THE APPEAL TO THE PEOPLE.
Recall of Necker.--Reassembling the Notables.--Pamphlet of the Abbé
Sièyes.--Vote of the King's Brother.--His supposed Motive.--The
Basis of Representation.--Arrangements for the Meeting of the
States.--Statement of Grievances.--Mirabeau: his Menace.--Sympathy
of the Curates with the People.--Remonstrance of the Nobles.--First
Riot.--Meeting of the States-General.--New Effort of the privileged
Classes.
The king again turned to Necker, as one strong in the confidence of the
people. The announcement of his recall filled France with enthusiasm.
Guns were fired, bells rung, and masses of people surged through the
streets of Paris and of Versailles, shouting exultingly. It was the
24th of August, 1788. Necker's first exclamation, at the intimation of
his recall, was, "Ah! that I could recall the fifteen months of the
Archbishop of Toulouse." He found but two hundred and fifty thousand
francs ($50,000) in the treasury. Though disorder and ruin had made
rapid progress, the reputation of Necker was such that he immediately
had loans offered him, and the public funds rose thirty per cent.[78]
Preparations were immediately made for the assembling of the
States-General, and the public announcement was given that it was
to be convened on the 27th of April. There had been no meeting of
the States-General for one hundred and seventy-five years, and
the question now rose, How shall the members be elected? who shall
be voters? of how many shall the body be composed? what proportion
shall be from the privileged and what from the unprivileged class?
The learned bodies and popular writers were invited to express
their views upon these points. Thousands of political pamphlets
immediately appeared, and every mind in the nation was roused.[79]
The all-important and most agitating question was, What proportion
shall the people occupy in this assembly? The unprivileged class
composed ninety-eight hundredths of the nation; the privileged class
two hundredths. And yet the privileged class demanded inexorably that
they should have two thirds of the representatives, and the people one
third. This would place the people in a hopeless minority, and leave
them entirely at the mercy of the privileged class.
To settle these agitating questions the Notables were again summoned
on the 6th of September, 1788. It was the same body which Calonne had
called together. Parliament had firmly declared in favor of allowing
the people a representation of but one third, giving the nobles a third
and the clergy a third. The king and Necker were fully assured that
such an arrangement could by no means satisfy the nation--that it would
be a mockery of the people which would only exasperate them. They hoped
that these Notables, carefully selected, though from the aristocracy,
would be willing to give ninety-eight of the people at least an equal
voice with two of the aristocracy.
The Abbé Sièyes had written a pamphlet which had produced a profound
impression throughout France. He thus asked, and answered, three
questions: "What is the Third Estate? The whole people. What has it
hitherto been in our form of government? Nothing. What does it want? To
become something."
But the Notables were now alarmed, and a warm discussion ensued between
the advocates of ancient traditions and of national justice. One alone
of the several committees into which the Notables were divided voted
in favor of allowing the people an equal representation with the
privileged classes. Monsieur, afterward Louis XVIII., was chairman of
that committee. When the king was informed of this vote he remarked,
"Let them add my vote: I give it willingly."[80] After a month's
session, the Notables, on the 12th of December, having accomplished
nothing, vanished, to appear no more forever.
The question was still unsettled, and the clamor was growing louder and
more exciting. It was a vital struggle. To give the people an equal
voice was death to aristocratic usurpation. To give the privileged
class two votes, to the people one, hopelessly perpetuated abuses.
The question could only be settled by the authority of the king. On
the 27th of December Necker made a report to the king recommending
that the unprivileged class should send the same number of delegates
as the privileged.[81] In accordance with this report, on the 24th of
January, 1789, the royal edict was issued.[82] The dissatisfaction on
the part of the nobles amounted almost to rebellion. In Brittany the
nobles, who had sent in a strong protest, refused to send any delegates
to the States-General, hoping probably that the nobles and the clergy
generally would follow their example, and that thus the measure might
be frustrated.
