psychology. James’s “Talks to Teachers on Psychology” (Henry Holt and
Company) is a very good beginning of readings in this line. One of the
most recent and productive books is Freeman’s “The Psychology of the
Common Branches” (Houghton Mifflin Company). There are many general
psychologies. The student will be led by a study of some of these
books to the problem of distinguishing between general psychology and
educational psychology.
Another type of related science is to be found in the mathematical
sciences which contribute to educational studies. Thorndike’s “An
Introduction to the Theory of Mental and Social Measurements” (Science
Press) was the first systematic effort to put statistical methods into
form for educators. A much more satisfactory treatment of statistical
methods is to be found in H. O. Rugg’s “Statistical Methods applied
to Education” (Houghton Mifflin Company). Numerous examples have been
cited in earlier chapters of applications of statistics to education.
To that list might be added Ayres’s “Laggards in our Schools” (Russell
Sage Foundation, New York City) and the statistical volumes of the
reports of the Commissioner of Education, which both in the facts
presented and in the summaries represent the most elaborate collection
of educational statistics in any report on schools anywhere in the
world.
By way of an independent exercise under this chapter let the student
describe a particular scientific study which it would be appropriate
to require each of the following school officers to carry out: a
superintendent, a supervisor of drawing, a principal of a high school,
a principal of an elementary school, a high-school teacher of Latin, a
teacher in charge of a third grade.
CHAPTER XXIII
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS
INCREASING DEMAND FOR PROFESSIONAL TRAINING
It has been the aim of the preceding chapters of this volume to make
it clear that the teacher of the future must be able to cope in a
large and intelligent way with problems which are not discussed in
courses dealing with the subject-matter ordinarily taught in schools.
The compensations offered to the trained teacher are fortunately more
adequate than formerly, and increasingly justify the demand that the
teacher bring to his or her task a more complete professional training.
AMERICAN NORMAL SCHOOLS
The proper content of a professional training is a matter on which
there is no general agreement in the United States. For a little
more than seventy-five years there have existed in this country
normal schools for the training of elementary-school teachers.
These institutions have in some cases required graduation from high
school as a prerequisite for admission, but more commonly not. Their
courses of study have in some schools consisted chiefly of reviews of
elementary-school subjects supplemented by a modicum of methodology or
discussion of how to teach the subjects. In other cases the courses of
the normal school have been general, of the type commonly offered in
colleges or high schools. Sometimes the normal school has given its
students large opportunity to teach children in so-called practice
schools or model schools. Sometimes, on the other hand, the students in
normal schools have had no direct contact with classroom management,
but have gone out into the schools equipped only with the theory of
teaching.
The situation with regard to these institutions is set forth in the
following paragraphs from a bulletin of the United States Bureau of
Education:
Normal schools differ from each other very widely in organization,
in admission requirements, in courses of study, and in modes of
instruction. The explanation of this lack of uniformity is to be
found in the fact that normal schools have never been a part of the
system of higher education evolved in this country. Normal schools
have grown up in isolation. While the colleges have been in the
closest touch with each other through the organization of entrance
examination boards and accrediting institutions, while high schools
have been brought together by standard definitions of units, normal
schools have stood apart. The typical normal school derives its
financial support from legislative appropriations, receives its
students without competition from a territory over which it exercises
exclusive control, and has no difficulty in placing its graduates in
positions which they regard as satisfactory. Furthermore, so urgent
has been the demand in the country for teachers that school boards and
superintendents have not been able to make rigid selections, with the
result that standards of training have not been forced upon the normal
schools from without.
In a situation where relative isolation has not compelled normal
schools to define themselves to others there has been the largest
opportunity for the play of personal influences. A strong president
has often dominated the policies of a normal school to a degree
that is almost unbelievable. The faculty sometimes has little or no
voice in determining the courses or the modes of admission. There is
no State authority in most of the States which is strong enough to
determine what shall be done in normal schools. The result is that
within a single State there are the widest variations. One president
with the ambition to develop his institution into a degree-granting
university goes on his way, while his neighbor uses the funds granted
by the same legislature to develop a normal school which loudly
announces its objection to granting degrees and limits its activities
rigidly to the training of elementary teachers.
In recent years a number of causes have begun to break down the
isolation of the normal school. First and foremost is the desire
of normal graduates to enjoy the advantages of higher education
in universities and colleges. The growth of summer schools at
universities and the frequent transfer of normal-school graduates
to college and graduate courses show with clearness the desire of
teachers to enjoy the advantages of all kinds of higher education.
Normal schools, drawn into the current of higher education, have
been called upon to announce more definitely their requirements for
admission and to describe the content of their courses. What is a
course in methods of teaching arithmetic? Is it a review of the course
given in an elementary school or is it a discussion of the pedagogical
principles on which such courses are arranged? What is a course in
practice teaching? Does such a course require of the student any study
of material, and does it afford him any adequate critical discussion
of his work? There has been a sharp and at times unfriendly clash
between normal schools and colleges in the effort to secure answers
to such questions. The normal school often takes the position that
it administers only high-grade courses, while the colleges express a
frank doubt as to the value of these courses for mature students.
Perhaps the disagreement between normal schools and colleges can best
be illustrated by the widespread dispute regarding foreign languages.
The normal school has been historically related to the vernacular
school, and its officers have had little patience with classical or
even literary courses. The traditions of the college are of a totally
different type. So long as no students passed from normal schools to
colleges the normal schools were at liberty to hold to the vernacular,
but as soon as normal-school graduates sought admission to higher
institutions the controversy was on.
A second reason why normal schools have been called upon to define
themselves arises because colleges and universities have in recent
years entered the field of teacher training through the organization
of departments of education and colleges of education. In the State
universities the demand for preparation of high-school teachers has
been heard, and generous provisions have in many cases been made for
the work of preparing such teachers. The normal schools have looked
upon this organization of teacher-training courses as undesired
competition. Conversely, the university authorities have been critical
of the courses in the normal schools, and the issue has been sharply
drawn. Incidentally it may be remarked that college departments
of education have usually been subjected to the closest scrutiny
and sometimes to violent criticism by other college departments
because of their supposed inferiority. It may even be admitted that
entrance requirements in the departments of education have sometimes
been lower than those for other college departments in the hope of
meeting the competition of normal schools, and courses of inferior
standard in the college have been tolerated for like reason. All
of these disputes and efforts at adjustment have aroused a general
inquiry about teacher-training courses which a generation ago would
have been without interest except to a small group of specialists.
