge[438] of the dais, resting on a support were

some cushions where the king was seated during all these feasts. The

feasts commence thus: --

You must know that when it is morning the king comes to this House

of Victory, and betakes himself to that room where the idol is with

its Brahmans, and he performs his prayers and ceremonies. Outside

the house are some of his favourites, and on the square are many

dancing-girls dancing. In their verandahs round the square are

many captains and chief people who come there in order to see; and

on the ground, near the platform of the house, are eleven horses

with handsome and well-arranged trappings, and behind them are four

beautiful elephants with many adornments. After the king has entered

inside he comes out, and with him a Brahman who takes in his hand a

basket full of white roses and approaches the king on the platform,

and the king, taking three handfuls of these roses, throws them to

the horses,[439] and after he has thrown them he takes a basket of

perfumes and acts towards them as though he would cense them; and when

he has finished doing this he reaches towards the elephants and does

the same to them. And when the king has finished this, the Brahman

takes the basket and descends to the platform,[440] and from thence

puts those roses and other flowers on the heads of all the horses,

and this done, returns to the king. Then the king goes again to where

the idol is, and as soon as he is inside they lift the curtains[441]

of the room, which are made like the purdahs of a tent, and the king

seats himself there where these are, and they lift them all. Thence

he witnesses the slaughter of twenty-four buffaloes and a hundred and

fifty sheep, with which a sacrifice is made to that idol; you must know

that they cut off the heads of these buffaloes and sheep at one blow

with certain large sickles which are wielded by a man who has charge

of this slaughter; they are so sure of hand that no blow misses. When

they have finished the slaughter of these cattle the king goes out

and goes to the other large buildings, on the platforms of which is a

crowd of Brahmans, and as soon as the king ascends to where they stand

they throw to the king ten or twelve roses -- those (that is) who are

nearest to him. Then he passes all along the top of the buildings,

and as soon as he is at the end he takes the cap from his head, and

after placing it on the ground turns back (to the place) where the

idol is; here he lies extended on the ground. When he has arisen he

betakes himself to the interior of the building, and enters a garden

(or walled enclosure -- QUYNTAL) where they say that a little fire has

been made, and he throws into the fire a powder made up of many things,

namely, rubies and pearls and all other kinds of precious stones,

and aloes and other sweet-scented things. This done, he returns to

the pagoda and goes inside and stays a little, at which time enter

by the other door some of his favourites who are in the building,

and they make their salaam. Then he goes back to the place whence he

threw the flowers to the horses, and as soon as he is here all the

captains and chief people come and make their salaam to him, and some,

if they so desire, present some gifts to him; then as they came so

they retire, and each one betakes himself to his own dwelling. And

the king withdraws to the interior of his palace by that gate which I

have already mentioned -- that which stands between the two buildings

that are in the arena (TERREYRO); the courtesans and bayaderes[442]

remain dancing in front of the temple and idol for a long time. This

is what is done during the morning of each day of these nine days,

with the ceremonies I have mentioned, and each day more splendid

(than the last).

Now, returning to the feasts. At three o'clock in the afternoon

every one comes to the palace. They do not admit every one at once

(they allowed us to go into the open part that is between the

gates), but there go inside only the wrestlers and dancing-women,

and the elephants, which go with their trappings and decorations,

those that sit on them being armed with shields and javelins, and

wearing quilted tunics.[443] As soon as these are inside they range

themselves round the arena, each one in his place, and the wrestlers

go close to the staircase which is in the middle of that building,

where has been prepared a large space of ground for the dancing-women

to wrestle. Many other people are then at the entrance-gate opposite to

the building, namely Brahmans, and the sons of the King's favourites,

and their relations; all these are noble youths who serve before the

king. The officers of the household go about keeping order amongst all

the people, and keep each one in his own place. The different pavilions

are separated by doors, so that no one may enter unless he is invited.

Salvatinica,[444] who is the principal person that enters the building,

supervises the whole, for he brought up the king and made him king,

and so the king looks on him like a father. Whenever the king calls

to him he addresses him as "Lord (SENHOR) Salvatinica," and all the

captains and nobles of the realm make salaam to him. This Salvatinica

stands inside the arena where the festivals go on, near one of the

doors, and from there gives the word for the admission of all the

things necessary for the festival.

After all this is done and arranged the king goes forth and seats

himself on the dais I have mentioned, where is the throne and the

other things, and all those that are inside make their salaam to

him. As soon as they have done this the wrestlers seat themselves

on the ground, for these are allowed to remain seated, but no other,

howsoever great a lord he be, except the king so commands; and these

also eat betel, though none else may eat it in his presence except

the dancing-women, who may always eat it before him. As soon as the

king is seated in his place he bids to sit with him three or four men

who belong to his race, and who are themselves kings and the fathers

of his wives; the principal of these is the king of Syrimgapatao and

of all the territory bordering on Malabar, and this king is called

Cumarvirya,[445] and he seats himself as far in front as the king on

the other side of the dais, the rest are behind.

