[1] See also WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
ARIUS ([Greek: Areios]), a name celebrated in ecclesiastical history,
not so much on account of the personality of its bearer as of the
"Arian" controversy which he provoked. Our knowledge of Arius is scanty,
and nothing certain is known of his birth or of his early training.
Epiphanius of Salamis, in his well-known treatise against eighty
heresies (_Haer._ lxix. 3), calls him a Libyan by birth, and if the
statement of Sozomen, a church historian of the 5th century, is to be
trusted, he was, as a member of the Alexandrian church, connected with
the Meletian schism (see MELETIUS OF LYCOPOLIS), and on this account
excommunicated by Peter of Alexandria, who had ordained him deacon.
After the death of Peter (November 25, 311), he was received into
communion by Peter's successor, Achillas, elevated to the presbytery,
and put in charge of one of the great city churches, Baucalis, where he
continued to discharge his duties with apparent faithfulness and
industry after the accession of Alexander. This bishop also held him in
high repute. Theodoret (_Hist. Eccl._ i. 2) indeed does not hesitate to
say that Arius was chagrined because Alexander, instead of himself, had
been appointed to the see of Alexandria, and that the beginning of his
heretical attitude is, in consequence, to be attributed to discontent
and envy. But this must be rejected, for it is a common explanation of
heretical movements with the early church historians, and there is no
evidence for it in the original sources. However, Arius was ambitious.
Epiphanius, using older documents, describes him as a man inflamed with
his own opinionativeness, of a soft and smooth address, calculated to
persuade and attract, especially women: "in no time he had drawn away
seven hundred virgins from the church to his party." When the
controversy broke out, Arius was an old man.
The real causes of the controversy lay in differences as to dogma. Arius
had received his theological education in the school of the presbyter
Lucian of Antioch, a learned man, and distinguished especially as a
biblical scholar. The latter was a follower of Paul of Samosata, bishop
of Antioch, who had been excommunicated in 269, but his theology differed
from that of his master in a fundamental point. Paul, starting with the
conviction that the One God cannot appear substantially ([Greek:
ousiodos]) on earth, and, consequently, that he cannot have become a
person in Jesus Christ, had taught that God had filled the man Jesus with
his Logos ([Greek: sophia]) or Power ([Greek: dynamis]). Lucian, on the
other hand, persisted in holding that the Logos became a person in
Christ. But since he shared the above-mentioned belief of his master,
nothing remained for him but to see in the Logos a second essence,
created by God before the world, which came down to earth and took upon
itself a human body. In this body the Logos filled the place of the
intellectual or spiritual principle. Lucian's Christ, then, was not
"perfect man," for that which constituted in him the personal element was
a divine essence; nor was he "perfect God," for the divine essence having
become a person was other than the One God, and of a nature foreign to
him. It is this idea which Arius took up and interpreted unintelligently.
His doctrinal position is explained in his letters to his patron
Eusebius, bishop of the imperial city of Nicomedia, and to Alexander of
Alexandria, and in the fragments of the poem in which he set forth his
dogmas, which bears the enigmatic title of "Thalia" ([Greek: Thaleia]),
used in Homer, in the sense of "a goodly banquet," most unjustly
ridiculed by Athanasius as an imitation of the licentious style of the
drinking-songs of the Egyptian Sotades (270 B.C.). From these writings it
can even nowadays be seen clearly that the principal object which he had
in view was firmly to establish the unity and simplicity of the eternal
God. However far the Son may surpass other created beings, he remains
himself a created being, to whom the Father before all time gave an
existence formed out of not being ([Greek: ex ouk onton]); hence the name
of _Exoukontians_ sometimes given to Arius's followers. On the other
hand, Arius affirmed of the Son that he was "perfect God, only-begotten"
([Greek: plaeraes theos monogenaes]); that through him God made the
worlds ([Greek: aiones], ages); that he was the product or offspring of
the Father, and yet not as one among things made ([Greek: gennaema all
ouch ton gegenaemenon]). In his eyes it was blasphemy when he heard that
Alexander proclaimed in public that "as God is eternal, so is his
Son,--when the Father, then the Son,--the Son is present in God without
birth ([Greek: agennaetos]), ever-begotten ([Greek: aeigenaes]), an
unbegotten-begotten ([Greek: agennaetogenaes])." He detected in his
bishop Gnosticism, Manichaeism and Sabellianism, and was convinced that
he himself was the champion of pure doctrine against heresy. He was quite
unconscious that his own monotheism was hardly to be distinguished from
that of the pagan philosophers, and that his Christ was a demi-god.
For years the controversy may have been fermenting in the college of
presbyters at Alexandria. Sozomen relates that Alexander only interfered
after being charged with remissness in leaving Arius so long to disturb
the faith of the church. According to the general supposition, the
negotiations which led to the excommunication of Arius and his followers
among the presbyters and deacons took place in 318 or 319, but there are
good reasons for assigning the outbreak of the controversy to the time
following the overthrow of Licinius by Constantine, i.e. to the year
323. In any case, from this time events followed one another to a speedy
conclusion. Arius was not without adherents, even outside Alexandria.
Those bishops who, like him, had passed through the school of Lucian
were not inclined to let him fall without a struggle, as they recognized
in the views of their fellow-student their own doctrine, only set forth
in a somewhat radical fashion. In addressing to Eusebius of Nicomedia a
request for his help, Arius ended with the words: "Be mindful of our
adversity, thou faithful comrade of Lucian's school ([Greek:
sulloukianistaes])"; and Eusebius entered the lists energetically on his
behalf. But Alexander too was active; by means of a circular letter he
published abroad the excommunication of his presbyter, and the
controversy excited more and more general interest.
