duties of our indefatigable colleague, I should have to show him to you
on board the English fleet, at the instant of the capitulation of Menou,
stipulating for certain guarantees in favour of the members of the
Institute of Egypt; but services of no less importance and of a
different nature demand also our attention. They will even compel us to
retrace our steps, to ascend even to the epoch of glorious memory when
Desaix achieved the conquest of Upper Egypt, as much by the sagacity,
the moderation, and the inflexible justice of all his acts, as by the
rapidity and boldness of his military operations. Bonaparte then
appointed two numerous commissions to proceed to explore in those remote
regions, a multitude of monuments of which the moderns hardly suspected
the existence. Fourier and Costas were the commandants of these
commissions; I say the commandants, for a sufficiently imposing military
force had been assigned to them; since it was frequently after a combat
with the wandering tribes of Arabs that the astronomer found in the
movements of the heavenly bodies the elements of a future geographical
map; that the naturalist collected unknown plants, determined the
geological constitution of the soil, occupied himself with troublesome
dissections; that the antiquary measured the dimensions of edifices,
that he attempted to take a faithful sketch of the fantastic images with
which every thing was covered in that singular country,--from the
smallest pieces of furniture, from the simple toys of children, to those
prodigious palaces, to those immense façades, beside which the vastest
of modern constructions would hardly attract a look.
The two learned commissions studied with scrupulous care the magnificent
temple of the ancient Tentyris, and especially the series of
astronomical signs which have excited in our days such lively
discussions; the remarkable monuments of the mysterious and sacred Isle
of Elephantine; the ruins of Thebes, with her hundred gates, before
which (and yet they are nothing but ruins) our whole army halted, in a
state of astonishment, to applaud.
Fourier also presided in Upper Egypt over these memorable works, when
the Commander-in-Chief suddenly quitted Alexandria and returned to
France with his principal friends. Those persons then were very much
mistaken who, upon not finding our colleague on board the frigate
_Muiron_ beside Monge and Berthollet, imagined that Bonaparte did not
appreciate his eminent qualities. If Fourier was not a passenger, this
arose from the circumstance of his having been a hundred leagues from
the Mediterranean when the _Muiron_ set sail. The explanation contains
nothing striking, but it is true. In any case, the friendly feeling of
Kléber towards the Secretary of the Institute of Egypt, the influence
which he justly granted to him on a multitude of delicate occasions,
amply compensated him for an unjust omission.
I arrive, Gentlemen, at the epoch so suggestive of painful
recollections, when the _Agas_ of the Janissaries who had fled into
Syria, having despaired of vanquishing our troops so admirably
commanded, by the honourable arms of the soldier, had recourse to the
dagger of the assassin. You are aware that a young fanatic, whose
imagination had been wrought up to a high state of excitement in the
mosques by a month of prayers and abstinence, aimed a mortal blow at the
hero of Heliopolis at the instant when he was listening, without
suspicion, and with his usual kindness, to a recital of pretended
grievances, and was promising redress.
This sad misfortune plunged our colony into profound grief. The
Egyptians themselves mingled their tears with those of the French
soldiers. By a delicacy of feeling which we should be wrong in supposing
the Mahometans not to be capable of, they did not then omit, they have
not since omitted, to remark, that the assassin and his three
accomplices were not born on the banks of the Nile.
The army, to mitigate its grief, desired that the funeral of Kléber
should be celebrated with great pomp. It wished, also, that on that
solemn day, some person should recount the long series of brilliant
actions which will transmit the name of the illustrious general to the
remotest posterity. By unanimous consent this honourable and perilous
mission was confided to Fourier.
There are very few individuals, Gentlemen, who have not seen the
brilliant dreams of their youth wrecked one after the other against the
sad realities of mature age. Fourier was one of those few exceptions.
In effect, transport yourselves mentally back to the year 1789, and
consider what would be the future prospects of the humble convert of St.
