THE LICHEN DYES
Some of the most useful dyes and the least known are to be found among
the Lichens. They seem to have been used among peasant dyers from
remote ages, but apparently none of the great French dyers used them,
nor are they mentioned in any of the old books on dyeing. The only
Lichen dyes that are known generally among dyers are Orchil and
Cudbear, and these are preparations of lichens, not the lichens
themselves. They are still used in some quantity and are prepared
rather elaborately. But a great many of the ordinary Lichens yield
very good and permanent dyes. The Parmelia saxatilis and P.
omphaloides, are largely used in the Highlands & West Ireland, for
dyeing brown of all shades. No mordant is needed, and the colours
produced are the fastest known. "Crottle," is the general name for
Lichens, in Scotland. They are gathered off the rocks in July and
August, dried in the sun, and used to dye wool, without any
preparation. The crottle is put into the dye bath with a sufficient
quantity of water, boiled up and allowed to cool and then boiled up
with the wool until the shade required is got. This may take from one
to three or four hours, as the dye is not rapidly taken up by the
wool. Other dyers use it in the following way:--A layer of crottle, a
layer of wool, and so on until the bath is full; fill up with cold
water and bring to the boil, and boil till the colour is deep enough.
Some of the finest browns are got in this way. The wool does not seem
to be affected by keeping it in the dye a long time. A small quantity
of acetic acid put in with the Lichen is said to assist in exhausting
the colour.
The grey Lichen _Ramalina scopulorum_, dyes a fine shade of yellow
brown. It grows very plentifully on old stone walls, especially by the
sea, and in damp woods, on trees, and on old rotten wood. Boil the
Lichen up in sufficient water one day, and the next day put in the
wool, and boil up again till the right colour is got. If the wool is
left in the dye for a day or more after boiling, it absorbs more
colour, and it does not hurt the wool, but leaves it soft and silky to
the touch, though apt to be uneven in colour. Some mordant the wool
first with alum, but it does not seem to need it.
The best known of the dye Lichens are Parmelia saxatilis, and Parmelia
omphalodes, which are still largely used in Scotland and Ireland for
dyeing wool for tweeds. The well known Harris tweed smell is partly
due to the use of this dye.
Other Lichens also known for their dyeing properties are:--Parmelia
caperata or Stone Crottle which contains a yellow dye, P.
ceratophylla, or Dark Crottle, and P. parietina, the common wall
lichen, which gives a colour similar to the colour of the lichen
itself, yellowish brown. In _Bancroft's_ "Philosophy of Permanent
Colours" is to be found the following--"Besides the lichens, whose
colour depends upon a combination with the ammonia, there are some
which afford substantive colours, less beautiful indeed, but more
durable, by merely boiling with water. One of these is the muscus
pulmonarius of Caspar Bauhine, or the lichenoides pulmonium
reticulatum vulgare marginibus peltiferus of Dillenius, called Rags
and Stone Rags, in the northern parts of England, which, without any
mordant, dyes a very durable dark brown colour upon white wool or
cloth, and a fine lasting black upon wool or cloth which has
previously received a dark blue from Indigo." The following occurs in
an old Scottish history.--"There is one excresence gotton off the
craigs which they call cork-lit, and make use thereof for litting, or
dyeing a kind of purple colour." Another lichen, taken from trees in
Scotland, was used for producing an orange tint, called Philamort. The
tree lichen was called wood-raw, or rags, to distinguish it from stone
lichen, or stone-raw. A deep red colour was got from the dull grey
friable lichen, common on old stone walls, which was scraped off, with
a metal scraper. The bright yellow lichen, growing on rocks and walls,
and old roofs, dyes a fine plum colour, if the wool is mordanted first
with Bichromate of Potash. There is a difficulty, however, in getting
enough of this lichen to make the dyeing with it practicable.
The colour of the plant is no indication of the colorific power. That
is often greatly modified by the conditions of its growth,--such as
climate, elevation above the sea, nearness or distance from the sea,
age, season when gathered, habitat. The best season for gathering most
lichens, is late summer and autumn.
In Sweden, Scotland and other countries, the peasantry use a lichen,
called _Lecanora tartarea_, to furnish a red or crimson dye.