There the king sits, dressed in white clothes all covered with

(embroidery of) golden roses and wearing his jewels -- he wears a

quantity of these white garments, and I always saw him so dressed --

and around him stand his pages with his betel, and his sword, and the

other things which are his insignia of state. Many Brahmans stand round

the throne on which rests the idol, fanning it with horsetail plumes,

coloured, the handles of which are all overlaid with gold; these plumes

are tokens of the highest dignity; they also fan the king with them.

As[446] soon as the king is seated, the captains who waited without

make their entrance, each one by himself, attended by his chief people,

and so on, all in order; they approach and make their salaams to the

king, and then take their places in the pavilions (VERAMDAS) which

I have previously described. As soon as these nobles have finished

entering, the captains of the troops approach with shields and spears,

and afterwards the captains of the archers; these officers are all

stationed on the ground around the arena in front of the elephants,

and they constitute the king's guard, for into such a place no man

may enter bearing arms, nor near to where the king is. As soon as

these soldiers have all taken their places the women begin to dance,

while some of them place themselves in the circular galleries that

I have said were (erected) at their gate of entrance. Who can fitly

describe to you the great riches these women carry on their persons? --

collars of gold with so many diamonds and rubies and pearls, bracelets

also on their arms and on their upper arms, girdles below, and of

necessity anklets on the feet. The marvel should be otherwise, namely

that women of such a profession should obtain such wealth; but there

are women among them who have lands that have been given to them,

and litters, and so many maid-servants that one cannot number all

their things. There is a woman in this city who is said to have a

hundred thousand PARDAOS,[447] and I believe this from what I have

seen of them.

Then the wrestlers begin their play. Their wrestling does not seem

like ours, but there are blows (given), so severe as to break teeth,

and put out eyes, and disfigure faces, so much so that here and

there men are carried off speechless by their friends; they give

one another fine falls too. They have their captains and judges,

who are there to put each one on an equal footing in the field,

and also to adjust the honours to him who wins.

In all this portion of the day nothing more is done than this wrestling

and the dancing of the women, but as soon as ever the sun is down many

torches are lit and some great flambeaux made of cloth; and these are

placed about the arena in such a way that the whole is as light as

day, and even along the top of the walls, for on all the battlements

are lighted lamps, and the place where the king sits is all full of

torches. As soon as these are all lit up there are introduced many very

graceful plays and contrivances, but these do not stop long; they only

approach where the king is and then go out. Then there enter others in

other fashion, with battles of people on horseback; these horses are

like the hobby-horses made in Portugal for the feast of the Corpo de

Dios; others come with casting-nets, fishing, and capturing the men

that are in the arena. When these amusements are ended, they begin to

throw up many rockets and many different sorts of fires, also castles

that burn and fling out from themselves many bombs (TIROS) and rockets.

When these fireworks are finished, there enter many triumphal cars

which belong to the captains, some of them sent by those captains

who are waging war in foreign parts; and they enter thus. The first

belongs to Salvatinica, and they come in one after the other. Some of

the cars appear covered with many rich cloths, having on them many

devices of dancing-girls and other human figures; there are other

cars having tiers one on top of another, and others all of one kind;

and so in their order they pass to where the king is. When the cars

have gone out they are immediately followed by many horses covered

with trappings and cloths of very fine stuff of the king's colours,

and with many roses and flowers on their heads and necks, and with

their bridles all gilded; and in front of these horses goes a horse

with two state-umbrellas of the king, and with grander decorations

than the others, and one of the lesser equerries leads it by the

bridle. In front of this horse goes another caracoling and prancing,

as do all horses here, being trained in that art. You must know that

this horse that is conducted with all this state is a horse that the

king keeps, on which they are sworn and received as kings, and on

it must be sworn all those that shall come after them; and in case

such a horse dies they put another in its place. If any king does

not wish to be sworn on horseback, they swear him on an elephant,

which they keep and treat with equal dignity.

These horses, then, going in the way I have stated, pass twice round

the arena and place themselves in the middle of the arena in five

or six lines, one before the other, and the king's horse in front

of them, all facing the king; they stand in such a way that between

them and the men there is an open space all round. As soon as they are

arranged in this way and are all quiet there goes out from the inside

of the palace a Brahman, the highest in rank of those about the king,

and two others with him, and this chief Brahman carries in his hands

a bowl with a cocoanut and some rice and flowers, while others carry

a pot of water; and they pass round by the back of the horses, which

all stand facing the king; and after performing his ceremonies there,

he returns to the palace.