But events ran onward like the sweep of ocean tides. Nothing could
retard them. Preparations were made for the elections. Among the people
every man over twenty-five years of age who paid a tax was allowed
to vote.[83] A more sublime spectacle earth has rarely witnessed.
Twenty-five millions of people suddenly gained the right of popular
suffrage. Between five and six millions of votes were cast. The city
of Paris was divided into sixty districts, each of which chose two
electors, and these electors were to choose twenty deputies. The people
were also enjoined to send in a written statement of their grievances,
with instructions to the deputies respecting the reforms which they
wished to have introduced. These statements of grievances, now existing
in thirty-six compact folio volumes, present appalling testimony to the
outrages which the people had for ages been enduring. With propriety,
dignity, and marvelous unanimity of purpose the people assembled at the
polls.[84]
There were a few of the nobles who were in favor of reform. In Provence
the nobility in their provincial parliament protested against the
royal edict, declaring that such innovations as were contemplated
tended to "impair the dignity of the nobility." One of their number,
Count Mirabeau, ventured to remonstrate against this arrogance, and
to advocate the rights of the people. He was a man of extraordinary
genius and courage, and before no mortal or assemblage of mortals could
his eye be compelled to quail. He persisted and stood at bay, the whole
Parliament, in a tumult of rage, assailing him. With amazing powers of
vituperative eloquence he hurled back their denunciations, and glared
upon them fiercely and unconquerably. He was a man of Herculean frame,
with a gigantic head, thickly covered with shaggy locks, and he would
have been an exceedingly handsome man had not his face been horribly
scarred with the small-pox. He was a man of iron nerve and soul, and
knew not what it was to fear any thing. Like most of the noblesse and
the higher clergy, he had lived a dissolute life. The parliamentary
assembly, in a storm of wrath, expelled him from their body. He left
the house, but in departing, in portentous menace, exclaimed:
"In all countries and in all times the aristocrats have implacably
pursued every friend of the people; and with tenfold implacability if
such were himself born of the aristocracy. It was thus that the last
of the Gracchi perished by the hands of the Patricians. But he, being
struck with the mortal stab, flung dust toward heaven and called on the
avenging deities; and from this dust there was born Marius--Marius, not
so illustrious for exterminating the Cimbri, as for overturning in Rome
the tyranny of the nobles."[85]
Mirabeau now threw himself into the arms of the Third Estate. That he
might more perfectly identify himself with them, he hired a shop, it is
said, in Marseilles, and put up his sign--_Mirabeau, Woolen-draper_.
By such influences he was elected deputy by the Third Estate both at
Aix and at Marseilles. With enthusiasm was he elected--with ringing of
bells, booming of cannon, and popular acclaim. He decided to accept
the election of Aix. His measureless audacity was soon called into
requisition to repel the haughtiness of the court.[86]
The nobles had obtained the decision that the people should not be
allowed the secret ballot, but should vote with an audible voice. They
cherished the hope that inferior people so dependent upon the higher
and wealthy classes, would not venture openly to vote in opposition
to the wishes of their superiors.[87] It was thought that the nobles
might thus be able to control the popular election. To render this more
certain, the people, in their primary assemblies, were only to choose
_electors_; and these electors were to choose the delegates. Thus then
was a double chance for intimidation and bribery.