In Shetland, the _Parmelia saxatilis_ (Scrottyie) is used to dye
brown. It is found in abundance on argillaceous rocks. It is
considered best if gathered late in the year, and is generally
collected in August. Immediately after being collected, an iron vessel
is filled with it, and stale urine then poured over it, till the
vessel is full. This is slowly boiled until the plant begins to assume
a mucillaginous appearance, which generally takes place in about 2
hours. When taken off the fire, it has the consistence of a thin
jelly, but it speedily hardens until it is nearly as thick as
porridge, and its colour becomes a dark rusty grey. It is then folded
in the cloth, layer by layer of Scrottyie and cloth alternately, and
all is boiled for about 20 minutes, in soft water, in which a little
alum has been dissolved. It is then taken off the fire and the cloth
washed in cold water, when the process of dyeing is complete. The
Scrottyie, taken from between the folds of the cloth, is used several
times for dyeing, on being treated again in the same manner.
The plant used in Shetland for the red dye is the _Lecanora tartarea_.
It is found abundantly on almost all rocks and also grows on dry
moors, along with _Cladonia sangiferina_. (If a particle of the latter
is allowed to be intermixed with the dye, it is supposed to be
spoiled.) The lichen, and the dye made from it, are called Korkalett.
This lichen is collected in May and June, and steeped in stale urine
for about 3 weeks, being kept at a moderate heat all the time. The
substance having then a thick and strong texture, like bread, and
being of a bluish black colour, is taken out and made into small cakes
of about ¾ lb. in weight, which are wrapped in dock leaves and hung up
to dry in peat smoke. When dry it may be preserved fit for use for
many years; when wanted for dyeing it is partially dissolved in warm
water till of the consistence of Scrottyie, the dyeing proceeds in the
same manner; 5 lbs. of korkalett being considered sufficient for about
4 Scotch ells of cloth. The colour produced is a light red. It is
much used in the dyeing of yarn as well as cloth. The yarn is simply
boiled in it without folding as in the case of cloth.[6]
Linnæus mentions that a beautiful red colour may be prepared from
Lichen pustulatus, _Gyrophora pustulata_. _G. cylindrica_ is used by
Icelanders for dyeing woollen stuffs a brownish green colour. In
Sweden and Norway, _Evernia vulpina_ is used for dyeing woollen stuffs
yellow. Iceland moss, _Cetraria Islandica_, is used in Iceland for
dyeing brown. _Usnea barbata_ is collected from trees in Pennsylvania
& used for an orange colour for yarn.
_Lecanora tartarea_ (corcur of the Scottish Highlanders) dyes a
claret. It is usually prepared by pounding the lichen and mixing it
with stale chamberley, to which a little salt or kelp is added; this
mixture is kept for several weeks, and frequently stirred; being then
brought to the consistence of coarse paste, it is made up into balls,
with a little lime or burnt shells, and is kept ready for use. When
used, it is coarsely powdered and a small portion of alum is generally
added.
A general method for using lichens is suggested by Dr. Westring of
Sweden, in his "Experiments on Lichens for Dyeing Wools and Silks." He
says:
"The Lichens should be gathered after some days of rain, they can then
be more easily detached from the rocks. They should be well washed,
dried and reduced to a fine powder: 25 parts pure river water are
added to 1 of powdered lichen, and 1 part of fresh quick lime to 10
parts powdered lichen. To 10 lbs. lichen ½ lb. sal ammoniac is
sufficient when lime and sal ammoniac are used together. The vessel
containing them should be kept covered for the first 2 or 3 days.
Sometimes the addition of a little common salt or salt-petre will give
greater lustre to the colours."[7]
This method can be followed by anyone wishing to experiment with
Lichens. Dr. Westring did not use a mordant as a rule. Where the same
species of Lichen grows on both rocks and trees, the specimens taken
from rocks give the better colours.
ORCHIL OR ARCHIL AND CUDBEAR are substantive or non mordant dyes,
obtained from Lichens of various species of Roccella growing on rocks
in the Canary Islands and other tropical and sub-tropical countries.
They used to be made in certain parts of Great Britain from various
lichens, but the manufacture of these has almost entirely disappeared.
They have been known from early times as dyes. They give beautiful
purples and reds, but the colour is not very fast. The dye is produced
by the action of ammonia and oxygen upon the crushed Lichens or weeds
as they are called. The early way of producing the colour was by
treating the Lichen with stale urine and slaked lime, and this method
was followed in Scotland. Orchil is applied to wool by the simple
process of boiling it in a neutral or slightly acid solution of the
colouring matter. 3% Sulphuric acid is a useful combination.
Sometimes alum and tartar are used. It dyes slowly and evenly. It is
used as a bottom for Indigo on wool and also for compound shades on
wool and silk. For cotton and linen dyeing it is not used. It is
rarely used by itself as the colour is fugitive, but by using a
mordant of tin, the colour is made much more permanent.