It reached even the ears of Constantine. Now sole emperor, he saw in the
one Catholic church the best means of counteracting the movement in his
vast empire towards disintegration; and he at once realized how
dangerous dogmatic squabbles might prove to its unity. His letter,
preserved by the imperial biographer, Eusebius of Caesarea, is a state
document inspired by a wisely conciliatory policy; it made out both
parties to be equally in the right and in the wrong, at the same time
giving them both to understand that such questions, the meaning of which
would be grasped only by the few, had better not be brought into public
discussion; it was advisable to come to an agreement where the
difference of opinion was not fundamental. This well-meaning attempt at
reconciliation, betraying as it did no very deep understanding of the
question, came to nothing. No course was left for the emperor except to
obtain a general decision. This took, place at the fist oecumenical
council, which was convened in Nicaea (q.v.) in 325. After various turns
in the controversy, it was finally decided, against Arius, that the Son
was "of the same substance" ([Greek: homoousios]) with the Father, and
all thought of his being created or even subordinate had to be excluded.
Constantine accepted the decision of the council and resolved to uphold
it. Arius and the two bishops of Marmarica Ptolemais, who refused to
subscribe the creed, were excommunicated and banished to Illyria, and
even Eusebius of Nicomedia, who accepted the creed, but not its
anathemas, was exiled to Gaul. Alexander returned to his see triumphant,
but died soon after, and was succeeded by Athanasius (q.v.), his deacon,
with whose indomitable fortitude and strange vicissitudes the further
course of the controversy is bound up.
It only remains for us here to sketch what is known of the future career
of Arius and the Arians. Although defeated at the council of Nicaea, the
Arians were by no means subdued. Constantine, while strongly disposed at
first to enforce the Nicene decrees, was gradually won to a more
conciliatory policy by the influence especially of Eusebius of Caesarea
and Eusebius of Nicomedia, the latter of whom returned from exile in 328
and won the ear of the emperor, whom he baptized on his death-bed. In
330 even Arius was recalled from banishment. Athanasius, on the other
hand, was banished to Treves in 335. During his absence Arius returned
to Alexandria, but even now the people are said to have raised a fierce
riot against the heretic. In 336 the emperor was forced to summon him to
Constantinople. Bishop Alexander reluctantly assented to receive him
once more into the bosom of the church, but before the act of admission
was completed, Arius was suddenly taken ill while walking in the
streets, and died in a few moments. His death seems to have exercised no
influence worth speaking of on the course of events. His theological
radicalism had in any case never found many convinced adherents. It was
mainly the opposition to the Homoousios, as a formula open to heretical
misinterpretation, and not borne out by Holy Writ, which kept together
the large party known as Semiarians, who under the leadership of the two
Eusebiuses carried on the strife against the Nicenes and especially
Athanasius. Under the sons of Constantine Christian bishops in
numberless synods cursed one another turn by turn. In the western half
of the empire Arianism found no foothold, and even the despotic will of
Constantius, sole emperor after 351, succeeded only for the moment in
subduing the bishops exiled for the sake of their belief. In the east,
on the other hand, the Semiarians had for long the upper hand. They soon
split up into different groups, according as they came to stand nearer
to or farther from the original position of Arius. The actual centre was
formed by the _Homoii_, who only spoke generally of a likeness [Greek:
homoiotaes] of the Son to the Father; to the left of them were the
_Anomoii_, who, with Arius, held the Son to be unlike [Greek: anomoios]
the Father; to the right, the _Homoiousians_ who, taking as their
catchword "likeness of nature" [Greek: homoiotaes kat ousian], thought
that they could preserve the religious content of the Nicene formula
without having to adopt the formula itself. Since this party in the
course of years came more and more into sympathy with the
representatives of the Nicene party, the _Homoousians_, and notably with
Athanasius, the much-disputed formula became more and more popular, till
the council summoned in 381 at Constantinople, under the auspices of
Theodosius the Great, recognized the Nicene doctrine as the only
orthodox one. Arianism, which had lifted up its head again under the
emperor Valens, was thereby thrust out of the state church. It lived to
flourish anew among the Germanic tribes at the time of the great
migrations. Goths, Vandals, Suebi, Burgundians and Langobardi embraced
it; here too as a distinctive national type of Christianity it perished
before the growth of medieval Catholicism, and the name of Arian ceased
to represent a definite form of Christian doctrine within the church, or
a definite party outside it.
The best account of the proceedings, both political and theological,
may be found in the following books:--H.M. Gwatkin, _Studies of
Arianism_ (2nd edit., Cambridge, 1900); A. Harnack, _History of Dogma_
(Eng. trans., 1894-1899); J.F. Bethune-Baker, _An Introduction to the
Early History of Christian Doctrine_ (London, 1903); W. Bright, _The
Age of the Fathers_ (London, 1903). Cardinal Newman's celebrated
_Arians of the Fourth Century_ is interesting more from the
controversial than from the historical point of view. See also Paavo
Snellman, _Der Anfang des arianischen Streites_ (Helsingfors, 1904);
Sigismund Rogala, _Die Anfange des arianischen Streites_ (Paderborn,
1907). (G. K.)
ARIZONA (from the Spanish-Indian _Arizonac_, of unknown
meaning,--possibly "few springs,"--the name of an 18th-century mining
camp in the Santa Cruz valley, just S. of the present border of
Arizona), a state on the S.W. border of the United States of America,
lying between 31 deg. 20' and 37 deg. N. lat. and 109 deg. 2' and 114
deg. 45' W. long. It is bounded N. by Utah, E. by New Mexico, S. by
Mexico and W. by California and Nevada, the Colorado river separating it
from California and in part from Nevada. On the W. is the Great Basin.
Arizona itself is mostly included in the great arid mountainous uplift
of the Rocky Mountain region, and partly within the desert plain region
of the Gulf of California, or Open Basin region. The whole state lies on
the south-western exposure of a great roof whose crest, along the
continental divide in western New Mexico, pitches southward. Its
altitudes vary from 12,800 ft. to less than 100 ft. above the sea. Of
its total area of 113,956 sq. m. (water surface, 116 sq. m.),
approximately 39,000 lie below 3000 ft., 27,000 from 3000 to 5000 ft.,
and 47,000 above 5000 ft.