Benoît-sur-Loire. No doubt a small share of literary glory; the favour
of being heard occasionally in the churches of the metropolis; the
satisfaction of being appointed to eulogize such or such a public
personage. Well! nine years have hardly passed and you find him at the
head of the Institute of Egypt, and he is the oracle, the idol of a
society which counted among its members Bonaparte, Berthollet, Monge,
Malus, Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, Conté, &c.; and the generals rely upon
him for overcoming apparently insurmountable difficulties, and the army
of the East, itself so rich in adornments of all kinds, would desire no
other interpreter when it is necessary to recount the lofty deeds of the
hero which it had just lost.
It was upon the breach of a bastion which our troops had recently taken
by assault, in sight of the most majestic of rivers, of the magnificent
valley which it fertilizes, of the frightful desert of Lybia, of the
colossal pyramids of Gizeh; it was in presence of twenty populations of
different origins which Cairo unites together in its vast basin; in
presence of the most valiant soldiers that had ever set foot on a land,
wherein, however, the names of Alexander and of Cæsar still resound; it
was in the midst of every thing which could move the heart, excite the
ideas, or exalt the imagination, that Fourier unfolded the noble life of
Kléber. The orator was listened to with religious silence; but soon,
addressing himself with a gesture of his hand to the soldiers ranged in
battle array before him, he exclaims: "Ah! how many of you would have
aspired to the honour of throwing yourselves between Kléber and his
assassin! I call you to witness, intrepid cavalry, who rushed to save
him upon the heights of Koraïm, and dispelled in an instant the
multitude of enemies who had surrounded him!" At these words an electric
tremor thrills throughout the whole army, the colours droop, the ranks
close, the arms come into collision, a deep sigh escapes from some ten
thousand breasts torn by the sabre and the bullet, and the voice of the
orator is drowned amid sobs.
A few months after, upon the same bastion, before the same soldiers,
Fourier celebrated with no less eloquence the exploits, the virtues of
the general whom the people conquered in Africa saluted with the name so
flattering of _Just Sultan_; and who sacrificed his life at Marengo to
secure the triumph of the French arms.
Fourier quitted Egypt only with the last wreck of the army, in virtue of
the capitulation signed by Menou. On his return to France, the object of
his most constant solicitude was to illustrate the memorable expedition
of which he had been one of the most active and most useful members. The
idea of collecting together the varied labours of all his colleagues
incontestibly belongs to him. I find the proof of this in a letter,
still unpublished, which he wrote to Kléber from Thebes, on the 20th
Vendémiaire, in the year VII. No public act, in which mention is made of
this great literary monument, is of an earlier date. The Institute of
Cairo having adopted the project of a _work upon Egypt_ as early as the
month of Frimaire, in the year VIII., confided to Fourier the task of
uniting together the scattered elements of it, of making them consistent
with each other, and drawing up the general introduction.
This introduction was published under the title of _Historical Preface_:
Fontanes saw in it the graces of Athens and the wisdom of Egypt united
together. What could I add to such an eulogium? I shall say only that
there are to be found there, in a few pages, the principal features of
the government of the Pharaohs, and the results of the subjection of
ancient Egypt by the kings of Persia, the Ptolemies, the successors of
Augustus, the emperors of Byzantium, the first Caliphs, the celebrated
Saladin, the Mamelukes and the Ottoman princes. The different phases of
our adventurous expedition are there characterized with the greatest
care. Fourier carries his scruples to so great a length as _to attempt_
to prove that it was just. I have said only so far as _to attempt_, for
in that case there might have been something to deduct from the second
part of the eulogium of Fontanes. If, in 1797, our countryman
experienced at Cairo, or at Alexandria, outrages and extortions which
the Grand Seignior either would not or could not repress, one may in all
rigour admit that France ought to have exacted justice to herself; that
she had the right to send a powerful army to bring the Turkish
Custom-house officers to reason. But this is far from maintaining that
the divan of Constantinople ought to have favoured the French
expedition; that our conquest was about to restore to him, _in some
sort_, Egypt and Syria; that the capture of Alexandria and the battle of
the _Pyramids would enhance the lustre of the Ottoman name_! However,
the public hastened to acquit Fourier of what appears hazarded in this
small part of his beautiful work. The origin of it has been sought for
in political exigencies. Let us be brief; behind certain sophisms the
hand of the original Commander-in-Chief of the army of the East was
suspected to be seen!