But the people had made progress in intelligence far beyond the
conceptions of the nobles. They had an instinctive perception of
their rights, and, in the presence of their frowning lords, unawed,
yet respectfully, they chose electors who would be true to the
popular cause.[88] Thus the nobles not only failed in introducing
an aristocratic element into the popular branch, but, much to their
chagrin, they found a very powerful popular party thrown into the
order of the clergy.[89] The higher offices in the ecclesiastical
hierarchy, which gave the possessor vast revenue and no labor, were
generally in the hands of nobles, haughty, intolerant, united in all
their sympathies with their brethren of the privileged class. But the
curates, the pastors of the churches, who preached, and visited the
rich, and instructed the children, working hard and living in penury,
came from the firesides of the people. They were familiar with the
sufferings of their parishioners, and their sympathies were warmly with
them. Many of these curates were men of unaffected piety. Nearly every
writer upon the Revolution is compelled to do them justice.[90]
It had been decided that the States-General should consist of twelve
hundred members. The people were consequently to choose six hundred,
and the clergy and nobility six hundred. But, as the three orders held
their elections separately, the two privileged classes were entitled to
three hundred each. Two hundred curates were chosen as representatives
of the clergy. And though these parish ministers were much overawed
by their ecclesiastical superiors, and would hardly venture openly to
vote in contradiction to their wishes, still both nobles and bishops
understood that they were in heart with the people. There was also a
very small minority among the nobles who were advocates of the popular
cause, some from noble impulses, like La Fayette, and some from ignoble
motives, like the Duke of Orleans. Thomas Jefferson, who was at this
time in Paris, wrote four days after the opening of the States-General
to Mr. Jay, "It was imagined the ecclesiastical elections would have
been generally in favor of the higher clergy; on the contrary, the
lower clergy have obtained five sixths of these deputations. These are
the sons of peasants, who have done all the drudgery of the service
for ten, twenty, and thirty guineas a year, and whose oppressions and
penury, contrasted with the pride and luxury of the higher clergy, have
rendered them perfectly disposed to humble the latter."
These facts, and the harmony with which the inexperienced multitude
took this first great step toward national regeneration, excited
throughout aristocratic Europe amazement and alarm. Kings and nobles
alike trembled. All the states of Europe, like France, were oppressed
by feudal despotism. All the people of Europe might, like the French,
demand reform. The formidable aspect which this popular unity of
thought and action presented struck such terror that many of the
leading nobles of France combined, among whom was Count d'Artois,
brother of the king, afterward Charles X., and wrote a menacing letter
to the king, to induce him to break his pledge and forbid the meeting
of the States.[91]
[Illustration: FIRST RIOT IN THE FAUBOURG ST. ANTOINE.]
It was now, however, too late to retract. The train was in motion and
could not be stopped. The meeting had been appointed for the 27th of
April, but was postponed until the 4th of May. Another effort, and one
still more desperate, was now made to prevent the meeting. By bribery,
secret agents, and false rumors, a riot was fomented in Paris. It was
apparently judged that if fifty thousand men could be turned loose
into the streets, starving and without work, to pillage and destroy,
it would authorize the concentration of the army at Paris; the deluded
rioters could be easily shot down, and it could plausibly be affirmed
that public tranquility required the postponement of the meeting of the
States. The mob was roused by secret instigators. Guns were skillfully
placed here and there, which they could seize. Two cart-loads of
paving-stones were placed in their way. For twenty-four hours a
tumultuous mass of people were left to do as they pleased, apparently
waiting for the tumult to gain strength.
But the effort was a failure; it proved but an artificial mob, and
the outbreak almost died of itself. One house, that of M. Reveillon,
was sacked, and the wine-bottles from his cellar distributed through
the streets. At length the soldiers were called in, and at the first
discharge of the guns the riot was quelled. How many were shot down
by the discharge of grapeshot is uncertain. The court made a foolish
endeavor to exaggerate the disturbance, and represented that the people
were ferocious in violence. Others, on the popular side, represented
that multitudes were assembled from curiosity to see what was going
on, that the streets were swept with grapeshot, and that hundreds of
innocent spectators were cut down. M. Bailly, on the contrary, says,
that the rioters fled as soon as the soldiers appeared, and that no one
was injured.
The court did not venture to prosecute inquiries respecting the
outbreak.[92]
The cold winds of winter were now sweeping over France. All the
industrial energies of the nation were paralyzed. The loss of the
harvest had created a general famine, and famine had introduced
pestilence. Men, women, and children, without number, wandered over the
highways, and by a natural instinct flocked to Paris. The inhabitants
of the city looked appalled upon these multitudes, with haggard faces
and in rags, who crowded their pavements. They could not be fed, and
starving men are not willing to lie down tranquilly and die when they
have strong arms to seize that food which the rich can obtain with
money. The eloquent and impassioned writers of the day had fully
unveiled to the nation the abuses which it had for ages endured, and
yet the people, with wonderful patience and long-suffering, were
quietly waiting for the meeting of the _States-General_, as the only
means for the redress of their grievances.