Now the problem is known to all who are interested in education,
and the discussion must go on until some satisfactory conclusion is
reached.[93]
AMERICAN DEMANDS ON SECONDARY-SCHOOL TEACHERS
If the situation with regard to the training of elementary-school
teachers is chaotic, the situation with regard to secondary-school
teachers is more so. Until very recently there was little or no effort
in the state laws defining requirements for teachers’ certificates to
distinguish between elementary teachers and teachers in high schools.
The candidate for a position in Latin found himself taking the same
examination that would have been required if he had been about to teach
a third grade. Of course in practice the school officers who employed
the Latin teacher took steps to assure themselves that he had studied
that subject, but practice in this respect has never been standardized.
GERMAN TRAINING OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL TEACHERS
By way of setting up a contrast we may review the system which
prevailed in Germany before 1914. The German system was the most highly
developed system of training secondary-school teachers in the world.
Candidates for positions in the secondary schools must first of all
have completed the course of one of the secondary schools. In the
second place, the candidate must have attended a German university for
at least six semesters. Here an exception is made in the case of those
candidates who expect to teach in the sciences. They may take half of
the university courses in one of the technical institutions rather
than in university lectures.
After this preliminary training is completed, the candidate presents
himself for an examination. Usually the period of training is much
longer than the minimum above described. Indeed, in most cases
candidates take the university doctor’s degree before they come up for
the examination. The examination consists of two parts. First, there
is a general examination covering those subjects which are supposed
to be essential as training for all departments; and, second, there
is a special examination given in the particular subject in which the
candidate is preparing to teach. Both examinations include written and
oral divisions....
The examinations are formidable ordeals. They are conducted by special
commissioners. On these commissions are university professors,
officers of the education department, and representatives of the
secondary schools. The candidate is first required to present two
elaborate theses, one on some phase of the general subjects and one in
the subject in which he has elected to take a complete examination. At
the discretion of the commission the candidate’s doctor’s dissertation
may be substituted for one of these theses. A period of 16 weeks is
allowed for their preparation, and they are intended to show the
ability of the candidate to carry on independent research in his
selected field, and his ability to formulate material in a clear and
systematic fashion. After the presentation of these theses there
follows a written examination, followed in turn by an oral examination.
After the examination the successful candidate now has before him two
years of contact with the schoolroom before he can become a teacher
with a regular position. The first of these trial years is known as
the Seminar year and the second as the Trial year. During both of
these periods the candidate is connected with one of the secondary
schools and is under the general direction of the principal or
director of this school....
After a candidate has been assigned to a particular school, it
becomes his duty, first of all, to participate in the activities of
that school in any way that he can. He is usually assigned to some
teacher, whose reports he helps to prepare and whose classes he has
to visit with regularity. In addition, he is expected to visit all of
the classes in the institution, so as to observe different methods of
instruction and class management. It is required that the candidate
meet with the director two hours a week for special training. At this
point in particular the greatest diversity of practice appears....
Sometimes the meeting is conducted as a demonstration lesson;
sometimes it is a discussion; sometimes it is a series of reports by
candidates; sometimes a lecture by the director or one of the teachers
of the school....
After the candidates have gone through a part of the first year’s
training and have become somewhat familiar with the methods of
instruction in the classes which they visit and through the advice
which they receive in the weekly meetings, they are allowed to give
instruction. At first this instruction is limited to single class
exercises under the immediate supervision of the regular teacher.
The candidate is expected to prepare fully for such an exercise, so
that he may carry on the work of the students in accordance with the
general plan adopted by the regular teacher. The regular teacher
remains in the class during the instruction given by the candidate,
and after the class has been dismissed the teacher gives the candidate
the benefit of such criticism as he has to make. Opportunity for these
criticisms is presented by the school program, which is uniformly so
arranged that 45 minutes of class work are followed by 15 minutes of
recess. The criticisms are in some cases very helpful, especially
where the teacher is interested in developing better methods of
instruction upon the part of the candidate. On the other hand, the
criticisms are often very severe and sometimes even caustic. In any
case, the candidate learns through the comments given him by the
teacher how far he has failed to conform to the expectation of the
school....
Several weeks before the close of the seminar year each candidate
is called upon to prepare a thesis on some concrete pedagogical or
didactic problem set for him by the director. This thesis constitutes
part of his preparation for the teaching profession and may be the
outcome of his readings or the outcome of his observation. Not
uncommonly the candidate makes an elaborate study of some of the
pedagogical literature related to his subject. It is to be remembered
that many of these candidates have already completed the work for the
degree of doctor of philosophy in the university and are for that
reason trained in the methods of research and in the preparation of
theses, while all have prepared elaborate theses in connection with
the examinations which admitted them to the seminar year.
At the end of the seminar year the director, with the coöperation of
the other teachers who have observed the work of the candidate, makes
a report to the school authorities, and if the work of the candidate
has been satisfactory he is now advanced to a higher grade and enters
upon the trial year.
During the trial year he is required to teach six to eight hours a
week without compensation. If he is especially fortunate, he may
receive some compensation for substitute teaching which is needed by
the school. In the main, however, he is called upon to carry a heavy
burden of work without any compensation from the school. The director
may also use his services for other purposes, such as the preparation
of reports, the checking of lists, and other duties which need to be
attended to for the purpose of administering the school. During this
trial year the regular teacher is not required to attend the classes
conducted by candidates. The candidate, therefore, gradually acquires
independence in his conduct of the classes.