Napoleon, then, would appear to have participated by his instructions,
by his counsels, or, if we choose, by his imperative orders, in the
composition of the essay of Fourier. What was not long ago nothing more
than a plausible conjecture, has now become an incontestable fact.
Thanks to the courtesy of M. Champollion-Figeac, I held in my hands,
within the last few days, some parts of the first _proof sheets_ of the
historical preface. These proofs were sent to the Emperor, who wished to
make himself acquainted with them at leisure before reading them with
Fourier. They are covered with marginal notes, and the additions which
they have occasioned amount to almost a third of the original discourse.
Upon these pages, as in the definitive work given to the public, one
remarks a complete absence of proper names; the only exception is in the
case of the three Generals-in-Chief. Thus Fourier had imposed upon
himself the reserve which certain vanities have blamed so severely. I
shall add that nowhere throughout the precious proof sheets of M.
Champollion do we perceive traces of the miserable feelings of jealousy
which have been attributed to Napoleon. It is true that upon pointing
out with his finger the word illustrious applied to Kléber, the Emperor
said to our colleague: "SOME ONE has directed my attention to
THIS EPITHET;" but, after a short pause, he added, "it is
desirable that you should leave it, for it is just and well deserved."
These words, Gentlemen, honoured the monarch still less than they
branded with disgrace the _some one_ whom I regret not being able to
designate in more definite terms,--one of those vile courtiers whose
whole life is occupied in spying out the frailties, the evil passions of
their masters, in order to make them subservient in conducting
themselves to honours and fortune!
FOURIER PREFECT OF L'ISÈRE.
Fourier had no sooner returned to Europe, than he was named (January 2,
1802) Prefect of the Department of l'Isère. The Ancient Dauphiny was
then a prey to ardent political dissensions. The republicans, the
partisans of the emigrants, those who had ranged themselves under the
banners of the consular government, formed so many distinct castes,
between whom all reconciliation appeared impossible. Well, Gentlemen,
this impossibility Fourier achieved. His first care was to cause the
Hôtel of the Prefecture to be considered as a neutral ground, where each
might show himself without even the appearance of a concession.
Curiosity alone at first brought the people there, but the people
returned; for in France they seldom desert the saloons wherein are to be
found a polished and benevolent host, witty without being ridiculous,
and learned without being pedantic. What had been divulged of the
opinions of our colleague, respecting the anti-biblican antiquity of the
Egyptian monuments, inspired the religious classes especially with
lively apprehensions; they were very adroitly informed that the new
prefect counted a _Saint_ in his family; that the _blessed_ Pierre
Fourier, who established the religious sisters of the congregation of
Notre-Dame, was his grand uncle, and this circumstance effected a
reconciliation which the unalterable respect of the first magistrate of
Grenoble for all conscientious opinions cemented every day more and
more.
As soon as he was assured of a truce with the political and religious
parties, Fourier was enabled to devote himself exclusively to the duties
of his office. These duties did not consist with him in heaping up old
papers to no advantage. He took personal cognizance of the projects
which were submitted to him; he was the indefatigable promoter of all
those which narrow-minded persons sought to stifle in their birth; we
may include in this last class, the superb road from Grenoble to Turin
by Mount Genèvre, which the events of 1814 have so unfortunately
interrupted, and especially the drainage of the marshes of Bourgoin.
These marshes, which Louis XIV. had given to Marshal Turenne, were a
focus of infection to the thirty-seven communes, the lands of which were
partially covered by them. Fourier directed personally the topographic
operations which established the possibility of drainage. With these
documents in his hand he went from village to village, I might almost
say from house to house, to fix the sacrifice which each family ought to
impose upon itself for the general interest. By tact and perseverance,
taking "the _ear of corn always in the right direction_," thirty-seven
municipal councils were induced to contribute to a common fund, without
which the projected operation would not even have been commenced.