After this is over you will see issuing from inside twenty-five or

thirty female doorkeepers, with canes in their hands and whips on their

shoulders; and then close to these come many eunuchs, and after these

eunuchs come many women playing many trumpets and drums and pipes

(but not like ours) and viols, and many other kinds of music, and

behind these women will come some twenty women-porters, with canes

in their hands all covered with silver, and close to them come women

clothed in the following manner. They have very rich and fine silk

cloths; on the head they wear high caps which they call COLLAES,[448]

and on these caps they wear flowers made of large pearls; collars

on the neck with jewels of gold very richly set with many emeralds

and diamonds and rubies and pearls; and besides this many strings of

pearls, and others for shoulder-belts; on the lower part of the arms

many bracelets, with half of the upper arm all bare, having armlets

in the same way all of precious stones; on the waist many girdles of

gold and of precious stones, which girdles hang in order one below the

other, almost as far down as half the thigh; besides these belts they

have other jewels, and many strings of pearls round the ankles, for

they wear very rich anklets even of greater value than the rest. They

carry in their hands vessels of gold each as large as a small cask of

water; inside these are some loops made of pearls fastened with wax,

and inside all this a lighted lamp. They come in regular order one

before the other, in all perhaps sixty women fair and young, from

sixteen to twenty years of age. Who is he that could tell of the

costliness and the value of what each of these women carries on her

person? So great is the weight of the bracelets and gold and jewels

carried by them that many of them cannot support them, and women

accompany them assisting them by supporting their arms. In this manner

and in this array they proceed three times round the horses, and at

the end retire into the palace. These women are maids of honour to the

queens, and so are the others that go with them; on each day of these

nine days of the feast one of the queens sends, each on her own day,

her ladies with the others. The officials, in honour of the feast,

have the days divided between them in accordance with their custom

as already arranged by the king; and these women come every day most

richly attired, taking pleasure in strewing themselves in such things,

and in making a display each one of what she possesses.

When these women retire the horses also go, and then come the

elephants, and after making their salaam they too retire. As soon as

they are gone the king retires by a small door which is at the end

of the building. Then the Brahmans go and take an idol, and carry

it to the House of Victory, where is the room of cloth that I have

spoken of; and the king at once comes from within, and goes to where

the idol is, and offers his prayers and performs his ceremonies. Then

they bring there more buffaloes and sheep, and kill them in the same

way as before, and then come the professional women to dance. As soon

as the slaughter of the buffaloes and sheep is over the king retires,

and goes to his supper; for he fasts all these nine days, and (each

day) they eat nothing until all is finished, and their hour for food

is midnight. The bayaderes remain dancing before the idol a long time

after all this is done.

In this way are celebrated these festivals of nine days; on the last

day there are slaughtered two hundred and fifty buffaloes and four

thousand five hundred sheep.

When these days of festival are past, the king holds a review of

all his forces, and the review is thus arranged. The king commands

to pitch his tent of Mecca velvet a full league from the city, at a

place already fixed for that purpose; and in this tent they place the

idol in honour of which all these festivals are celebrated. From this

tent to the king's palace the captains range themselves with their

troops and array, each one in his place according to his rank in the

king's household. Thus the soldiers stand in line; but it does not

appear to you to be only one line but in some places two or three,

one behind the other. Where there was a lake it was surrounded with

troops, and where the road was narrow they were drawn up on the plain;

and so on the slope of the hills and eminences, in such a way that

you could see neither plain nor hill that was not entirely covered

with troops. Those on foot stood in front of those on horses, and the

elephants behind the horses; in this array was each captain with his

troops. The captains who had their stations inside the city, since

the soldiers could not be drawn up on the flat roofs of the houses,

put up scaffoldings across the mouths of the streets to hold the

troops, in such a way that all were full, both outside and in.

Now I should like to describe to you how they were armed, and their

decorations. The cavalry were mounted on horses fully caparisoned, and

on their foreheads plates, some of silver but most of them gilded, with

fringes of twisted silk of all colours, and reins of the same;[449]

others had trappings of Mecca velvet, which is velvet of many colours

with fringes and ornaments; others had them of other silks, such as

satins and damask, and others of brocade from China and Persia.[450]