_Physical Features._--Three characteristic physiographic regions are
distinctly marked: first the great Colorado Plateau, some 45,000 sq. m.
in area, embracing all the region N. and E. of a line drawn from the
Grand Wash Cliffs in the N.W. corner of the state to its E. border near
Clifton; next a broad zone of compacted mountain ranges with a southern
limit of similar trend; and lastly a region of desert plains, occupying
somewhat more than the S.W. quarter of the state. The plateau region has
an average elevation of 6000-8000 ft. eastward, but it is much broken
down in the west. The plateau is not a plain. It is dominated by high
mountains, gashed by superb canyons of rivers, scarred with dry gullies
and washes, the beds of intermittent streams, varied with great shallow
basins, sunken deserts, dreary levels, bold buttes, picturesque mesas,
forests and rare verdant bits of valley. In the N.W. there is a giddy
drop into the tremendous cut of the Grand Canyon (q.v.) of the Colorado
river. The surface in general is rolling, with a gentle slope northward,
and drains through the Little Colorado (or Colorado Chiquito), Rio
Puerco and other streams into the Grand Canyon. Along the Colorado is
the Painted Desert, remarkable for the bright colours--red, brown, blue,
purple, yellow and white--of its sandstones, shales and clays. Within
the desert is a petrified forest, the most remarkable in the United
States. The trees are of mesozoic time, though mostly washed down to the
foot of the mesas in which they were once embedded, and lying now amid
deposits of a later age. Blocks and logs of agate, chalcedony, jasper,
opal and other silicate deposits lie in hundreds over an area of 60 sq.
m. The forest is now protected as a national reserve against vandalism
and commercialism. Everywhere are evidences of water and wind erosion,
of desiccation and differential weathering. This is the history of the
mesas, which are the most characteristic scenic feature of the
highlands. The marks of volcanic action, particularly lava-flows, are
also abundant and widely scattered.
Separating the plateau from the mountain region is an abrupt transition
slope, often deeply eroded, crossing the entire state as has been
indicated. In localities the slope is a true escarpment falling 150 and
even 250 ft. per mile. In the Aubrey Cliffs and along the Mogollon mesa,
which for about 200 m. parts the waters of the Gila and the Little
Colorado, it often has an elevation of 1000 to 2000 ft., and the ascent
is impracticable through long distances to the most daring climber. It
is not of course everywhere so remarkable, or even distinct, and
especially after its trend turns southward W. of Clifton, it is much
broken down and obscured by erosion and lava deposits. The mountain
region has a width of 70 to 150 m., and is filled with short parallel
ranges trending parallel to the plateau escarpment. Many of the
mountains are extinct volcanoes. In the San Francisco mountains, in the
north central part of the state, three peaks rise to from 10,000 to
12,794 ft.; three others are above 9000 ft.; all are eruptive cones, and
among the lesser summits are old cinder cones. The S.E. corner of
Arizona is a region of greatly eroded ranges and gentle aggraded
valleys. This mountain zone has an average elevation of not less than
4000 ft., while in places its crests are 5000 ft. above the plains
below. The line dividing the two regions runs roughly from Nogales on
the Mexican border, past Tucson, Florence and Phoenix to Needles
(California), on the W. boundary. These plains, the third or desert
region of the state, have their mountains also, but they are lower, and
they are not compacted; the plains near the mountain region slope toward
the Gulf of California across wide valleys separated by isolated ranges,
then across broad desert stretches traversed by rocky ridges, and
finally there is no obstruction to the slope at all. Small parts of the
desert along the Mexican boundary are shifting sand.
[Illustration: Map of Arizona.]
_Climate._--As may be inferred from the physical description, Arizona
has a wide variety of local climates. In general it is characterized by
wonderfully clear air and extraordinarily low humidity. The scanty
rainfall is distributed from July to April, with marked excess from July
to September and a lesser maximum in December. May and June are very
dry. Often during a month, sometimes for several months, no rain falls
over the greatest part of Arizona. Very little rain comes from the
Pacific or the Gulf of California, the mountains and desert, as well as
the adverse winds, making it impossible. Rain and snow fall usually from
clouds blown from the Gulf of Mexico and not wholly dried in Texas. The
mountainous areas are the only ones of adequate precipitation; the
northern slope of the Colorado Plateau is almost destitute of water; the
region of least precipitation is the "desert" region. The mean annual
rainfall varies from amounts of 2 to 5.5 in. at various points in the
lower gulf valley, and on the western border to amounts of 25 to 30
in. in the mountains. The highest recorded maximum in Arizona is 35 in.
The proportion of perfectly clear days in the year varies at different
points from a half to two-thirds; of the rest not more than half are
without brilliant sunshine part of the day. Local thunderstorms and
cloud-bursts are a characteristic phenomenon, inundating limited areas
and transforming dried-up streams into muddy torrents carrying boulders
and debris. Often in the plateau country the dry under-air absorbs the
rain as it falls; and rarely in the Hopi Country do flooded gullies "run
through" to the Little Colorado. The country of the cliff-dwellers in
the N.E. is desert-like. Only points high in altitude catch much rain.
Mountain snows feed the Gila, the Little Colorado, and the Colorado
rivers. The Colorado, apart from the Gila, draws little water from
Arizona. The mountain zone W. of Prescott drains into the Colorado, and
to the S. and E. into the Gila; and the latter is by far the heavier
drainage in volume. The floods come in May and June, and during the wet
season the rivers, all with steep beds in their upper courses, wash
along detritus that lower down narrows, and on smaller streams almost
chokes, their courses. These gradients enable the inconstant streams
tributary to the Colorado to carve their canyons, some of which are in
themselves very remarkable, though insignificant beside the Grand
Canyon. Many streams that are turned in spring or by summer cloud-bursts
into torrents are normally mere water films or dry gulches. Even the
Gila is dry in its bed part of the year at its mouth near Yuma. From the
Gila to the southern boundary the parched land gives no water to the
sea, and the international boundary runs in part through a true desert.