At the end of this trial year another report is made of the activities
of the candidate and the judgment of the teachers in the school with
respect to his success. If this report is favorable the candidate
is now put on the eligible list and may be appointed to a permanent
position. The length of time which it is necessary for him to wait
for this permanent appointment is determined wholly by the needs of
the schools. If there are no vacancies, the candidate may wait a
relatively long period of time, in some cases as long as four or five
years. On the other hand, for some years past it has been possible in
most cities for candidates to receive appointment almost immediately
on completion of the trial year.[94]
NEW COURSES IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES FOR SECONDARY-SCHOOL TEACHERS
The example of Germany is instructive as showing something of the
amount of professional training which may be deemed necessary properly
to qualify a teacher of secondary schools. It is not at all likely
that the particular method adopted will be followed in the United
States. Indeed, there is a rapidly developing movement in American
colleges and universities to provide training for such teachers. The
state universities especially have developed in recent years series of
courses, both in subject-matter and in professional lines, designed to
train secondary-school teachers. These, like the normal-school courses
described above, are very little standardized, but are promising as a
nucleus for the final organizations which will solve the problem.
The following paragraph indicates the existing conditions:
The significant fact is that 21 of 24 universities report teachers’
courses. This means that in some way the academic departments are
professionally coöperating with schools or departments of education
in furnishing to intending teachers the special methods and peculiar
technique, as well as more fundamental educational principles and
distinctive values of the actual subjects the students will teach
when they take positions in the schools. The proper coördination
of the university forces contributing to teaching efficiency is
the curriculum problem for the immediate future in university
administration. At present the solutions are about as numerous as the
institutions concerned.[95]
THE REQUIREMENTS OF A STANDARDIZING ASSOCIATION
The standardization of the requirements will require legislation or
the action of central standardizing associations. This movement is now
under way. The North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary
Schools sets as its standards for approval of high schools the
following:
All teachers teaching one or more academic subjects must satisfy the
following standards:
_A._ The minimum attainment of teachers of academic subjects shall be
equivalent to graduation from a college belonging to the North Central
Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools requiring the completion
of a four-year course of study or 120 semester hours in advance of a
standard four-year high school course. Such requirement shall not be
construed as retroactive.
_B._ The minimum professional training of teachers of academic
subjects shall be at least eleven semester hours in education. This
should include special study of the subject matter and pedagogy of
the subject to be taught. Such requirements shall not be construed as
retroactive. (For the succeeding year the Board will interpret courses
in education as the same courses are interpreted by the colleges or
universities offering them.)
_C._ If a teacher, new to a given high school, does not fully meet
the requirement of the above standards but, in the opinion of the
inspector, possesses the equivalent of the training prescribed, the
inspector shall submit, to the Board of Inspectors, a statement
concerning the training, experience, and teaching efficiency of the
said teacher, together with his recommendation. The Board shall, on
each case presented, make a decision.[96]
THE CALIFORNIA REQUIREMENTS THE MOST ADVANCED IN THE UNITED STATES
The qualifications required by the State Board of Education in
California are the highest required in any state. They are as follows:
REQUIREMENTS
High school certificates may be issued by county and city and county
boards of education under the provisions of section 1519, subdivision
5 (_a_); section 1775, subdivision 1 (_a_), and section 1792 of the
Political Code of California, to candidates who meet all of the
following requirements, to wit:
(1) _Requirement of Bachelor’s degree._ Each candidate shall have
received a Bachelor’s degree from a standard college requiring not
less than eight years of high school and college training.
(2) _Requirement of one year of graduate study._ Each candidate shall
submit evidence that in addition to the academic and professional
courses required for the Bachelor’s degree, he has completed at
least one year of graduate study, doing full regular work, though
not necessarily a candidate for a degree, in an approved graduate
school as hereinafter defined. Such graduate study shall include at
least one full year course of advanced or graduate work in at least
one of the subjects in which candidate expects to be recommended for
certification.
(3) _Requirement of fifteen units of work in education._ Each
candidate shall also submit evidence that he has completed in
undergraduate or graduate standing, or the two combined, not less
than fifteen units (semester hours) of work, in courses listed in
the department of education in the institution in which the graduate
work is completed, or courses in other departments of that or other
institutions accepted as preparation for teaching by the department
of education. These fifteen units of work shall include the several
courses in education hereinafter prescribed.
* * * * *
_Required work in education._ The required fifteen units of work in
the department of education shall include the following courses:
(_a_) A course in school and classroom management, or equivalent
work—a minimum of one unit.
(_b_) Work in actual practice of teaching, with conferences—a minimum
of four units.
(_c_) A teacher’s course in at least one subject in which the
candidate expects to be recommended for certification, if such course
be given in the institution and be accepted by or listed under the
work in education—a maximum of three units for all such courses.
(_d_) A course in secondary education, presenting particularly the
purpose and attainable goals of high school work—a minimum of two
units.
(_e_) Such other courses relating to the theory, function and
administration of public education, as are needed to complete the
required fifteen units.
_Practice teaching._ The work in practice teaching shall be done
under the general supervision of the department of education of the
institution in which the year of graduate work is taken, and may be
done in schools of elementary, intermediate or secondary grade, though
preferably in secondary school work of the kind the candidate is
preparing to teach, and under the direction of competent instructors
in such work. The work in practice teaching may also be done in
connection with the training school of any California state normal
school.
_Teachers’ courses._ Each teacher’s course shall be a _bona fide_
teacher’s course and shall be made as concrete and practicable as
possible, and shall have for its purpose the preparation of teachers
to give intelligent instruction in the subject in the high schools of
this State.[97]
CONTINUATION TRAINING OF SCHOOL OFFICERS
The requirements which have been discussed up to this point have to do
with admission to the teaching profession. Beyond that point there is
nothing that can be described as sufficiently common to be regarded
as typical. There are voluntary and compulsory gatherings of every
kind and variety intended to keep teachers intellectually alert and to
inform them of progress in educational matters. There are institutes,
so called, where teachers hear lectures. There are extension
lectures, provided sometimes by boards of education, sometimes by
teachers’ associations. There are meetings of teachers called by the
superintendent or by the supervisor of a special subject or of a
special grade.