Some of the men with the gilded plates had them set with many large

precious stones, and on the borders lace-work of small stones. Some

of these horses had on their foreheads heads of serpents and of

other large animals of various kinds, made in such a strange manner

that they were a sight to see for the perfection of their make. The

horsemen were dressed in quilted tunics,[451] also of brocade and

velvet and every kind of silk. These tunics are made of layers of

very strong raw leather, and furnished with other iron (plates) that

make them strong; some have these plates gilded both inside and out,

and some are made of silver. Their headpieces are in the manner of

helmets with borders covering the neck, and each has its piece to

protect the face; they are of the same fashion as the tunics. They

wear on the neck gorgets (COFOS) all gilded, others made of silk with

plates of gold and silver, others of steel as bright as a mirror. At

the waists they have swords and small battle-axes, and in their hands

javelins with the shafts covered with gold and silver. All have their

umbrellas of state made of embroidered velvet and damask, with many

coloured silks on the horses. They wave many (standards with) white

and coloured tails, and hold them in much esteem -- which tails are

horses' tails. The elephants in the same way are covered with caparison

of velvet and gold with fringes, and rich cloths of many colours, and

with bells so that the earth resounds; and on their heads are painted

faces of giants and other kinds of great beasts. On the back of each

one of them are three or four men, dressed in their quilted tunics,

and armed with shields and javelins, and they are arrayed as if for

a foray. Then, turning to the troops on foot, there are so many that

they surround all the valleys and hills in a way with which nothing

in the world can compare. You will see amongst them dresses of such

rich cloths that I do not know where they came from, nor could any

one tell how many colours they have; shield-men with their shields,

with many flowers of gold and silver on them, others with figures

of tigers and other great beasts, others all covered with silver

leaf-work beautifully wrought, others with painted colours, others

black and (so polished that) you can see into them as into a mirror,

and their swords so richly ornamented that they could not possibly be

more so. Of the archers, I must tell you that they have bows plated

with gold and silver, and others have them polished, and their arrows

very neat, and so feathered that they could not be better; daggers

at their waists and battle-axes, with the shafts and ends of gold and

silver; then you see musqueteers with their musquets and blunderbusses

and their thick tunics, all in their order, with their ...[452] in

all their bravery; it was indeed a thing to see. Then the Moors --

one must not forget them -- for they were there also in the review

with their shields, javelins, and Turkish bows, with many bombs and

spears and fire-missiles; and I was much astonished to find amongst

them men who knew so well how to work these weapons.

The king leaves his palace riding on the horse of which I have already

told you, clothed in the many rich white cloths I have mentioned, with

two umbrellas of state all gilded and covered with crimson velvet,

and with the jewels and adornments which they keep for the purpose of

wearing at such times: he who ever wears such jewels can understand the

sort of things so great a lord would wear. Then to see the grandeur

of the nobles and men of rank, I cannot possibly describe it all,

nor should I be believed if I tried to do so; then to see the horses

and the armour that they wear, you would see them so covered with

metal plates that I have no words to express what I saw, and some

hid from me the sight of others; and to try and tell of all I saw is

hopeless, for I went along with my head so often turned from one side

to the other that I was almost falling backwards off my horse with

my senses lost. The cost of it all is not so much to be wondered at,

as there is so much money in the land, and the chiefs are so wealthy.

There went in front of the king many elephants with their coverings

and ornaments, as I have said; the king had before him some twenty

horses fully caparisoned and saddled, with embroideries of gold and

precious stones, that showed off well the grandeur and state of their

lord. Close to the king went a cage such as is seen at Lisbon on the

day of the Corpo de Dios festival, and it was gilded and very large;

it seemed to me to be made of copper or silver; it was carried by

sixteen men, eight on each side, besides others who took their turns,

and in it is carried the idol of which I have already spoken. Thus

accompanied the king passed along gazing at his soldiers, who gave

great shouts and cries and struck their shields; the horses neighed,

the elephants screamed, so that it seemed as it the city would

be overturned, the hills and valleys and all the ground trembled

with the discharges of arms and musquets; and to see the bombs and

fire-missiles over the plains, this was indeed wonderful. Truly it

seemed as if the whole world were collected there.

In this way it went on till the king arrived at the place where

the tent was that I have already mentioned, and he entered his

and performed his usual ceremonies and prayers. You must not think

that when the king passed the troops moved from their positions,

on the contrary they stood motionless in their places till the king

returned. As soon as the king had finished his ceremonies he again

took horse and returned to the city in the same way as he had come,

the troops never wearying of their shouting; as soon as he passed

by them they began to march. Then to see those who were on the hills

and slopes, and the descent of them with their shouts and beating of

shields and shaking of arrows and bows that were without count. Truly,

I was so carried out with myself that it seemed as if what I saw was a

vision, and that I was in a dream. Then the troops began to march to

their tents and pavilions in the plains, which were in great number;

and all the captains accompanied the king as far as the palace,

and thence departed to rest themselves from their labour.

Now I desire you to know that this king has continually a million

fighting troops,[453] in which are included 35,000 cavalry in armour;

all these are in his pay, and he has these troops always together and

ready to be despatched to any quarter whenever such may be necessary. I

saw, being in this city of Bisnaga, the king despatch a force against

a place, one of those which he has by the sea-coast; and he sent fifty

captains with 150,000 soldiers, amongst whom were many cavalry. He has

many elephants, and when the king wishes to show the strength of his

power to any of his adversaries amongst the three kings bordering on

his kingdom, they say that he puts into the field two million soldiers;

in consequence of which he is the most feared king of any in these

parts. And although he takes away so many men from his kingdom, it must

not be thought that the kingdom remains devoid of men; it is so full

that it would seem to you as if he had never taken away a man, and

this by reason of the many and great merchants that are in it. There

are working people and all other kinds of men who are employed in

business, besides those who are obliged to go into the field; there

are also a great number of Brahmans. In all the land of the heathen

there are these Brahmans; they are men who do not eat anything that

suffers death; they have little stomach for the use of arms.