In the hot season there is almost no surface water. Artesian wells are
used in places, as in the stock country of the Baboquivari valley.
The temperature of Arizona is somewhat higher than that of points of
equal latitude on the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coasts. In the
mountains on the plateau it ranges from that of the temperate zone to
that of regions of perpetual snow; S. of the mountains it ranges from
temperate heats in the foothills to semi-tropic heat in the lower
valleys of the Gila and Colorado. The average annual temperature over
the region N. of 34' N. is about 55 deg.; that of the region S. is about
68 deg. The warmest region is the lower Gila valley. Here the hottest
temperature of the year hovers around 130 deg., the mean for the hottest
month (July) is about 98 deg., and the mean for the year is from 68.9
deg.-74.4 deg. F. at different points. Some parts of the Santa Cruz
valley are equally hot. In the hottest (western) portions of the true
desert on the Mexican border the daily maximum temperature is about 110
deg. F.; but owing to the rapid radiation in the dry, clear, cloudless
air the temperature frequently falls 40-50 deg. in the night. The
coldest points on the high plateau have annual means as low as 45-48
deg., and a mean for the coldest month at times below 20 deg. F. The
range from high to low extreme on the plateau may be as great as 125
deg., but in the S.W. it is only about 70-80 deg. F. The daily variation
(not uncommonly 60 deg. F.) is of course greatest in the most arid
regions, where radiation is most rapid. And of all Arizona it should be
said that owing to the extreme dryness of the air, evaporation from
moist surfaces is very rapid,[1] so that the high temperatures here are
decidedly less oppressive than much lower temperatures in a humid
atmosphere. The great difference between absolute and sensible
temperature is a very important climatic characteristic of Arizona.
Generally speaking, during two-thirds of the year the temperature is
really delightful; the nights are cool, the mornings bracing, the days
mild though splendid. Intense heat prevails in July, August and
September. In lowness of humidity (mean annual relative humidity at Yuma
about 39, at Phoenix 36.7, at Tucson 37.8) and clarity of atmosphere,
southern Arizona rivals Upper Egypt and other famous arid health
resorts.
_Fauna and Flora._--Within the borders of Arizona are areas
representative of every life zone save the humid tropical. From the
summit of the San Francisco Mountains one may pass rapidly through all
these down into the Painted Desert. The Boreal-Canadian, Transition and
Upper Sonoran embrace the highlands. Coyotes are very common; wild cats
and mountain lions are fairly plentiful. Deer and antelope are
represented by various species. Prairie-dogs, jack-rabbits, crows and
occasional ravens, quail, grouse, pheasants and wild turkeys are also
noteworthy in a rather scant animal life. Characteristic forms of the
Upper Sonoran zone are the burrowing owl, Nevada sage-thrush,
sage-thrasher and special species of orioles, kangaroo rats, mice,
rabbits and squirrels. The Lower Sonoran covers the greatest part of
southern and western Arizona, as well as the immediate valleys of the
Colorado and Little Colorado rivers. Its animal life is in the main
distinguished in species only from that of the Upper Sonoran belt,
including among birds, the desert sparrow, desert thrasher,
mocking-bird, hooded oriole; and among mammals small nocturnal species
of kangaroo rats, pocket mice, mice and bats. Jaguars occasionally stray
into Arizona from Mexico. Lizards and toads are conspicuous in the more
desert areas. Snakes are not numerous. The Gila-monster, tarantula, the
scorpion and thelyphonus, scolopender and julus occur in some localities
in the rainy season. The Arid-Tropical zone is represented by a narrow
belt along the lower Colorado river, with a short arm extending into the
valley of the Gila. The country is so arid that it supports only desert
birds and mammals. Camels were very successfully employed as pack
animals on the Tule desert in the palmy days of Virginia City, Nevada,
before the advent of railways.
The general conditions of distribution of the fauna of Arizona are shown
even more distinctly by the flora. There are firs and spruces on the
mountains, characteristic of the Boreal zone; pines characteristic of
the Transition zone; pinon juniper, greasewood and the universally
conspicuous sage-brush, characteristic of the Upper Sonoran zone. In the
Lower Sonoran belt, soapweed, acacias (Palo Verde or _Parkinsonia
torreyana_), agaves, yuccas and dasylirions, the creosote bush and
mesquite tree, candle wood, and about seventy-five species of
cactuses--among them omnipresent opuntiae and great columnar
"Chayas"--make up a striking vegetation, which in its colours of dull
grey and olive harmonizes well with the rigidity and forbidding
barrenness of the plains. It has exercised profound influence upon the
industries, arts, faiths and general culture of the Indians. In places
the giant cactus grows in groves, attaining a height of 40 and even 50
ft. The mesquite varies in size from a tangled thorny shrub to a
spreading tree as much as 3 ft. in diameter and 50 ft. high; it is
normally perhaps half as high, and 6-8 in. in diameter. Enduring hardily
great extremes of heat and moisture, it is throughout the arid
South-west the most important, and in many localities the only
important, native tree. From the great juicy, leafless, branchless stalk
of the yucca, soap is prepared, and strong fibres useful in making
paper, rope and fabrics. The fibre of the agave is also made into rope
and its juice into pulque. The canaigre grows wild and is also
cultivated. It is easy to exaggerate greatly the barrenness of an arid
country. There are fine indigenous grasses that spring up over the mesas
after the summer rains, furnishing range for live-stock; some are
extraordinarily independent of the rainfall. In the most arid regions
there is a small growth of green in the rainy season, and a rich display
of small wild-flowers, as well as the enormous flower clusters of the
yucca, and blooms in pink and orange, crimson, yellow and scarlet of the
giant cactus and its fellows. Even in the Mexican border, desert oak,
juniper and manzanita cover the mountains, and there is a vigorous
though short-lived growth of grasses and flower from July to October.