The miscellaneous activities which are indicated by such a list as the
above all recognize the necessity of continued study on the part of
teachers in service, and many boards of education are requiring study
in addition to success in teaching as an essential prerequisite to
promotion or to increases in salary.
The most significant movement which has ever been witnessed in the
training of teachers in service is the summer-school movement. All
the leading institutions of learning in the country are filled during
the long summer vacation with teachers who are pursuing courses in
education or in the various subjects which they teach.
SPECIALIZED TRAINING FOR ADMINISTRATION
Two phases of continuation study on the part of teachers deserve
special discussion. First, the form of promotion which carries a
teacher into school administration, that is, into a principalship or
superintendency, is being hedged about with very definite demands for
advanced study on the part of candidates. This advanced study must
take the form of readings or courses on administrative problems. Such
problems have been exemplified in earlier chapters which have dealt
with costs, promotions, and the like. It can be safely asserted that
the time is not far distant when a special preparation will be required
for entrance on administrative positions.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION
Second, the study of school problems by teachers in service has
contributed powerfully to the creation of bodies of organized knowledge
bearing directly on school matters. When education courses were
designed chiefly for candidates for teaching positions, these courses
survived even if they had no close relation to school work. To-day
the situation is entirely different in character. Teachers in service
come to the study of education with urgent problems to be solved.
The abstract statements of the older courses will not satisfy such
students. The impulses toward the development of scientific information
about schools which arise out of a demand for efficiency and economy
are powerfully reënforced by the demand within the teaching profession
itself for definite and constructive studies of school problems.
EXERCISES AND READINGS
The training of teachers is so closely related to state legislation
that this chapter suggests the possibility of introducing the student
to the methods of looking up state laws. How does one go about finding
school laws? Why is education a matter of state legislation rather
than a matter of national legislation? What are some of the striking
differences between the educational laws of different states?
Second, since the economic conditions which control teachers’ salaries
are of importance in determining how much training teachers shall be
required to secure, the question of salaries is an important one. This
matter may be looked up in the two bulletins referred to below.
COFFMAN, L. D. Social Composition of the Teaching Population. Teachers
College Publications, 1911.
The Tangible Rewards of Teaching. _Bulletin No. 16_, United States
Bureau of Education, 1914.
A Comparative Study of the Salaries of Teachers and School Officers.
_Bulletin No. 31_, United States Bureau of Education, 1915.
FOOTNOTES:
[93] Charles Hubbard Judd and Samuel Chester Parker, Problems involved
in Standardizing State Normal Schools, pp. 7-9. _Bulletin No. 12_,
United States Bureau of Education, 1916.
[94] Charles H. Judd, The Training of Teachers in England, Scotland,
and Germany, pp. 74-82. _Bulletin No. 35_, United States Bureau of
Education, 1914.
[95] Charles Hughes Johnston, “Progress of Teacher Training.” Report of
the Commissioner of Education, 1913, Vol. I, chap. xxiv, p. 520.
[96] Proceedings of the Twenty-first Annual Meeting of the North
Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, 1916, p. 94.
[97] “Revised Rules governing High-School Certification,” pp. 3-5.
_Bulletin No. 5_, California State Board of Education, 1915.
APPENDIX
CLASSROOM OBSERVATION
In connection with the study of the foregoing chapters and collateral
readings it is desirable that students visit classrooms and make
systematic observations of the work there under way. In order that such
observations may be productive it is necessary that the student have
definite ends in view, otherwise observation will be scattered over
many phases of that which is seen. The questions below are intended to
furnish guidance.
It is recommended that each student in the course be required to spend
at least three hundred minutes in observation and that he or she
prepare a written report.
GENERAL DIRECTIONS
Before going to the classes for observation determine which of the
topics outlined below you are going to make the subject of special
study. It will be advantageous for you to learn the questions.
Go prepared to take notes. Confine your attention after the first
general observations outlined below to the particular topic on
which you are to report. Take down facts and definite individual
observations. You are at liberty to talk with teachers if you can do so
without imposing on them, but your report is not to be based on what
they say but on what you see. Do not quote from books on the subject of
your study.
Prepare a report of not less than two thousand words.
GENERAL QUESTIONS TO BE ANSWERED IN EACH REPORT
1. In what school or schools did you make your observations?
2. How many visits did you make, and how long was each? (Give dates and
minutes.)
3. What was the grade of the class, and what was the subject of
instruction?
4. Report on the physical conditions of each room. What was the
condition of the temperature, of the lighting, of the ventilation? What
kind of furniture was used? Did you see signs of fatigue on the part of
teacher or pupils?
After noting these general external conditions, turn your attention
to one of the problems outlined below and prepare your report with
reference to that single topic.
I. GRADING
Attend a class several times until you come to know something of each
individual member; then form a judgment as to the desirability of
holding the group together. Suggest changes such as the putting forward
or putting back of certain individuals.
1. Are the students alike in their physical development, or are some
oversized?
2. Are the mental differences parallel with the physical?
3. Do you observe symptoms showing that some children frequently do not
understand the class work and therefore are to be regarded as below the
grade?
4. Do you see evidences that children are not fully occupied because
the work is too easy for them?
5. Children differ in their willingness and ability to take part in
class work. How far should this be considered in grouping children?
6. How far does the grouping of students in a class help or hinder the
development of an individual? Give definite cases.
7. Should the class be changed in size to provide for the best teaching?
8. In certain schools the effort is now being made to organize more
individual instruction. What do your observations lead you to conclude
about the desirability of such a plan?
II. METHODS OF DISCIPLINE
For observations under this section visit a number of different classes
and note the general restlessness or quiet of the groups. Note in
detail how the “order” is maintained, and try to determine (1) what is
the teacher’s notion of order in each case, and (2) what devices he
employs in securing what he wants.
1. Are there formal rules? For example, must the pupils sit in a
certain way? Must they ask questions in a certain way?
2. Does the teacher talk about order?
3. Does he have other devices that are evident, such as pausing and
looking at some member of the class?
4. Does he inflict penalties?
5. Does he have devices that are less obvious, such as varying the
character of the work or calling on a member of the class who is
disorderly?