Success crowned this rare perseverance. Rich harvests, fat pastures,
numerous flocks, a robust and happy population now covered an immense
territory, where formerly the traveller dared not remain more than a few
hours.
One of the predecessors of Fourier, in the situation of perpetual
secretary of the Academy of Sciences, deemed it his duty, on one
occasion, to beg an excuse for having given a detailed account of
certain researches of Leibnitz, which had not required great efforts of
the intellect: "We ought," says he, "to be very much obliged to a man
such as he is, when he condescends, for the public good, to do something
which does not partake of genius!" I cannot conceive the ground of such
scruples; in the present day, the sciences are regarded from too high a
point of view, that we should hesitate in placing in the first rank of
the labours with which they are adorned, those which diffuse comfort,
health, and happiness amidst the working population.
In presence of a part of the Academy of Inscriptions, in an apartment
wherein the name of hieroglyph has so often resounded, I cannot refrain
from alluding to the service which Fourier rendered to science by
retaining Champollion. The young professor of history of the Faculty of
Letters of Grenoble had just attained the twentieth year of his age.
Fate calls him to shoulder the musket. Fourier exempts him by investing
him with the title of pupil of the School of Oriental Languages which he
had borne at Paris. The Minister of War learns that the pupil formerly
gave in his resignation; he denounces the fraud, and dispatches a
peremptory order for his departure, which seems even to exclude all idea
of remonstrance. Fourier, however, is not discouraged; his intercessions
are skilful and of a pressing nature; finally, he draws so animated a
portrait of the precocious talent of _his young friend_, that he
succeeds in wringing from the government an order of special exemption.
It was not easy, Gentlemen, to obtain such success. At the same time, a
conscript, a _member of our Academy_, succeeded in obtaining a
revocation of his order for departure only by declaring that he would
follow on foot, in the costume of the Institute, the contingent of the
arrondissement of Paris in which he was classed.
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF HEAT.
The administrative duties of the prefect of l'Isère hardly interrupted
the labours of the geometer and the man of letters. It is from Grenoble
that the principal writings of Fourier are dated; it was at Grenoble
that he composed the _Théorie Mathématique de la Chaleur_, which forms
his principal title to the gratitude of the scientific world.
I am far from being unconscious of the difficulty of analyzing that
admirable work, and yet I shall attempt to point out the successive
steps which he has achieved in the advancement of science. You will
listen to me, Gentlemen, with indulgence, notwithstanding several minute
details which I shall have to recount, since I thereby fulfil the
mission with which you have honoured me.
The ancients had a taste, let us say rather a passion, for the
marvellous, which caused them to forget even the sacred duties of
gratitude. Observe them, for example, grouping together the lofty deeds
of a great number of heroes, whose names they have not even deigned to
preserve, and investing the single personage of Hercules with them. The
lapse of ages has not rendered us wiser in this respect. In our own time
the public delight in blending fable with history. In every career of
life, in the pursuit of science especially, they enjoy a pleasure in
creating Herculeses. According to vulgar opinion, there is no
astronomical discovery which is not due to Herschel. The theory of the
planetary movements is identified with the name of Laplace; hardly is a
passing allusion made to the eminent labours of D'Alembert, of Clairaut,
of Euler, of Lagrange. Watt is the sole inventor of the steam-engine.
Chaptal has enriched the arts of Chemistry with the totality of the
fertile and ingenious processes which constitute their prosperity. Even
within this apartment has not an eloquent voice lately asserted, that
before Fourier the phenomenon of heat was hardly studied; that the
celebrated geometer had alone made more observations than all his
predecessors put together; that he had with almost a single effort
invented a new science.