The cliff-dweller country supports a scant vegetation--a few cottonwood
in the washes, a few cedars on the mesas.
Continuous forest areas are scant. A fair variety of trees--cottonwood,
sycamore, ash, willow, walnut and cherry--grow in thickets in the
canyons, and each mountain range is a forest area. Rainfall varying with
the altitude, the lower timber line below which precipitation is
insufficient to sustain a growth of trees is about 7000 ft., and the
upper timber line about 11,500 ft. Oaks, juniper, pinon, cedars, yellow
pine, fir and spruce grow on the mountains and over large areas of the
plateau country.[2] The Coconino forest is one of the largest unbroken
pine forests (about 6000 sq. m.) in the United States. Since 1898 about
86% of the wooded lands have been made reservations, and work has been
done also to preserve the forest areas in the mountains in the
south-east, from which there are few streams of permanent flow to the
enclosing arid valleys.
_Soil._--The soils in the southern part of Arizona are mainly sandy
loams, varying from light loam to heavy, close adobe; on the plateaus is
what is known as "mesa" soil; and along the rivers are limited overflow
plains of fine sediment--especially along the Colorado and the river
Verde. These soils are in general rich, but deficient in nitrogen and
somewhat in humus; and in limited areas white alkaline salts are
injuriously in excess. Virgin soils are densely compact. By far the most
useful crops are leguminous green manures, especially alfalfa, which
grows four to seven cuttings in a year and as a soil flocculator and
nitrogen-storer has proved of the greatest value. The greatest obstacle
to agriculture is lack of water. Artesian wells are much used in the
south-east. For the reservation of the water-partings--in the past
considerably denuded by lumbermen and ranchmen--the increase of the
forest areas, and the creation of reservoirs along the rivers, to
control their erratic flow[3] and impound their flood waste for purposes
of irrigation, much has been done by the national government. The
irrigated areas are only little spots along the permanent streams. In
1900 the farm area was only 2.7% of the total area of the state and only
0.31% was actually improved (including Indian reservations, 0.35%; in
1906, 0.92% was cultivated); of the land actually under crops, 88.5% was
irrigated. The improved acreage more than quintupled from 1880 to 1900.
The total irrigated area in 1900 was 185,000 acres and in 1902, 247,250
acres. The increase in land values by irrigation from 1890 to 1900 is
estimated at $3,500,000. A reservoir was begun in 1904 just below the
junction of the Tonto and the Salt with capacity to store 1,330,000
acre-ft. for irrigation, and develop also an electric power sufficient
to pump underground water for an additional 50,000 acres at the lowest
estimate[4] of lands lying too high for supply by gravity. Another
important undertaking begun about the same time was the throwing of an
East Indian weir dam (the only one in the United States) across the
Colorado near Yuma, and the confinement of both sides of the lower Gila
and Colorado with levees.
_Agriculture._--Strawberries and Sahara dates; alfalfa, wheat, barley,
corn and sorghum; oranges, lemons, wine grapes, limes, olives, figs,
dates, peanuts and sweet potatoes; yams and sugar beets, show the range
of agricultural products. The date palm fruits well; figs grow
luxuriantly, though requiring much irrigation; almonds do well if
protected from spring frosts; sea-island cotton grows in the finest
grades, but is not of commercial importance. The country about Yuma is
particularly suited to subtropical fruits. Temperate fruits--peaches,
pears, apples, apricots and small fruits--do excellently; as do all
important vegetables. The fruit industry is becoming more and more
important. Farming is very intensive, and crop follows crop in swift
succession; in 1905 the yield of barley per acre, 44 bushels, was
greater than in any other state or territory, as was the farm price per
bushel on the 1st of December, 81 cents; the average yield per acre of
hay was the highest in the Union in 1903, 3.46 tons, the general average
being 1.54 tons, was fourth in 1904, 2.71 tons (Utah 3.54, Idaho 3.07,
Nevada 3.04), the general average being 1.52 tons, and was highest in
1905, 3.75 tons, the general average for the country being 1.54 tons;
and in the same three years the average value per acre of hay was
greater in Arizona than in any other state of the Union, being $35.78 in
1903, $40.22 in 1904, and $46.39 in 1905, the general averages for the
country being $13.93, $13.23 and $13.11 respectively, for the three
years. Of the total farm acreage of the state 97.6% were held in 1900 by
the whites; and of these 80.2% owned in whole or in part the land they
cultivated.
Stock-raising is a leading industry, but it has probably attained its
full development. The over-stocking of the ranges has caused much loss
in the past, and the almost total eradication of fine native grasses
over extended areas. Of the neat cattle (7,042,635) almost 98%, and of
the sheep (861,761) almost 100%, were in 1900 pastured wholly or in part
upon the public domain. The extension of national forest reserves and
the regulations enforced by the United States government for the
preservation of the ranges have put limits to the industry. In 1900 the
value of live-stock represented 15.7% of the capital invested in
agriculture; the value of animals sold or slaughtered for food
($3,204,758) was half the total value of all farm products ($6,997,097).
Ostrich farms have been successfully established in the Salt river
valley since 1893; in 1907 there were six farms in the Salt river
valley, on which there were about 1354 birds; the most successful food
for the ostrich is alfalfa.