6. What is the relation of order to the subject of instruction?
7. Does the teacher neglect disorder which you would correct?
8. Of all the cases which you observed, which do you regard as the best
kind of order?
III. PREPARATION ON THE PART OF THE TEACHER
Visit several different teachers and contrast their methods. It may be
advantageous after a first visit to go back to observe again teachers
who are radically different.
1. Distinguish between a teacher’s general preparation or broad
knowledge of a subject and his special preparation for a particular
class exercise. What evidence is there that the teacher prepared for
this particular exercise?
2. Does the teacher seem to have in mind a fixed order in which the
lesson is to proceed?
3. What is the relation of economy of the time and energy of the class
to the teacher’s preparation?
4. Has the teacher anything to contribute outside of the textbook
material?
5. Does the teacher know how to fit the work to the class period so as
to make a complete exercise?
6. Is there evidence that the teacher has made specific preparation for
the next exercise?
IV. PREPARATION ON THE PART OF PUPILS
One of the best ways to get material for this section is to go first
to the high-school study room or to the general library and take note
of the way in which people study. The kind of question which should
be raised in these observations of study periods is illustrated in
V (_B_) below. After making these preliminary observations go to
some recitations and see if there are evidences in the individual
recitations of the way in which the work of preparing the lesson has
been done. The purpose of this particular section is to discuss the
methods of judging preparation from the recitation.
1. What proportion of the class has thought about the lesson as well as
learned what is in the book?
2. When a student fails try to determine whether his failure is due to
lack of study or to bad methods of study. For example, if a student has
learned his lesson by heart, and forgets, he is very different from the
student who has not tried either to understand or to learn by heart.
3. How far is the recitation an examination, and how far does it teach
students to think? What is the effect of the teacher’s method on the
future study of the pupil?
4. How far do students show initiative in carrying forward the work?
5. How many questions do they ask?
6. Girls generally get better marks than boys for their class work. Why
is this? Do boys contribute anything that girls do not?
7. Is there any difference in intellectual maturity exhibited by
different members of the class?
V (_A_). ATTENTION DURING RECITATION
This section will be of special interest to those who wish to observe
in the lower grades. Productive observations can be made, however,
in every grade. The chief business of the school is to train in
concentration. Observe individual pupils closely.
1. How long does a child keep his attention fixed on one thing?
2. What distractions does a schoolroom present?
3. What concession does the teacher make when pupils do not keep up
concentration? For example, does he repeat questions?
4. What positive devices are adopted to keep up attention?
5. What are the physical symptoms of attention and its absence?
6. What individual differences are to be noted?
7. Do you note differences in attention at different times in the day
or at different periods of the recitation?
V (_B_). ATTENTION DURING PERIODS OF STUDY
For this section go to the study room or to some class that is engaged
in individual work, as, for example, the laboratory.
1. Note the way in which a student goes about his work. Is he ready to
begin at once, or does he have to get matters together deliberately
after he sits down?
2. Note whether he reads continuously from the book which he is
studying.
3. Pay attention to the sort of thing that the student does when he
looks away from the book. Does he turn his attention to other objects,
or is he trying to think about the book itself? In general, what are
the distractions that seem to take his attention from the work? When he
comes back to his book, where does he take up the work?
4. Is his rate of work evidently slow or rapid? This can be judged by
watching him long enough to see how much time he spends in reading a
given page.
5. Note, if you can, the different ways in which students study
different subjects. For example, is their work in history different
from their work in mathematics? If so, which one seems to you to secure
the highest degree of attention? Is the writing of notes apparently of
value in keeping them at work?
VI. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
A comparison of different teachers and of different subjects of
instruction will bring out most clearly the distinctions here aimed at.
1. What part of the recitation is consumed in asking questions?
2. Are the questions such as to require answers of more than a single
sentence?
3. Are the questions based directly on the text?
4. What is the mode of assigning the question to members of the class
for answer?
5. Give examples of good questions with reasons for your selection.
6. Contrast different subjects of instruction with reference to the
questions which they permit.
7. Give examples of questions which seem to you too general or
otherwise vague.
VII. MOTOR PROCESSES
The gymnasium, the sewing class, the cooking class, and the
manual-training shop furnish the best opportunities for observations
on this topic. Penmanship classes and almost any lower-grade exercise
will, however, serve.
1. What are the characteristics of a clumsy movement?
2. Point out certain instinctive elements of behavior; that is, forms
of movement which do not have to be learned, but are natural. Are these
always helpful in the learning process?
3. Note the prevalence of rhythm in many forms of behavior. Is the
rhythm more striking where the behavior is natural and instinctive or
where it is being acquired as a special habit of skill?
4. Comment on the _educational_ value of repeating acts which seem to
have reached a high degree of perfection, such as taking stitches or
swinging Indian clubs.
5. Are individual differences in rate and grace of movement capable of
elimination through class training?
6. How far is skill dependent on knowledge?
VIII. RELATION BETWEEN SUBJECTS TAUGHT
For purposes of this section follow a class for a whole forenoon. If
the class observed is one of the lower grades, the organization which
places this class largely in the hands of one teacher favors a close
interrelation of subjects. In the upper grades and high school, on the
other hand, organization makes interrelating difficult.
1. What cases did you observe in which the teacher consciously tried to
illuminate one subject by reference to another?
2. Did the pupils ask any questions or make remarks which showed that
they were thinking about other school topics?
3. Within a given subject there is sometimes opportunity to relate
topics which are remote from each other in the textbook. Did the
classes visited show any examples of such relating of topics?
4. What opportunities for interrelating subjects did you observe in
addition to those taken advantage of by the class?
5. Sometimes the contrast produced by change from one topic to another
or from one classroom to another is important in arousing or depressing
a class. What contrasts did you observe?