On the 4th of May, 1789, the States-General were convened at
Versailles. The clergy and the nobility appeared, by royal decree,
magnificently attired in purple robes emblazoned with gold, and with
plumed hats. The deputies of the Third Estate were enjoined to present
themselves in plain black cloaks and slouched hats, as the badge of
their inferiority.[93] On Saturday, the 2d of May, the king gave a
reception, in the magnificent audience-chamber of the palace, to the
delegates. When one of the nobles or of the high clergy presented
himself both of the folding doors were thrown open as his name was
announced; but when one of the Third Estate was presented one door
only was thrown back. This studied indignity was of course annoying
to men who were really the most distinguished in the realm, and who
were conscious of their vast superiority to the corrupt and decaying
aristocracy.[94]
[Illustration: THE THREE ORDERS.]
On the Paris Avenue at Versailles there was an immense hall called the
_Salle des Menus_, which no longer exists. It was sufficiently large to
contain the twelve hundred deputies, and in whose spacious galleries
and wide side-aisles four thousand spectators could be assembled.
It was a magnificent hall, and was ornamented for the occasion with
the highest embellishments of art. Here the king could meet all the
deputies of the three orders. But the nobles and the clergy had
already formed the plan still to keep the power in their own hands by
insisting that the States should meet in three separate chambers and
give three separate votes. Thus three hundred nobles and three hundred
clergy would give two votes, and six hundred of the people but one.
This was the last chance for the privileged class to retain their
domination, and this battle they would fight to desperation. The people
were equally determined not to be thus circumvented. The privileged
class, resolved upon the accomplishment of their plan, had prepared
for themselves two smaller halls, one for the nobility and one for the
clergy.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 77: Brienne, in addition to the Archbishopric of Toulouse,
was appointed Archbishop of Sens, and Louis XVI. obtained for him from
Pius VI. a cardinal's hat. The Cardinal of Loménie as he was then
called, subsequently returned to France, where he was arrested, and,
Feb. 19, 1794, was found dead on the floor of his cell, in the 67th
year of his age.--_Enc. Am._]
[Footnote 78: Alison, Hist. of Europe, vol. i., p. 63.]
[Footnote 79: "For, behold, this monstrous twenty-million class,
hitherto the dumb sheep which these others had to agree about
the sheering of, is now also arising with hopes! It has ceased
or is ceasing to be dumb. It speaks through pamphlets. It is
a sheer snowing of pamphlets, like to snow up the government
thoroughfares."--_Carlyle_, vol. i., p. 112.]
[Footnote 80: Labaume, vol. ii., p. 323.
It was supposed that the Count of Provence, afterward Louis XVIII., was
then intriguing to gain popularity, that he might dethrone his brother
and take his place. "Le Comte de Provence," writes Villaumé, "intrigoit
et profitait des fautes du roi, pour se frayer un chemin vers le
trône."--_Hist. de Rev. Fr., par Villaumé_, vol. i., p. 13.]
[Footnote 81: Rapport fait au Roi dans son Conceil, le 27 Décembre,
1788.]
[Footnote 82: The edict convening the States contained the following
sentiments: "We have need of the concourse of our faithful subjects
to aid in surmounting the difficulties arising from the state of the
finances, and establishing, in conformity with our most ardent desire,
a durable order in the parts of government which affect the public
welfare. We wish that the three estates should confer together on the
matters which will be exhibited for their examination. They will make
known to us the wishes and grievances of the people in such a way that,
by a mutual confidence and exchange of kindly offices between the king
and the people, the public evils should, as rapidly as possible, be
remedied.