_Minerals._--Mining is the leading industry of Arizona. Contrary to
venerable traditions there is no evidence that mining was practised
beyond the most inconsiderable extent by aborigines, Spanish
_conquistadores_, or Jesuits. In 1738 an extraordinary deposit of silver
nuggets, quickly exhausted (1741), was discovered at Arizonac. At the
end of the 18th century the Mexicans considerably developed the mines in
the south-east. The second half of the 19th century witnessed several
great finds; first, of gold placers on the lower Gila and Colorado
(1858-1869); later, of lodes at Tombstone, which flourished from
1879-1886, then decayed, but in 1905 had again become the centre of
important mining interests; and still later the development of copper
mines at Jerome and around Bisbee. Several of the Arizona copper mines
are among the greatest of the world. The Copper Queen at Bisbee from
1880-1902 produced 378,047,210 lb. of crude copper, which was
practically the total output of the territory till after 1900, when
other valuable mines were opened; the Globe, Morenci and Jerome
districts are secondary to Bisbee. Important mines of gold and silver,
considerable deposits of wolframite, valuable ores of molybdenum and
vanadium, and quarries of onyx marble, are also worked. Low-grade coal
deposits occur in the east central part of the state and near the
junction of the Gila and San Pedro rivers. Some fine gems of peridot,
garnet and turquoise have been found. The mineral products of Arizona
for 1907 were valued at $56,753,650; of which $51,355,687 (more than
that of any other state) was the value of copper; $2,664,000, gold; and
$1,916,000, silver. In 1907 the legislature passed an elaborate act
providing for the taxation of mines, its principal clause being that the
basis of valuation for taxation in each year be one-fourth of the output
of the mines in question for the next preceding year.
_Manufactures._--The manufacturing industries are of relatively slight
importance, though considerable promise attends the experiments with
canaigre as a source of tannin. The Navaho and Moqui Indians make
woollen blankets and rugs and the Pimas baskets. Onyx marbles of local
source are polished at Phoenix. The capital invested in manufacturing
industries increased from $9,517,573 in 1900 to $14,395,654 in 1905, or
51.3%, and the value of products from $20,438,987 in 1900 to $28,083,192
in 1905, or 37.4%. Of the total product in 1905 the product of the
principal industry, the smelting and refining of copper ($22,761,981),
represented 81.1%; it was 9.4% of all the smelting and refining of
copper done in the United States in that year. The other manufactures
were of much less importance, the principal ones being cars and general
shop construction, including repairs by steam railway companies
($1,329,308), lumber and timber products ($960,778), and flour and grist
mill products ($743,124).
Two transcontinental railway systems, the Southern Pacific and Santa Fe,
were built across Arizona in 1878-1883. They are connected by one line,
and a feeder runs S. into Sonora. The railway mileage of Arizona on the
1st of January 1908 was 1935.35 m.
_Population._--The population of Arizona in 1880 was 40,440; in 1890,
59,620; in 1900, 122,931 (including 28,623 reservation Indians not
counted before); in 1910, 204,354. The native population is of the most
diverse origin; the foreign element is equally heterogeneous, but more
than half (in 1900, 14,172 out of 24,283 foreign-born) are Mexicans,
many of whom are not permanent residents; after 1900, immigrants were
largely mine labourers, and included Slavonians and Italians. The
largest towns in 1900 were Tucson, Phoenix, which is the capital,
Prcscott (pop. 3559), Jerome (pop. 1890, 250; in 1900, 2861); Winslow
(pop. 1890, 363; in 1900, 1305), Nogales (pop. 1900, 1761), and Bisbee.
The last was an insignificant mining camp in 1880, still unincorporated
in 1900, but with an estimated population of 6000 in 1904. It is crowded
picturesquely into several narrow confluent ravines. Railway connexion
with El Paso was established in 1902. Douglas is another growing camp.
Over thirty Indian tribes are represented in the Indian schools of
Arizona. The more important are the Hualapais or Apache-Yumas; the
Mohaves; the Yavapais or Apache-Mohaves; the Yumas, whose lesser
neighbours on the lower Colorado are the most primitive Indians of the
United States in habits; the Maricopas; the Pimas and Papagoes, who
figure much in early Arizona history, and who are superior in
intelligence, adaptability, application and character; the Hopis or
Moquis, possessed of the same good qualities and notably temperate and
provident, famous for their prehistoric culture (Tusuyan); the Navaho,
and the kindred Apaches, perhaps the most relentless and savage of
Indian warriors. All the Indians of Arizona live on reservations save
the few non-tribal Indians taxed and treated as active citizens. Even
the Apaches after being whipped by relentless war into temporary
submission have been bound by treaties which the gifts, vices and
virtues of the reservation system have tempted them to observe. The
Pimas and Papagoes were early converted by the Spaniards, and retain
to-day a smattering of Christianity plentifully alloyed with paganism.
Apaches, Pimas, Papagoes have been employed by the United States on
great irrigation works, and have proved industrious and faithful
labourers. In 1900 there were 1836 taxed Indians, 26,480 reservation
Indians not taxed, and in addition many friendly Papagoes unenumerated.
In 1906 the Indian population was estimated as being 14% of the whole
population of Arizona, and that they are singularly law-abiding is
argued from the fact that in the same year the Indians furnished only 3%
of the convicts in the territorial prison.