Should any one ask what revenues this king possesses, and what his

treasure is that enables him to pay so many troops, since he has so

many and such great lords in his kingdom, who, the greater part of

them, have themselves revenues, I answer thus: These captains whom

he has over these troops of his are the nobles of his kingdom; they

are lords, and they hold the city, and the towns and villages of

the kingdom; there are captains amongst them who have a revenue of

a million and a million a half of PARDAOS, others a hundred thousand

PARDAOS, others two hundred, three hundred or five hundred thousand

PARDAOS, and as each one has revenue so the king fixes for him the

number of troops he must maintain, in foot, horse, and elephants.[454]

These troops are always ready for duty, whenever they may be called out

and wherever they may have to go; and in this way he has this million

of fighting men always ready. Each of these captains labours to turn

out the best troops he can get because he pays them their salaries; and

in this review there were the finest young men possible to be seen or

that ever could be seen, for in all this array I did not see a man that

would act the coward. Besides maintaining these troops, each captain

has to make his annual payments to the king, and the king has his own

salaried troops to whom he gives pay. He has eight hundred elephants

attached to his person, and five hundred horses always in his stables,

and for the expenses of these horses and elephants he has devoted the

revenues that he receives from this city of Bisnaga. You may well

imagine how great these expenses may be, and besides these that of

the servants who have the care of the horses and elephants; and by

this you will be able to judge what will be the revenue of this city.

This king of Bisnaga has five kings his subjects and vassals,[455]

besides other captains and lords having large territories and great

revenues; whenever a son happens to be born to this king, or a

daughter, all the nobles of the kingdom offer him great presents of

money and jewels of price, and so they do to him every year on the

day of his birth.

You must know that when these feasts of which I have spoken are ended,

at the beginning of the month of October, when eleven of its days are

past, they make great feasts, during which every one puts on new,

and rich, and handsome cloths, each one according to his liking,

and all the captains give their men handsome cloths of many colours,

each one having his own colour and device. On the same day they give

great gifts of money to the king, it is even said that they give on

that day to the king in money a million and five hundred thousand

gold PARDAOS, and each PARDAO is worth three hundred and sixty REIS,

and from this you will be able to know how many REIS there will be. I

wish you to know that on this day begins their year; it is their New

Year's Day, and for this they make the feast and give the gifts;

and it is not to be wondered at, for we also do the same on New

Year's Day. They begin the year in this month with the new moon,

and they count the months always from moon to moon.[456]

And now I wish you to know that the previous kings of this place for

many years past have held it a custom to maintain a treasury, which

treasury, after the death of each, is kept locked and sealed in such

a way that it cannot be seen by any one, nor opened, nor do the kings

who succeed to the kingdom open them or know what is in them. They are

not opened except when the kings have great need, and thus the kingdom

has great supplies to meet its needs. This king has made his treasury

different from those of the previous kings, and he puts in it every

year ten million PARDAOS, without taking from them one PARDAO more

than for the expenses of his house. The rest remains for him, over and

above these expenses and of the expenses in the houses of his wives,

of whom I have already told you that he keeps near him twelve thousand

women; from this you will be able to judge how great is the richness

of this kingdom, and how great the treasure that this king has amassed.

And if any one does not know what a PARDAO is, let him know that it

is a round gold coin, which coin is not struck anywhere in India

except in this kingdom; it bears impressed on it on one side two

images and on the other the name of the king who commanded it to

be struck; those which this king ordered to be struck have only one

image. This coin is current all over India. Each PARDAO, as already

said, is worth three hundred and sixty REIS.

After all these things (feasts) had passed the king betook himself to

the new city, of which I have already told you that he delights in it

much because it was made and peopled by him, of which I have already

told you. In two years the king built this city. The king was received

by the citizens with great feasts, and the streets were hung with rich

cloths, and with many triumphal arches under which he passed. In this

city the king held another review of the troops of his guard, and

he distributed pay to all because it was the beginning of the year,

and it is their custom to pay salaries year by year. An inspection is

held by the officers of his house, and they write down the name of each

one, and the marks that he has on his face or body. There are men of

the guard who have a thousand PARDAOS pay, and others eight hundred,

others six hundred and more, and a little more or less; there is a

difference, and also a difference in the persons. Some men of them who

are of higher rank than others have two horses or three, and others

have no more than one. These troops have their captains, and each

captain goes with his guard to mount guard at the palace according

to order and custom; the king has in his guard five hundred horse,

and these watch outside the palace armed with their weapons. There

are two watches inside, and people with swords and shields.

The king, then, being in his new city, as I have said, Christovao de

Figueiredo begged him of his kindness that he would permit him to be

shown the palace of the city of Bisnaga, forasmuch as there had come

with him many Portuguese who had never been in Bisnaga, and they would

rejoice to see it, in order to have somewhat to tell of on their return

to their own lands, whenever God should take them there. The king at

once commanded that they should be shown certain of his residences,

for that of his wives no one ever sees. As soon as we had returned

to the city of Bisnaga, the governor of that place, who is called

Gamdarajo, and is brother of Salvatinica,[457] showed us the palace.