"Archil is in general a very useful ingredient in dyeing; but as it is
rich in colour, and communicates an alluring bloom, dyers are often
tempted to abuse it, and to exceed the proportions that can add to the
beauty, without, at the same time, injuring in a dangerous manner the
permanence of the colours. Nevertheless, the colour obtained when
solution of tin is employed, is less fugitive than without this
addition."[8]
Many of the British lichens produce colours by the same treatment as
is used for producing Orchil. Large quantities were manufactured in
Scotland from lichens gathered in the Shetland Islands and Western
Highlands. This was called Cudbear. The species used by the Scottish
Cudbear makers were generally _Lecanora tartarea_ and _Urceolaria
calcarea_; but the following lichens also give the purple colour on
treatment with ammonia.--_Evernia prunastri_, _Lecanora pallescens_,
_Umbilicaria vellea_, _U. pustulata_, _Parmelia perlata_; whilst
several others give colours of similar character, but of little
commercial value. The manufacture of Archil and Cudbear from the
various lichens is simple in principle. In all cases the plant is
reduced to a pulp with water and ammonia, and the mass kept at a
moderate heat and allowed to ferment, the process taking two or three
weeks to complete. The ammonia used to be added in the form of stale
urine, and additions of slaked lime were made from time to time.[9]
The general mode of treatment for the development from the dye lichens
of orchil and cudbear consists of the following steps:--
1.--Careful washing, drying and cleaning, to separate
earthy and other impurities.
2.--Pulverisation into a coarse or fine pulp with water.
3.--Regulated addition of ammonia of a certain strength
and derived from various sources (putrid urine, gas
liquor, etc.)
4.--Frequent stirring of the fermenting mass so as to
ensure full exposure of every part thereof to the action
of atmospheric oxygen.
5.--Addition of alkalis in some cases (e.g. potash or
soda) to heighten or modify the colour; and of chalk,
gypsum and other substances, to impart consistence.
Various accessories are employed, e.g. the application of
continued, moderate and carefully regulated heat during
the process of fermentation.[10]
RECIPES FOR DYEING WITH LICHENS.
_To dye Brown with Crotal._
For 6¼ lbs. (100 oz.) of wool. Dye baths may be used of varying
strengths of from 10 to 50 oz. of Crotal. Raise the bath to the boil,
and boil for an hour. A light tan shade is got by first dipping the
wool in a strong solution of Crotal, a darker shade by boiling for
half-an-hour, and a dark brown by boiling for two hours or so. It is
better, however, to get the shade by altering the quantity of Crotal
used. The addition of sufficient oil of vitriol to make the bath
slightly acid will be an improvement. (A very small quantity should be
used).
_To Dye Red with Crotal._--
Gather the lichen off the rocks--it is best in winter. Put layers of
lichen and wool alternately in a pot, fill up with water and boil
until you get the desired tint. Too much crotal will make the wool a
dark red brown, but a very pretty terra cotta red can be got. No
mordant is required.
_To Dye Pink from a bright yellow Lichen._ (_Parmelia parietina_).
Mordant the wool with 3% of Bichromate of Potash, then boil with the
lichen for 1 hour or more.
_To Dye Brown from Crotal._
Boil the wool with an equal quantity of lichen for 1 or 1½ hours. No
mordant is required.
_To dye red purple from Cudbear & Logwood._
Dye with equal quantities of Cudbear and Logwood, the wool having been
mordanted with chrome. A lighter colour is got by dyeing with 8 lbs.
cudbear and ½ lb. logwood (for 30 lbs. wool).
_To Dye Yellow on Linen with the Lichen Peltigera canina_ (a large
flat lichen growing on rocks in woods).
Mordant with alum, (¼ lb. to a lb. of linen) boil for 2 hours. Then
boil up with sufficient quantity of the lichen till the desired colour
is got.
LIST OF LICHENS USED BY THE PEASANTRY OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES FOR WOOL
DYEING.[11]
SHADES OF RED, PURPLE AND ORANGE.
_Roccella tinctoria._ Orseille. Grows in the South of France, on rocks
by the sea.
_Lecanora tartarea._ Crotal, Crottle, Corkur, Corcir, Korkir. Found in
the Scotch Highlands and Islands, growing on rocks; used for the
manufacture of Cudbear in Leith & Glasgow.
_L. parella._ Light Crottle, Crabs Eye Lichen. Found in Scotland,
France, and England, on rocks and trees, formerly celebrated in the
South of France in the making of the dye called Orseille d'Auvergne.
_L. hæmatomma._--Bloody spotted lecanora, Black lecanora. Found in
Scotland on rocks and trees.