_Government and Education._--Arizona became a territory of the first (or
practically autonomous) class in 1863. Her organic law thereafter until
1910 consisted of various sections of the Revised Statutes of the United
States. From the beginning she had a territorial legislature. Congress
retained ultimately direct control of all government, administration
being in the hands of resident officials appointed by the president and
Senate. Special mention must be made of the secret police, the Arizona
Rangers, organized in 1901 to police the cattle ranges; they are
"fearless men, trained in riding, roping, trailing and shooting," a
force whose _personnel_ is not known to the general public. The
legislature repealed the law licensing public gambling in 1907; enacted
a law requiring the payment of $300 per annum as licence fee by retail
liquor dealers; and provided for juvenile courts and probationary
control of children. In 1907 the total tax valuation of property was
$77,705,251; the net debt of the territory $1,022,972, and that of
counties and towns $3,123,275. The receipts of the territorial treasury
for the year ending on the 30th of June 1907 were $687,386, and the
disbursements for the same period were $601,568. A homestead provision
(1901) exempts from liability for debts (except mortgages or liens
placed before the homestead claim) any homestead belonging to the head
of a family, existing in one compact body and valued at not more than
$2500; such a homestead a married man may not sell, lease or put a lien
on without his wife's consent. Personal property to the value of $500 is
exempt from the same liability. The public school system was established
in 1871. A compulsory attendance law applies to children between 6 and
14 years of age, but it is not generally obeyed by the Mexican element
of population. In 1907 there was an enrolment of 24,962 out of 33,167
children of school age; there were six high schools--three new in 1906;
and the average number of school days was 128.4. In the fiscal year
ending June 1907, the total receipts for schools were $697,762, and the
expenditures were $701,102. Illiteracy is high, amounting in 1900 to
23.1% of native males, above 21 years of age, and 30.5% of foreign
males, principally because of the large number of Indians, Chinese,
Japanese and Mexicans in the state. There are two normal schools at
Tempe (1886) and Flagstaff (1899), a university at Tucson with an
agricultural experiment station that has done much for the industries of
Arizona; there is a considerable number of Indian schools, the largest
of which are maintained by the national government, and the funds of the
university come largely from the same source. The first juvenile reform
school, called the Territorial Industrial school, was opened in 1903 at
Benson. The territorial prison, formerly at Yuma, was abandoned for a
modern building at Florence, Pinal county; and a hospital for the insane
is 3 m. from Phoenix.
_History._--The history of the South-west is full of interest to the
archaeologist. A prehistoric culture widely distributed has left
abundant traces. Pueblo ruins are plentiful in the basins of the Gila
and Colorado rivers and their tributaries. Geographical conditions and a
hard struggle against nature fixed the character of this "aridian"
culture, and determined its migrations; the onslaughts of nomad Indians
determined the sedentary civilization of the cliff dwellers. A
co-operative social economy is evidenced by the traces of great public
works, such as canals many miles in length. The pueblos of the Gila
valley are held to be older than those of the Colorado. Casa Grande, 15
m. S.E. of a railway station of the same name on the Southern Pacific
railway, is the most remarkable of plain ruins in the South-west, the
only one of its type in the United States. It resembles the Casa Grande
ruin of Chihuahua, Mexico, with its walls of sun-dried puddled clay, and
its area of rooms, courts and plazas, surrounded by a wall. It was
already a ruin when discovered in 1694 by the Jesuit father Kino. John
Russel Bartlett described it in 1854, and in 1889 Congress voted that it
be protected as a government reservation; in 1892 it was set apart by
the government. Excavations were made there in 1906-1907 by Dr J. Walter
Fewkes. Migration was northward. The valleys of the Salt river and its
affluents, the Agua Fria, Verde and Tonto, are strewn with aboriginal
remains; but especially important in migrations of culture was the
Little Colorado. A very considerable population must have lived once in
this valley. It is represented to-day by the still undeserted habitats
of Zuni (in New Mexico) and Tusayan; the Moquis, after the Zunis, are in
customs and traditions the best survival of the ancient civilization.
Arizona north of the Gila, save for a very limited and intermittent
missionary effort and for scant exploring expeditions, was practically
unknown to the whites until well after the beginning of American rule.
The Santa Cruz valley, however, has much older annals of a past that
charms by its picturesque contrasts with the present. Arizona history
begins with the arrival in Sonora in 1536 of Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca,
who, although he had not entered Arizona or New Mexico, had heard of
them, and by his stories incited the Spaniards to explore the unknown
north in hope of wealth. Marcos de Niza, a Franciscan friar to whom the
first reconnaissance was entrusted, was the first Spaniard to enter the
limits of Arizona. He crossed the south-eastern corner to Zuni in 1539,
passing through the Santa Cruz valley; and F.V. de Coronado (q.v.) was
led by Fray Marcos over the same route in 1540; while Hernando Alarcon
explored the Gulf of California and the lower Colorado river. Members of
Coronado's expedition explored the Moqui country and reached the Grand
Canyon, and after this a succession of remarkable and heroic
explorations followed through the century; which however accomplished
little for geography, further confusing and embellishing rather than
clearing up its mysteries. All this has left traces in still living
myths about the early history of the South-west. Early in the 17th
century considerable progress had been made in Christianizing the Pimas,
Papagoes and Moquis. Following 1680 came a great Indian revolt in New
Mexico and Arizona, and thereafter the Moquis remained independent of
Spanish and Christian domination, although visited fitfully by rival
Jesuits and Franciscans. In 1732 (possibly in 1720) regular Jesuit
missions were founded at Bac (known as an Indian rancheria since the
17th century) and at Guevavi. The region south of the Gila had already
been repeatedly explored. In the second half of the century there was a
presidio at Tubac (whose name first appears 1752) and some half-dozen
pueblos de visita, including the Indian settlement of Tucson.
A few errors should be corrected and some credit given with reference to
this early period. The Inquisition never had any jurisdiction whatever
over the Indians; compulsory labour by the Indians was never legalized
except on the missions, and the law was little violated; they were never
compelled to work mines; of mining by the Indians for precious metals
there is no evidence; nor by the Jesuits (expelled in 1767, after which
their missions and other properties were held by the Franciscans),
except to a small extent about the presidio of Tubac, although they did
some prospecting. Persistent traditions have greatly exaggerated the
former prosperity of the old South-west. The Spaniards probably provoked
some inter-tribal intercourse among the Indians, and did something among
some tribes for agriculture. Their own farms and settlements, save in
the immediate vicinity of the presidio, were often plundered and
abandoned, and such settlement as there was was confined to the Santa
Cruz valley. From about 1790 to 1822 was a period of peace with the
Apaches and of comparative prosperity for church and state. The fine
Indian mission church at Bac, long abandoned and neglected, dates from
the last decade of the 18th century. The establishment of a presidio at
Tucson in 1776 marks its beginning as a Spanish settlement.
The decay of the military power of the presidios during the Mexican war
of independence, the expulsion of loyal Spaniards--notably friars--and
the renewal of Apache wars, led to the temporary abandonment of all
settlements except Tubac and Tucson. The church practically forsook the
field about 1828.