INDEX
Academic courses in high schools, 7
Academy, American, 27
Accounting, school, 61
Administration, studies of, 208
training for, 319
Administrative problems, study of, 303
Adolescence, 268
early, 190
later, 194
Adults, continuation classes for, 147
and the curriculum, 200
After-school classes, 145
Age limits of compulsory education, 42
Agricultural high schools, 134
Alderman, L. R., 144
Algebra, history of, 115
Allen, I. M., 110, 238
Allison, Elizabeth W., 285
American Academy of Political and Social Science, 155
American schools, 14, 26
of 1850, 33
Ames, E. S., 196
Appendix, 321
Arabic numerals, 116
Arithmetic, 117
nonpromotions in, 103
studies of, 210
Associations of parents and teachers, 152
Athletics, 146
Attendance, 35, 41
Attention, observation of, 324
Auditoriums, school, 90
Austin, Texas, 38
Authority in school system, 66
Ayres, L. P., 5, 45, 82, 106, 202, 215, 216, 288, 307
Ayres, May, 82
Bagley, W. C., 204, 211, 251, 253
Bailey, W. A., 264
Batavia system, 110
Binet-Simon tests, 172
Board of education, 66, 67
Bobbitt, J. F., iv, 56, 101, 126
Boise, Idaho, 104
Books, free, 60
Boston, Massachusetts, 95
Boston Latin School, 27
Boys, special commercial training for, 177
Breslich, E. R., 235
Bright pupils, 174
British Royal Commission on the Feeble-minded, Report of, 170
Brooks, Charles, 22
Brown, E. E., 31
Bryant, Louise S., 282
Buildings, school, 74, 78
Bunker, F. F., 22, 24, 31
Bureau of Census, 51
Bureau of Education, 62
Burritt, B. B., 200
Business administration of schools, 68
California State Board of Education, 317
Cameron, E. H., iv
Caste and schools, 17
Centralization, of school control, 64
of school organization, 291
Charters, W. W., 206, 241
Chicago, Illinois, 46, 50, 64
Child labor, 40
Childhood, 185
City Club of Chicago, 133
Civics, 139
Clark, E., 62
Class, organization of, 96
Class instruction, 110
Class period, 256
Classes, sizes of and costs, 58
Classical curriculum, 114
Classical program, 129
Classroom management, 242
Classroom observation, 321
Clerks, training of, 177
Cleveland, 102, 181, 217
Clubs, corn, 149
Coffman, L. D., 208, 320
College courses, as preparatory, 207
once professional, 114
for teachers, 315
Colonial education, 122
Colorado, 6
Comenius, 300
Commercial Club of Chicago, 132
Commercial courses, 177
in high schools, 132, 133
in private schools, 132, 133
Commissioner of Education, 25
reports of, 37, 38, 41, 48, 307
Committee of Ten, 126
Community, conservatism of, 2
and control of schools, 63
lessons in, 139
studies of, 292
Community centers, 150
Comparative method, 14
Comparison, method of, 221, 304
Compulsory education, 30
Compulsory legislation, 37
Concentration, 158
Connecticut school law, 16
Conservatism in community, 2
Consolidation of schools, 92
Contagion in schools, 283
Continuation classes, 147
Continuation training of teachers, 318
Coöperative recitation, 240
Corporation schools, 135
Correlation, observation of, 326
Correspondence schools, 153
Costs, and class instruction, 97
and efficiency, 52
school, 46
of school construction, 89
Course of study, changes in, 2
Courses of study, and costs, 56
for girls, 180
Courtis, S. A., 228, 295
Cousin, 23
Credits, for courses, 261
for home activities, 142
Cubberley, E. P., 34, 37, 52, 62, 77
Current references and the curriculum, 203
Curricula of schools, 18
Curriculum (_see also_ Course of study), 113, 197
conservatism regarding, 2
and costs, 49, 56
for girls, 180
grading of subjects in, 99
and individual differences, 17
and industry, 125
principles of, 156
readjustments in, 105
revision of, 132
and school buildings, 90
and school equipment, 88
Deffenbaugh, W. S., 255
Democracy, and individual differences, 182
and school management, 291
Demonstrations as means of education, 150
Denver survey, 85, 107
Department of Superintendence, 70, 182
Departmentalization of grades, 91
Desks, 87, 88
Detroit, Michigan, 72
Device, 229
Dewey, John, 13, 88
Differentiated curricula, 182
Discipline, 157
classroom, 242, 249
impersonal, 252
observation of, 322
District control of schools, 64, 71
Dressler, F. B., 80
Drill, 240
Dual school system, 131
Earhart, L. B., 241
Economy, demand for, 52
Education, of common people, 32
according to nature, 158
and industry, 40
Educational psychology, 301
Efficiency and costs, 52
Efficiency experts, 295
Elementary-education expenditures, 47, 48, 55, 58
Elimination from school, 121
English secondary schools, 29
Entertainment, 150
Errors in oral reading, 225
Euclid, 116
European schools, 14, 17
Examinations, 240
English, 29
Exceptional pupils, 174
Excursions, field, 239
Exercises and readings, 12, 30, 45, 62, 76, 95, 111, 125, 139, 154,
168, 182, 195, 210, 228, 241, 252, 265, 278, 287, 297, 306, 320
Experimental method, 8, 302
Experiments in education, 302
Extension of education, 141
Eye movements in reading, 9
Failures, and classification of pupils, 102
in high school, 107
Fairy tales, 188
Farrington, F. E., 31, 140
Fatigue, 256
and lighting, 85
and play, 269
Feeble-mindedness, 170
Figures, 6, 8, 9, 18, 50, 59, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 103, 133, 181, 218,
223, 263
Financial support of schools, 36
Fiscal problem, 44
Fiske, John, 184, 306
Fleming, G. L., 57
Flexner, Abraham, 129, 153
Fond du Lac, Wisconsin, 100
Food and education, 281
Foreign languages, teaching of, 166
Formal training, 162
Free education, 28
Freedom, doctrine of, 158
Freeman, F. N., iv, 216, 302, 306
Galton, Francis, 183
Gardening, school, 146, 239
Gary plan, 90, 100
General courses, 138
General education, 114, 127
General Education Board, 149
General training, 162
Geometry, history of, 115