"For this purpose we enjoin and command that immediately upon the
receipt of this letter, you proceed to elect deputies of the three
orders, worthy of confidence from their virtues and the spirit with
which they are animated; that the deputies should be furnished with
powers and instructions sufficient to enable them to attend to all
the concerns of the state, and introduce such remedies as shall be
deemed advisable for the reform of abuses, and the establishment of a
fixed and durable order in all parts of the government, worthy of the
paternal affections of the king, and of the revolutions of so noble an
assembly."--_Calonne, Etat de la France_, p. 315.]
[Footnote 83: Michelet, vol. i., p. 75.]
[Footnote 84: "I am convinced that those societies (as the Indians)
who live without government, enjoy in their general mass an infinitely
greater degree of happiness than those who live under the European
governments. Among the former public opinion is in the place of
law, and restrains morals as powerfully as laws ever did any where.
Among the latter, under the pretense of governing, they have
divided their nations into two classes--wolves and sheep. I do not
exaggerate."--_Thomas Jefferson. Life by Henry S. Randall_, vol. i., p.
464.]
[Footnote 85: Tils Adoptif, vol. v., p. 256.]
[Footnote 86: Art. Mirabeau, Biographie Moderne.]
[Footnote 87: "The popular assemblies were to vote by acclamation (_à
haute voix_). They did not suppose that inferior people in such a mode
of election, in presence of the nobles and Notables, would possess
sufficient firmness to oppose them--enough assurance to pronounce other
names than those which were dictated to them."--_Michelet_, vol. i., p.
76.]
[Footnote 88: "The long-looked-for has come at last; wondrous news of
victory, deliverance, enfranchisement, sounds magical through every
heart. To the proud strong man it has come whose strong hands shall be
no more gyved. The weary day-drudge has heard of it; the beggar with
his crust moistened in tears. What! to us also has hope reached--down
even to us? Hunger and hardship are not to be eternal? The bread we
extorted from the rugged glebe, and with the toil of our sinews reaped,
and ground, and kneaded into loaves, was not wholly for another then,
but we shall cut of it and be filled?"--_Carlyle_, vol. i., p. 118.]
[Footnote 89: "The prelates and dignified clergy felt the utmost
disquietude at the number of curés and ecclesiastics of inferior rank
who attended them as members of the States-General. It was evident,
from their conversation, habits, and manners, that they participated
in the feelings of the _Tiers Etat_, with whom they lived in constant
communication; and that the unjust exclusion of the middling ranks
from the dignities and emoluments of the Church had excited as much
dissatisfaction in the ecclesiastical classes as the invidious
privileges of the noblesse had awakened in the laity."--_Alison's
History of Europe_, vol. i., p. 68.]
[Footnote 90: Michelet, vol. i., p. 77. Desodoards, vol. i., p. 135.
Rabaud, vol. i., p. 41. De Tocqueville, Old Régime, vol. i., p. 144.]
[Footnote 91: Michelet, vol. i., p. 78. Mémoire présenté au Roi par
Monseigneur Compte d'Artois (Charles X.), M. le Prince de Condé, M. le
Duc de Bourbon, M. le Duc d'Enghien, et M. le Prince de Conti.]
[Footnote 92: It has been denied that the nobles were guilty of this
act. For proof see Mémoires de Bensenval, tome ii., p. 347; L'OEuvre
des Sept Jours, p. 411; Exposé Justificatif; Bailly's Mémoires,
tome ii., p. 51. M. Rabaud de St. Etienne writes: "If the agents of
despotism devised this infernal stratagem, as was afterward believed,
it makes one crime more to be added to all those of which despotism had
already become guilty."]
[Footnote 93: "A hall had been hastily got ready; the costumes were
determined upon, and a humiliating badge had been imposed upon the
_Tiers Etat_. Men are not less jealous of their dignity than of their
rights. With a very just pride the instructions forbade the deputies to
condescend to any degrading ceremonial."--_Thiers_, vol. i., p. 35.]
[Footnote 94: M. Rabaud de St. Etienne, vol. i., p. 43.]