_Umbilicaria pustulata._--Blistered umbilicaria. Found on rocks in
Norway and Sweden.
_Isidium corallinum._ White crottle. Found on rocks in Scotland.
_I. Westringii._ Westring's Isidium. Norway and Sweden.
_Urceolaria calcarea._ Corkir, Limestone Urceolaria. Found in
Scotland, Western Islands, Shetland and Wales, growing on limestone
rocks.
_U. Scruposa._ Rock Urceolaria. Grows on rocks in hilly districts in
England.
_U. cinerea._ Greyish Urceolaria. In England, on rocks.
_Parmelia saxatilis._ Crottle, stane-raw, Staney-raw, (Scotland).
Scrottyie, (Shetland). Sten-laf, Sten-mossa, (Norway and Sweden).
Found on rocks and stones in Scotland, Shetland, and Scandinavia. In
winter the Swedish peasantry wear home made garments dyed purple by
this lichen. By the Shetlanders it is usually collected in August,
when it is considered richest in colouring matter.
_P. omphalodes._ Black Crottle, Cork, Corker, Crostil or Crostal,
(Scotch Highlands). Arcel, (Ireland). Kenkerig, (Wales).
Alaforel-leaf, (Sweden). Found on rocks, especially Alpine, in
Scotland, Ireland, Wales and Scandinavia. One of the most extensively
used dye-lichens. It yields a dark brown dye readily to boiling water,
and it is easily fixed to yarns by simple mordants. It is stated to
yield a red, crimson or purple dye.
_P. caperata._ Stone crottle, Arcel. Found in North of Ireland and
Isle of Man, on trees. Said to dye yarn brown, orange and lemon
yellow.
_P. conspersa._ Sprinkled parmelia. Found growing on rocks in England.
_Evernia prunastri._ Ragged hoary lichen. Stag's horn lichen. Found in
Scotland, on trees.
_Ramalina scopulorum._ Ivory-like ramalina. Scotland, on maritime
rocks. A red dye.
_R. farinacea._ Mealy ramalina. On trees in England.
_Borrera ashney._ Chutcheleera. India.
_Solorina crocea._ Saffron yellow solorina. In Scotland, on mountain
summits. The colouring matter is ready formed and abundant in the
thallus.
_Nephroma parilis._ Chocolate colored nephroma. Scotland, on stones.
Said to dye blue.
_Sticta pulmonacea._ On trees.
_Lecidea sanguinaria._ Red fruited lecidea. In Scotland, on rocks.
_Conicularia aculeata._ var. _spadicea_. Brown prickly cornicularia.
Canary Islands, Highland Mountains.
_Usnea barbata._ Bearded Usnea. Pennsylvania and South America. On old
trees. Stated to dye yarn orange.
_U. florida._ Flowering Usnea. Pale greenish yellow or reddish brown.
_U. plicata._ Plaited usnea. On trees.
SHADES OF BROWN
_Cetraria Islandica._ Iceland moss. Iceland heaths, and hills. It
yields a good brown to boiling water, but this dye appears only to
have been made available to the Icelanders.
_Parmelia physoides._ Dark crottle, Bjork-laf. Found in Sweden,
Scotland & Scandinavia, on rocks and trees.
_P. omphalodes._ In Scandinavia and Scotland. Withering asserts that
it yields a purple dye paler, but more permanent, than orchil; which
is prepared in Iceland by steeping in stale lye, adding a little salt
and making it up into balls with lime.
_Sticta pulmonacea._ Oak lung, Lungwort, Aikraw, Hazel-raw, Oak rag,
Hazel rag, Hazel crottle, Rags. Found on trees in England, Scotland,
North of Ireland, Scandinavia. It dyes wool orange and is said to have
been used by the Herefordshire peasantry to dye stockings brown. Some
species yield beautiful saffron or gamboge coloured dyes, e.g. _S.
flava_, _crocata_, _aurata_.
_For continuation of list see Appendix._
FOOTNOTES:
[6] T. Edmonston. _On the Native Dyes of the Shetland Islands_ 1841.
[7] The _Annales de Chimie_. Stockholm Transactions 1792.
[8] The Art of Dyeing. _Berthollet._ He gives minute directions for
the preparation of Archil. See page 365.
[9] Some British Dye Lichens. _Alfred Edge._
[10] From Dr. W. L. Lindsay, On Dyeing Properties of Lichens.
[11] From an article by Dr. Lauder Lindsay on the "Dyeing Properties
of Lichens," in the _Edinburgh Philosophical Journal._ July to October
1855.