American traders and explorers first penetrated Arizona in the first
quarter of the 19th century. As a result of the Mexican War, New Mexico,
which then included all Arizona north of the Gila, was ceded to the
United States. California gold discoveries drew particular attention to
the country south of the Gila, which was wanted also for a
transcontinental railway route. This strip, known as the "Gadsden
Purchase" (see GADSDEN, JAMES), was bought in 1854 by the United States,
which took possession in 1856. This portion was also added to New
Mexico. The Mexicans, pressed by the Apaches, had, in 1848, abandoned
even Tubac and Tamacacori, first a visita of Guevavi, and after 1784 a
mission. The progress of American settlement was interrupted by the
Civil War, which caused the withdrawal of the troops and was the
occasion for the outbreak of prolonged Indian wars.
Meanwhile a convention at Tucson in 1856 sent a delegate to Congress and
petitioned for independent territorial government. This movement and
others that followed were ignored by Congress owing to its division over
the general slavery question, and especially the belief of northern
members that the control of Arizona was an object of the pro-slavery
party. A convention held in April 1860 at Tucson undertook to "ordain
and establish," of its own motion, a provisional constitution until
Congress should "organize a territorial government." This provisional
territory constituted all New Mexico south of 34 deg. 40' N. Officials
were appointed and New Mexican legislation for the Arizona counties
ignored, but nothing further was done. In 1861 it was occupied by a
Texan force, declared for the Confederacy, and sent a delegate (who was
not admitted) to the Confederate congress. That body in January 1862
passed a formal act organizing the territory, including in it New
Mexico, but in May 1862 the Texans were driven out by a Union force from
California. By act of the 24th of February 1863 Congress organized
Arizona territory as the country west of 109 deg. W. long. In December
an itinerant government sent out complete from Washington crossed the
Arizona line and effected a formal organization. The territorial capital
was first at Prescott (1863-1867), then at Tucson (1867-1877), again at
Prescott (1877-1889), and finally at Phoenix (since 1889).
There have been boundary difficulties with every contiguous state or
territory. The early period of American rule was extremely unsettled.
The California gold discoveries and overland travel directed many
prospecting adventurers to Arizona. For some years there was
considerable sentiment favouring filibustering in Sonora. The Indian
wars, breeding a habit of dependence on force, and the heterogeneous
elements of cattle thieves, Sonoran cowboys, mine labourers and
adventurers led to one of the worst periods of American border history.
But since about 1880 there is nothing to chronicle but a continued
growth in population and prosperity. Agitation for statehood became
prominent in territorial politics for some years. In accordance with an
act of Congress, approved on the 16th of June 1906, the inhabitants of
Arizona and New Mexico voted on the 6th of November 1906 on the question
of uniting the territories into a single state to be called Arizona; the
vote of New Mexico was favourable to union and statehood, but these were
defeated by the vote of Arizona (16,265 against, and 3141 for
statehood). In June 1910 the President approved an enabling act
providing for the admission of Arizona and New Mexico as separate
states.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the Colorado river and the Grand Canyon see those
articles; for the Sonoran boundary region, _Report of the Boundary
Commission upon the Boundaries between the United States and Mexico_
(3 vols., Washington, 1898-1899, also as Senate Document No. 247,
vols. 23-25, 55 Congress, 2 Session); for the petrified forest of the
Painted Desert, L.F. Ward in _Smithsonian Institution_ Annual Rep.,
1899; for the rest of the area, various reports in the U.S. Geological
Survey publications, bibliography in _Bulletin_ Nos. 100, 177.--FAUNA
and FLORA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, _North American Fauna_, No.
3 (1890), No. 7 (1893); _U.S. Biological Survey, Bulletin_ No. 10
(1898); publications of the Desert Botanical Laboratory at Tucson;
also titles under archaeology below, particularly Bandelier's "Final
Report."--CLIMATE, SOIL, AGRICULTURE: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
_Climate and Crop Service, Arizona_, monthly reports, annual
summaries; Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station,
_Bulletins._--MINERAL INDUSTRIES: U.S. Geological Survey publications,
consult bibliographies; _The Mineral Industry_, annual (New York and
London).--GOVERNMENT: _Arizona Revised Statutes_ (Phoenix, 1887);
_Report of the Governor of Arizona Territory to the Secretary of the
Interior_, annual.--ARCHAEOLOGY: An abundance of materials in the
_Annual Report, U.S. Bureau of Ethnology_ for different years; consult
also especially A.F.A. Bandelier, "Contributions to the History of
the South-western Portion of the United States," in _Archaeological
Institute of America, Papers, American Series_, vol. 5 (Cambridge,
1890); "Final Report of Investigations among the Indians of the
South-western United States," _ib._ vols. 3 and 4 (Cambridge,
1890-1892); other material may be found in Smithsonian Institution,
_Annual Report_, 1896, 1897, &c., and many important papers by J.W.
Fewkes, F.W. Hodge, C. Mendeleff and others in the _American
Anthropologist_ and _Journal of American Ethnology._--HISTORY: H.H.
Bancroft, _History of Arizona and New Mexico_ (San Francisco, 1887);
A.F.A. Bandelier, "Historical Introduction to Studies among the
Sedentary Indians of New Mexico," in _Archaeological Institute of
America, Papers, American Series_, vol. 1 (Boston, 1881); _The Gilded
Man (El Dorado) and other Papers_ (New York, 1893); G.P. Winship,
"The Coronado Expedition," in _U.S. Bureau of Ethnology, 14th Annual
Report_ (1892-1893), pp. 339-613, with an abundant literature to which
this may be the guide. The traditional errors respecting the early
history of the Spanish South-west are fully exposed in the works of
Bancroft and Bandelier, whose conclusions are supported by E. Coues,
_On the Trail of a Spanish Pioneer, Francisco Garces_ (2 vols. New
York, 1900).