You must know that on entering that gate of which I have spoken,

by which the ladies serving the king's wives make their exit when

they come to the feast, opposite to it there is another of the same

kind. Here they bade us stand still, and they counted us how many

we were, and as they counted they admitted us one by one to a small

courtyard with a smoothly plastered floor, and with very white walls

around it.[458] At the end of this courtyard, opposite this gate by

which we entered, is another close to it on the left hand, and another

which was closed; the door opposite belongs to the king's residence. At

the entrance of this door outside are two images painted like life and

drawn in their manner, which are these; the one on the right hand is of

the father of this king, and the one on the left is of this king. The

father was dark and a gentleman of fine form, stouter than the son

is; they stand with all their apparel and such raiment as they wear

or used to wear when alive. Afterwards, wishing to pass in at this

door, they again counted us, and after they had finished counting us

we entered a little house which contained what I shall now relate.

As soon as you are inside, on the left hand, are two chambers one above

the other, which are in this manner: the lower one is below the level

of the ground, with two little steps which are covered with copper

gilded, and from there to the top is all lined with gold (I do not

say "gilded," but "lined" inside), and outside it is dome-shaped. It

has a four-sided porch made of cane-work[459] over which is a work

of rubies and diamonds and all other kinds of precious stones, and

pearls, and above the porch are two pendants of gold; all the precious

stonework is in heart-shapes, and, interweaved between one and another,

is a twist of thick seed-pearl work; on the dome are pendants of the

same. In this chamber was a bed which had feet similar to the porch,

the cross-bars covered with gold, and there was on it a mattress of

black satin; it had all round it a railing of pearls a span wide;

on it were two cushions and no other covering. Of the chamber above

it I shall not say if it held anything because I did not see it,

but only the one below on the right side. In this house there is

a room with pillars of carved stone; this room is all of ivory, as

well the chamber as the walls, from top to bottom, and the pillars

of the cross-timbers at the top had roses and flowers of lotuses all

of ivory, and all well executed, so that there could not be better,

-- it is so rich and beautiful that you would hardly find anywhere

another such. On this same side is designed in painting all the ways

of life of the men who have been here even down to the Portuguese,

from which the king's wives can understand the manner in which each

one lives in his own country, even to the blind and the beggars. In

this house are two thrones covered with gold, and a cot of silver

with its curtains. Here I saw a little slab of green jasper, which is

held for a great thing in this house. Close to where this jasper is,

I.E. underneath some arches where is the entrance into the palace,

there is a little door closed with some padlocks: they told us that

inside it there was a treasury of one of the former kings.

As soon as we left this house we entered a courtyard as large as an

arena for beast-fights, very well plastered, and almost in the middle

are some pillars of wood, with a cross beam at the top all covered

with copper gilt, and in the middle four chains of silver links with

hooks which are caught one into the other; this serves for a swing

for the wives of the king. At the entrance of this courtyard on the

right hand we mounted four or five steps and entered some beautiful

houses made in the way I have already told you -- for their houses

are single-storeyed houses with flat roofs on top, although on

top there may be other houses; the plan is good, and they are like

terraces. There is a building there built on many pillars, which are

of stone-work, and so also is all the work of the roof, with all the

rest of wood (MANERIA), and all the pillars (with all the other work)

are gilded so that they seem as if covered with gold.

Then at the entrance of this building in the middle nave, there is,

standing on four pillars, a canopy covered with many figures of

dancing-women, besides other small figures[460] which are placed in

the stone-work. All this is also gilded, and has some red colour on

the under-sides of the leaves which stand out from the sculpture. You

must know that they make no use of this building because it belongs to

their idol and to the temple. At the end of this is a little closed

door where the idol is. Whenever they celebrate any festival of this

idol, they carry it on a golden throne and put it underneath that

canopy which is made for that purpose; and then come the Brahmans to

perform their ceremonies there, and the dancing-girls come to dance.

Descending from this building, we passed on the left side of the

courtyard, and we entered a corridor which runs the whole length

of it, in which we saw some things. On entering the corridor was a

cot suspended in the air by silver chains; the cot had feet made of

bars of gold, so well made that they could not be better, and the

cross-bars of the cot were covered with gold. In front of this cot

was a chamber where was another cot suspended in the air by chains of

gold; this cot had feet of gold with much setting of precious stones,

and the cross-bars were covered with gold. Above this chamber was

another, smaller, and with nothing in it save only that it was gilt

and painted. Passing this chamber, along the same corridor in front

was a chamber which this king, commanded to be made; on the outside

were figures of women with bows and arrows like amazons. They had

begun to paint this chamber, and they told us that it had to be

finer than the others, and that it was to be all plated with gold,

as well the ground below as all the rest. Passing this corridor and

mounting up into another which is higher, we saw at one end three

caldrons of gold, so large that in each one they could cook half

a cow, and with them were others, very large ones, of silver, and

also little pots of gold and some large ones. Thence we went up by a

little staircase, and entered by a little door into a building which

is in this manner. This hall is where the king sends his women to be

taught to dance. It is a long hall and not very wide, all of stone

sculpture on pillars, which are at a distance of quite an arm's length

from the wall; between one and another is an arm's length and a half,

perhaps a little more. These pillars stand in that manner all around

the building; they are half-pillars (?)[461] made with other hollows

(?) all gilt.[462] In the supports (or pedestals) on the top[463]