German schools, 22, 29
German system of training teachers, 312
Giles, F. M., 236
Girls, education of, 28, 175
new courses for, 180
special training of, for vocations, 177
trade training for, 136
Grade system, 96
Grading pupils, 261, 322
Grading systems, 100
Grammar, 204
Grammar school, 27
Grand Rapids, 223
Grand Rapids survey, 55
Gray, W. S., iv, 226
Greek and formal discipline, 164
Greeley, Colorado, 141
Greeley, Horace, 280
Groos, K., 278
Gulick, L. H., 288
_Gymnasium_, 19, 25
Hadley, A. T., 164
Hall, G. S., 196, 306
Handwriting, 215
Harvard, 114, 199, 207, 262
Health, 279
Health department, 283
Heating, 86
Heck, W. H., 169
Herbart, 301
Hibbing, Minnesota, 59
High schools (_see also_ Secondary schools), 27
agricultural, 134
classification of pupils in, 105
commercial courses in, 132
costs of, 55
curricula of, 5
failures in subjects in, 107
laboratory methods in, 233
High-school building, 82
Higher education, 44
Higher schools and the curriculum, 113
Historical method, 14
History of education, iii, 300
Holmes, W. H., 112
Home, education in the, 186
Home activities and school credit, 142
Home credits, 143
Home feeding, 280
Hopkins Grammar School, 27
Household arts, 179
Hygiene, 85
teaching of, 285
Idiots, 170
Illinois, 6
Illinois State Teachers Association, 222
Imbeciles, 170
Imitation and primary grades, 187
Immigrants, training of, 147
Impersonal discipline, 252
Impersonal standards, 219
Indiana, 6
Individual differences, 160, 170
and instruction, 104
from training, 180
Individual instruction, 110
Individualism, 194
period of, 189
Industrial continuation classes, 147
Industrial demands and education, 11
Industrial education, 123, 131
demand for, 119
Industry and education, 40
Infancy, 184
Instincts and play, 268
Instruction, in classes, 110
and classification, 105
and costs, 49, 56
and grouping, 98
in health, 285
in play, 273
state supervision of, 43
Intelligence, low grades of, 170
tests of, 172
Interest, 158
Intermediate grades, 189
Intermediate school, 193
Iowa, 6
Irnerius, 113
James, William, 306
Jessup, W. A., 208
Johnson, G. E., 273, 277
Johnston, C. H., 316
Jordan, David Starr, 232
Junior high school, 121, 193
Kansas, 6, 7
Kansas City, Kansas, 264
Kansas City, Missouri, 204
Kilpatrick, W. H., 160
Kindergarten, 185
Kirkpatrick, E. A., 119, 196
Knight, H. R., 271
Koos, L. V., 126
Laboratory method, 232
Laboratory methods and science of education, 302
Laboratory-class period, 260
Laggards. _See_ Retardation
Lancastrian system, 35
Land grants, 35
Language, 186
Latin school, 27
Leavitt, F. M., 137
Lecture method, 239
Legal requirements for secondary-school teachers, 317
Liggett School, 295
Lighting in school buildings, 78, 85
Locke, John, 300
Lowell, A. L., 207
Luncheons, school, 280
MacAndrew, W., 77
McFarland, E. G., 143
McMurry, C. A., 169, 241
McMurry, F. M., 163
Madison, Wisconsin, 274
Maine, 99
Malnutrition, 281
Management of school system, 67
Manhattan Trade School, 136
Mann, Horace, 22, 36
Marks, 245
systems of, 261
Massachusetts, 22, 37
Mathematics in high school, 115
Maturity of pupils, 166
Maury, Sarah W., 280
Measurement of school results, 73, 212, 294
Mechanical aspects of school work, 227
Meek, C. S., 2
Method, 229
experiments in, 239
Methods, courses in, iii, 300
of study, 235
Meyer, M. F., 263
Michigan, 6, 22
Miller, Edith, 206
Minneapolis, 74, 119
Minneapolis survey, 11
Minnesota, 6, 7
Missouri, 6
Mistakes of pupils, study of, 204
Monahan, A. C., 95
Money, training in use of, 118
Monroe, Paul, 265
Monroe, W. S., 31
Montana, 6
Montessori, 159
Morehouse, F. M., 253
Morons, 171
Motor processes, observation of, 325
National Association of Directors of Educational Research, 77
National life, lessons in, 139
National Playground Association, 278
National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, 11, 293
National Society for the Study of Education, 126, 140, 211
Natural behavior, 267
Natural education, 158
and play, 268
Nebraska, 6
Neef, Joseph, 231
New England, 27
New York City, 50, 53
Normal schools, 308
Norsworthy, N., 241
North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, 5, 126, 316
North Dakota, 6
Object teaching, 231
Observation, classroom, 321
Ohio, 6, 7
Oklahoma, 6
One-room school, 97
Open-air rooms, 279
Opinion versus measurement, 213
Oral instruction in European schools, 15
Oral reading, 9, 222
Parents’ associations, 152
Parker, S. C, iv, 31, 166, 241, 311
Part-time courses, 134
Pathological cases, treatment of, in schools, 279
Pathological conditions, 258
Period of class, 256
Periodicity, in mental development, 184
and play, 267
Perry, Arthur Cecil, 253
Perry, Clarence Arthur, 150, 155
Personal standards, 219
Pestalozzi, 231, 300
Peterson, E. A., 283
Physical conditions of classrooms, 322
Physical education, 270
Pierce, J. D., 22
Plato, 300
Play, 266
Population and educational costs, 48
Portland survey, 52
Practical applications of academic courses, 138
Preparation, of pupils, 323
of teachers, 323
Primary grades, 187
Principal, school, 289
Professional courses, preparation for, 207
Professional education, 113, 122
Professional training, 199
of teachers, 308
Program, daily, 254
Promotion, 102, 104, 109
Propaganda, educational, 148
Prussian schools, 22
Psychological methods, 302
Psychology, iii, 301
Public Education Association of Chicago, 67
Public expenditures and school costs, 51
Public opinion and reading, 16
Punishments, 247
Pupil’s point of view, 1
Pupils, grading of, 97
unruly, 251
Puritans and play, 266
Quality of handwriting, 217
Question and answer method, 234
Questions, observation of, 325
Quintilian, 300
Rapeer, L. W., 282
Rate, of handwriting, 217