Although he runs the risk of being less lively, the organ of the Academy
of Sciences cannot permit himself such bursts of enthusiasm. He ought to
bear in mind, that the object of these solemnities is not merely to
celebrate the discoveries of academicians; that they are also designed
to encourage modest merit; that an observer forgotten by his
contemporaries, is frequently supported in his laborious researches by
the thought that he will obtain a benevolent look from posterity. Let us
act, so far as it depends upon us, in such a manner that a hope so just,
so natural, may not be frustrated. Let us award a just, a brilliant
homage to those rare men whom nature has endowed with the precious
privilege of arranging a thousand isolated facts, of making seductive
theories spring from them; but let us not forget to state, that the
scythe of the reaper had cut the stalks before one had thought of
uniting them into sheaves!
Heat presents itself in natural phenomena, and in those which are the
products of art under two entirely distinct forms, which Fourier has
separately considered. I shall adopt the same division, commencing
however with radiant heat, the historical analysis which I am about to
submit to you.
Nobody doubts that there is a physical distinction which is eminently
worthy of being studied between the ball of iron at the ordinary
temperature which may be handled at pleasure, and the ball of iron of
the same dimensions which the flame of a furnace has very much heated,
and which we cannot touch without burning ourselves. This distinction,
according to the majority of physical inquirers, arises from a certain
quantity of an elastic imponderable fluid, or at least a fluid which has
not been weighed, with which the second ball has combined during the
process of heating. The fluid which, upon combining with cold bodies
renders them hot, has been designated by the name of _heat_ or
_caloric_.
Bodies unequally heated act upon each other _even at great distances,
even through empty space_, for the colder becomes more hot, and the
hotter becomes more cold; for after a certain time they indicate the
same degree of the thermometer, whatever may have been the difference of
their original temperatures. According to the hypotheses above
explained, there is but one way of conceiving this action at a distance;
this is to suppose that it operates by the aid of certain effluvia which
traverse space by passing from the hot body to the cold body; that is,
to admit that a hot body emits in every direction rays of heat, as
luminous bodies emit rays of light.
The effluvia, the radiating emanations by the aid of which two distant
bodies form a calorific communication with each other, have been very
appropriately designated by the name of _radiating caloric_.
Whatever may be said to the contrary, radiating heat had already been
the object of important experiments before Fourier undertook his
labours. The celebrated academicians of the _Cimento_ found, nearly two
centuries ago, that this heat is reflected like light; that, as in the
case of light, a concave mirror concentrates it at the focus. Upon
substituting balls of snow for heated bodies, they even went so far as
to prove that frigorific foci may be formed by way of reflection. Some
years afterwards Mariotte, a member of this Academy, discovered that
there exist different kinds of radiating heat; that the heat with which
rays of light are accompanied traverses all transparent media as easily
as light does; while, again, the caloric which emanates from a strongly
heated, but opaque substance, while the rays of heat, which are found
mingled with the luminous rays of a body moderately incandescent, are
almost entirely arrested in their passage through the most transparent
plate of glass!
This striking discovery, let us remark in passing, will show,
notwithstanding the ridicule of pretended savans, how happily inspired
were the workmen in founderies, who looked at the incandescent matter of
their furnaces, only through a plate of ordinary glass, thinking by the
aid of this artifice to arrest the heat which would have burned their
eyes.
In the experimental sciences, the epochs of the most brilliant progress
are almost always separated by long intervals of almost absolute repose.
Thus, after Mariotte, there elapsed more than a century without history
having to record any new property of radiating heat. Then, in close
succession, we find in the solar light obscure calorific rays, the
existence of which could admit of being established only with the
thermometer, and which may be completely separated from luminous rays by
the aid of the prism; we discover, by the aid of terrestrial bodies,
that the emission of caloric rays, and consequently the cooling of those
bodies, is considerably retarded by the polish of the surfaces; that the
colour, the nature, and the thickness of the outer coating of these
same surfaces, exercise also a manifest influence upon their emissive
power. Experience, finally, rectifying the vague predictions to which
the most enlightened minds abandon themselves with so little reserve,
shows that the calorific rays which emanate from the plane surface of a
heated body have not the same force, the same intensity in all
directions; that the _maximum_ corresponds to the perpendicular
emission, and the _minimum_ to the emissions parallel to the surface.