are many great beasts like elephants, and of other shapes; it is open

so that the interior is seen, and there are on the inner side of

these beasts other images, each placed according to its character;

there are also figures of men turned back to back, and other beasts

of different sorts. In each case from pillar to pillar is a cross-bar

(the architrave) which is like a panel, and from pillar to pillar are

many such panels; there are images of old men, too, gilded and of the

size of a cubit. Each of the panels has one placed in this way. These

images are over all the building. And on the pillars are other images,

smaller, with other images yet more subordinate, and other figures

again, in such a way that I saw this work gradually diminishing in

size on these pillars with their designs, from pillar to pillar, and

each time smaller by the size of a span as it went on, becoming lost;

so it went dwindling gradually away till there remained of all the

sculptured work only the dome, the most beautiful I ever saw. Between

these images and pillars runs a design of foliage, like plates (A

MANEYRA DE LAMINES), all gilt, with the reverses of the leaves in

red and blue, the images that are on the pillars are stags and other

animals, they are painted in colours with the pink on their faces;

but the other images seated on the elephants, as well as those on

the panels, are all dancing women having tattle drums (tom-toms).

The designs of these panels show the positions at the ends of dances

in such a way that on each panel there is a dancer in the proper

position at the end of the dance; this is to teach the women, so

that if they forget the position in which they have to remain when

the dance is done, they may look at one of the panels where is the

end of that dance. By that they keep in mind what they have to do.

At the end of this house on the left hand is a painted recess where

the women cling on with their hands in order better to stretch and

loosen their bodies and legs; there they teach them to make the whole

body supple, in order to make their dancing more graceful. At the

other end, on the right, in the place where the king places himself

to watch them dancing, all the floors and walls where he sits are

covered with gold, and in the middle of the wall is a golden image

of a woman of the size of a girl of twelve years, with her arms in

the position which she occupies in the end of a dance.

They did not show us more than this. The residence of the women no

one may see except the eunuchs, of whom I have already told you. From

here we returned by the way we had entered to the second gate, and

there they again counted us.

Of the city of Bisnaga they say that there are more than a hundred

thousand dwelling-houses in it, all one-storeyed and flat-roofed,

to each of which there is a low surrounding wall, and in this city

the king lives most of the time. On the north side are rocky hills;

a river runs between them, and the wall runs along the top of them,

and on the farther side is a city called Nagumdym; and it has only

three gates, namely one by the river, which they cross in boats

embarking just at this gate;[464] one on the other side which is to

the north, this is a stronger gate; and one on the north-west side,

a little gate between two very high ridges; and it is such a bad road

that only one horseman can pass out a time.

And on the north-west side (of Bisnaga) is another city called

Crisnapor[465] connected with Bisnaga, in which are all their pagodas,

those in which they most worship, and all the revenue of this city is

granted to them, and they say that they have a revenue of a hundred

thousand PARDAOS OF gold. The pagodas are high and have great buildings

with many figures of men and women, all in lascivious attitudes.

On the south side is the other city called Nagalapor in a plain; in

it the Ydalcao stopped with all his forces when he besieged Bisnaga,

and he razed it to the ground; but already it is again rebuilt,

and this is a league from Bisnaga.[466]

On the east side is another city called Ardegema,[467] which is the

name of the principal wife of this king, and it is new, and he built

it for love of her.

Chronicle of Fernao Nuniz

(Written, Probably, A.D. 1535 -- 37)

CHAPTER 1

Copy and Summary of a Chronicle of the Kings of Bisnaga, who reigned

(ORIG. were) from the era one thousand two hundred and thirty, which

was after the general destruction of the kingdom of Bisnaga.[468]

In the year twelve hundred and thirty[469] these parts of India were

ruled by a greater monarch than had ever reigned. This was the King of

Dili,[470] who by force of arms and soldiers made war on Cambaya for

many years, taking and destroying in that period the land of Guzarate

which belongs to Cambaya,[471] and in the end he became its lord.

And this taken, not being content with the victory which he had already

gained, he made ready a large army of foot and horse, and determined

to make war on the King of Bisnaga, leaving his captains in his lands

and fortresses to defend themselves against his enemies, of whom there

were many; for this King[472] was at that time at war with Bemgalla,

and with the Turkomans on the confines of the country of Sheikh

Ismael.[473] These men are fair and large of body; in their lands

are many horses with which this King of Delly made war on Cambaya

and laid it waste; and after the country was taken and he lord of it,

there still remained to him as many as eight hundred thousand horsemen

with whom he passed on to Bisnaga; of the number of people on foot

nothing is said here because no one counted them.