of oral reading, 225
Reading, 8, 188
in American schools, 15
individual differences in, 180
nonpromotions and, 103
oral, 222
rate of, 180
Reading school, colonial, 16, 123
Readings, exercises and, 12, 30, 45, 62, 76, 95, 111, 125,
139, 154, 168, 182, 195, 210, 228, 241, 252, 265, 278,
287, 297, 306, 320
Recitation, 14
attention during, 324
coöperative, 240
Records, and scientific studies, 304
and standardization, 222
Recreation, 269
Religious teaching, 29
Report on classroom observations, 321
Report lesson, 239
Retardation, 4, 302
Reviews in seventh and eighth grades, 193
Rewards, 247
Rice, J. M., 215
Roman, F. W., 140
Roman numerals and multiplication, 116
Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 13, 158, 300
Routine, organization of, 245
Rudimentary curriculum, 25
Rugg, H. O., iv, 55, 62, 211, 307
Rural school buildings, 80
Salaries, teachers’, 60
Sanitation and school buildings, 78
Scales, 215, 294
Schmidt, W. A., 10
School credits for home activities, 142
School day, length of, 254
School discipline, 249
School finance, 89
School program and play, 276
School Report of 1801, 20
School-city, 250
Science of education, 299
definition of, 305
subdivisions of, 304
and teachers, 320
Scientific methods, 14
applied to marks, 262
demand for, 3
for revising the curriculum, 200
and standardization, 228
of studying the curriculum, 197
and supervision, 44, 72, 296
Scientific supervision, 289
Secondary schools (_see also_ High schools), 17, 192
teachers in, 311
Secular schools, 29
Sense experiences and primary education, 187
Seventh grade, reorganization of, 182
Shearman, F. W., 24
Sheldon, 231
Shopwork, 240
Shorey, Paul, 130
Silent reading, 8
“Six-three-and-three” plan, 121
Smith, W. H., 95
Social arts, period of learning, 188
Social consciousness, 190
Social control, types of, 244
Social standards, 220
South Carolina, 41
South Dakota, 6, 7
Space study, 117
Spaulding, F. E., 105
Special classes, 105, 175
Special courses for defectives, 172
Specialization, 194
Specialized education, 113, 127
Speed of handwriting, 217
Spelling tests, 201
Spencer, Herbert, 13, 253, 306
Springfield, Illinois, survey, 202
Standardization of results, 294
Standardizing associations, 316
Standards, based on opinion, 213
objective, 214
State control, 33
State and school finance, 54
State supervision of education, 42
Statistical studies, 301
Stevens, Bertha M., 177
St. Louis, 106, 223
St. Louis survey, 55
Strayer, G. D., 95, 241
Study, attention during, 325
Study lesson, 239
Subject-matter versus method, 230
Summaries, 125, 167
Superintendent of schools, 66, 69
Supernormal child, 174
Supervised study, 111, 235, 237
Supervision, 42, 63
of courses, 210
of health, 278
scientific, 289
Supplies, costs of, 60
Survey, industrial, 11
of recreations, 270
System, the school, 30
Tables, 48, 51, 55, 57, 58, 107
Tachau, Lena L., 280
Taunton, Massachusetts, school report, 20
Taxation, general, for schools, 36
Teachers, continuation courses for, 318
preparation of, 323
relation of, to community, 63
and the science of education, 320
secondary-school, 311
selection and management of, 293
training of, 308
Technical courses in high schools, 7
Terman, L. M., 95, 172
Tests, 294
of adults, 201
of general intelligence, 172
of methods, 240
of school products, 72, 212
Texas, compulsory education in, 37, 38
Textbooks in American schools, 14
Thorndike, E. L., 183, 216, 301, 307
Trade education, 11
Trade schools, 135
Trade training for girls, 136
Training of teachers, 308
Transfer of training, 165
Ungraded class, 101
Units, high-school, 7
University of Alexandria, 116
University of Cincinnati, 134
University of Missouri, 263
Unruly pupils, 251
Vacation classes, 145
Ventilation, 86
Vernacular, 18, 25
Vocational education, 122, 131
_Volksschule_, 17, 18, 19, 25
_Vorschule_, 19
Ward, D. A., 233
Washington, Booker, 169
Wealth and educational expenditures, 53
Wheaton, H. H., 147
Wider use of school plant, 141
Wirt, W. A., 90
Wisconsin, 6
Wood, T. D., 288
Woolman, Mary S., 136
Wyoming, 6
Young, Ella Flagg, 2
ANNOUNCEMENTS
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INTRODUCTION TO THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF EDUCATION
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BOOKS FOR TEACHERS
Allen: Civics and Health
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Curtis: Play and Recreation for the Open Country
Davis: Vocational and Moral Guidance
Finlay-Johnson: The Dramatic Method of Teaching
Gesell: The Normal Child and Primary Education
Hall: Aspects of Child Life and Education
Hodge: Nature Study and Life
Johnson: Education by Plays and Games
Johnson: What to do at Recess
Jones: Education as Growth
Judd: Psychology of High-School Subjects
Judd: Scientific Study of Education
Kastman and Köhler: Swedish Song Games
Kern: Among Country Schools
Leavitt: Examples of Industrial Education
Leiper: Language Work in Elementary Schools
Lincoln: Everyday Pedagogy
Moore: Fifty Years of American Education
Moore: What is Education?
Moral Training in the Public Schools
Palmer: Play Life in the First Eight Years
Parker: History of Modern Elementary Education
Parker: Methods of Teaching in High Schools
Phillips: An Elementary Psychology
Prince: Courses of Studies and Methods of Teaching
Read: An Introductory Psychology
Sargent: Fine and Industrial Arts in Elementary Schools
Sargent and Miller: How Children Learn to Draw
Scott: Social Education
Smith: The Teaching of Arithmetic
Tompkins: Philosophy of School Management
Tompkins: Philosophy of Teaching
Williams: Gardens and their Meaning
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