And, determining to make war on the King of Bisnaga and to reduce him

under his rule, he passed out of the lands which he had newly gained,

entering into those of the King of Bisnaga, which at that time were

many; and quitting the kingdom of Cambaya, he began to invade and make

war on the Ballagate,[474] whose lands now belong to the Idalcao,[475]

taking and destroying many towns and places in such a way that the

people of the country surrendered to him their persons and property,

though he left to them their weapons which he could not prevent

their carrying.

And after he had become lord of all the country of the Ballagate,

he passed the river of Duree,[476] which forms the boundary of the

territories of the Ballagate and of those of the King of Bisnaga,

which river he passed in basket-boats without finding any one to

oppose the passage. Up to that time, in all that was (afterwards)

the kingdom of Bisnaga, no place was populated save only the city of

Nagumdym,[477] in which the King of Bisnaga[478] then was, awaiting

his destruction, since it was strong, and because he possessed no

other citadel but that, which was his Lisbon.

And from the river which that King of Delly passed in

basket-boats,[479] to that city was twenty-five leagues, all being open

country (CAMPOS); and in them it seemed good to him to pitch his camp,

so that his people might drink of the water in the plain (CAMPOS)

along the length of the river. At that time there was great drought

by reason of the summer season, and the waters of the few little lakes

that were in the plain would not suffice for ten days for his troops,

horses, and elephants, without drying up; and for that reason he halted

some days by the banks of that river, till rain fell in the fields

and lakes, enough for such a large army as he had brought with him.

And when the time came he raised his camp and brought his array to

a halt in sight of that city of Nagundy.

And the King of Bisnaga, seeing his great power and how many troops

he had brought with him, determined to abandon the city, which was

very difficult to enter; close to which was, and now is, a river

which is called Nagundy, whence the city is called Nagundy, and they

say the city had its name because of it. And he fled for shelter to

a fortress called Crynamata,[480] which was by the bank of the river,

and which contained much provision and water; but not enough for the

sustenance of so many people as he had with him, as many as fifty

thousand men. Therefore the King chose five thousand men with their

property and took refuge in the fortress; and for the rest he bade

them betake themselves to another fortress of his in another part of

his kingdom.

And being sheltered in the fortress, after he had taken order about

his provisions, he was beset on all sides by the King of the people

of Dely, who had already up to this time been at war with him[481]

for twelve years; over which siege little time was spent, because the

people that were inside the fortress were numerous, and in a little

space had consumed their provisions.

Then the King of Bisnaga, seeing the determination of the soldiers

of the King of Delly that they would never leave the place without

making an end of those whom he had with him in the fortress, made a

speech to them all, laying before them the destruction that the King

of the troops of Dely had caused in his own kingdoms;[482] and how,

not content with that, he had besieged this fortress, so that now

there was nothing for them to look to but death, since already there

was no water in the fortress nor anything left to eat. And (he said)

that of the fifty thousand men who had been in the city of Nagundy

he had chosen them alone as his companions and true friends, and he

begged of them that they would hold fast in death to the loyalty which

they had borne him in their lives; for he hoped that day to give battle

to the King of Delly. Then he said that already there remained to him

of his kingdom and lordship nothing but that fortress and the people

that were in it, and so he asked them to arm themselves and die with

him in battle, giving their lives to the enemy who had deprived them

of all their lands.

All of them were very content and glad at this, and in a short space

were all armed; and after they were so the King made them another

speech, saying, "Before we join battle we have to wage another war

with our sons and daughters and wives, for it will not be good that

we should allow them to be taken for the use of our enemies." And the

King said, "I will be the first to deal with my wife and sons." At this

time they were all standing in a large open space which was before the

citadel, and there by the hand of the King were slain over fifty of his

wives and some sons and little daughters; and the same was done with

their own hands by all who had wives and sons that could not fight.

When these nuptial feasts, so abhorred of all, were fulfilled, they

opened the gates of the fortress, and their enemies forthwith entered,

and slew all of them except six old men who withdrew to a house. These

were made captive and were taken before the King (of Delhi), and the

King asked them who they were and how they had escaped, and they told

them who they were; at which the King greatly rejoiced, because one

of them was the minister of the kingdom and another the treasurer,

and the others were leading officers in it. They were questioned by

the King concerning the treasures of the King of Bisnaga, and such

riches as were buried in the vaults of the fortress were delivered up

to him, they also gave him an account of the revenues of the kingdom

of Bisnaga at that time. When all was known to the King he delivered

them to one of his captains, and commanded to make over the bodies of

the dead to another captain, and gave orders that the bodies should

be burned; and the body of the King, at the request of those six men,

was conveyed very honourably to the city of Nagundy. From that time

forward that place became a burying-place of the kings. Amongst

themselves they still worship this King as a saint.