may be divided primarily into three great divisions--the mountainous
zone and tablelands of the west, extending the full length of the
republic; the great plains of the east, extending from the Pilcomayo
to the Rio Negro; and the desolate, arid steppes of Patagonia. The
first covers from one-third to one-fourth of the width of the country
between the Bolivian frontier and the Rio Negro, and comprises the
elevated Cordilleras and their plateaus, with flanking ranges and
spurs toward the east. In the extreme north, extending southward from
the great Bolivian highlands, there are several parallel ranges, the
most prominent of which are: the Sierra de Santa Catalina, from which
the detached Cachi, Gulumpaji and Famatina ranges project southward;
and the Sierra de Santa Victoria, south of which are the Zenta,
Aconquija, Ambato and Ancaste ranges. These minor ranges, excepting
the Zenta, are separated from the Andean masses by comparatively low
depressions and are usually described as distinct ranges;
topographically, however, they seem to form a continuation of the
ranges running southward from the Santa Victoria and forming the
eastern rampart of the great central plateau of which the Puna de
Atacama covers a large part. The elevated plateaus between these
ranges are semi-arid and inhospitable, and are covered with extensive
saline basins, which become lagoons in the wet season and morasses or
dry salt-pans in the dry season. These saline basins extend down to
the lower terraces of Cordoba, Mendoza and La Pampa. Flanking this
great widening of the Andes on the south-east are the three short
parallel ranges of Cordoba, belonging to another and older formation.
North of them is the great saline depression, known as the "salinas
grandes," 643 ft. above sea-level, where it is crossed by a railway;
north-east is another extensive saline basin enclosing the "Mar
Chiquita" (of Cordoba) and the morasses into which the waters of the
Rio Saladillo disappear; and on the north are the more elevated
plains, partly saline, of western Cordoba, which separate this
isolated group of mountains from the Andean spurs of Rioja and San
Luis. The eastern ranges parallel to the Andes are here broken into
detached extensions and spurs, which soon disappear in the elevated
western pampas, and the Andes contract south of Aconcagua to a single
range, which descends gradually to the great plains of La Pampa and
Neuquen. The lower terrace of this great mountainous region, with
elevations ranging from 1000 to 1500 ft., is in reality the western
margin of the great Argentine plain, and may be traced from Oran (1017
ft.) near the Bolivian frontier southward through Tucuman (1476 ft.),
Frias (1129 ft.), Cordoba (1279 ft.), Rio Cuarto (1358 ft.), Paunero
(1250 ft.), and thence westward and southward through still unsettled
regions to the Rio Negro at the confluence of the Neuquen and Limay.
The Argentine part of the great La Plata plain extends from the
Pilcomayo south to the Rio Negro, and from the lower terraces of the
Andes eastward to the Uruguay and Atlantic. In the north the plain is
known as the Gran Chaco, and includes the country between the
Pilcomayo and Salado del Norte and an extensive depression immediately
north of the latter river, believed to be the undisturbed bottom of
the ancient Pampean sea. The northern part of the Gran Chaco is partly
wooded and swampy, and as the slope eastward is very gentle and the
rivers much obstructed by sand bars, floating trees and vegetation,
large areas are regularly flooded during rainy seasons. South of the
Bermejo the land is more elevated and drier, though large depressions
covered with marshy lagoons are to be found, similar to those farther
north. The forests here are heavier. Still farther south and
south-west there are open grassy plains and large areas covered with
salt-pans. The general elevation of the Chaco varies from 600 to 800
ft. above sea-level. The Argentine "mesopotamia," between the Parana
and Uruguay rivers, belongs in great measure to this same region,
being partly wooded, flat and swampy in the north (Corrientes), but
higher and undulating in the south (Entre Rios). The Misiones
territory of the extreme north-east belongs to the older highlands of
Brazil, is densely wooded, and has ranges of hills sometimes rising to
a height of 1000 to 1300 ft.
The remainder of the great Argentine plain is the treeless, grassy
_pampa_ (Quichua for "level spaces"), apparently a dead level, but in
reality rising gradually from the Atlantic westward toward the Andes.
Evidence of this is to be found in the altitudes of the stations on
the Buenos Aires and Pacific railway running a little north of west
across the pampas to Mendoza. The average elevation of Buenos Aires is
about 65 ft.; of Mercedes, 70 m. westward, 132 ft.; of Junin (160 m.),
267 ft.; and of Paunero (400 m.) it is 1250 ft., showing an average
rise of about 3 ft. in a mile. The apparently uniform level of the
pampas is much broken along its southern margin by the Tandil and
Ventana sierras, and by ranges of hills and low mountains in the
southern and western parts of the territory of La Pampa. Extensive
depressions also are found, some of which are subject to inundations,
as along the lower Salado in Buenos Aires and along the lower courses
of the Colorado and Negro. In the extreme west, which is as yet but
slightly explored and settled, there is an extensive depressed area,
largely saline in character, which drains into lakes and morasses,
having no outlet to the ocean. The rainfall is under 6 in. annually,
but the drainage from the eastern slopes of the Andes is large enough
to meet the loss from evaporation and keep these inland lakes from
drying up. At an early period this depressed area drained southward to
the Colorado, and the bed of the old outlet can still be traced. The
rivers belonging to this inland drainage system are the Vermejo, San
Juan and Desaguadero, with their affluents, and their southward flow
can be traced from about 28 deg. S. lat. to the great lagoons and
morasses between 36 deg. and 37 deg. S. lat. in the western part of La
Pampa territory. Some of the principal affluents are the Vinchina and
Jachal, or Zanjon, which flow into the Vermejo, the Patos, which flows
into the San Juan, and the Mendoza, Tunuyan and Diamante which flow
into the Desaguadero, all of these being Andean snow-fed rivers. The
Desaguadero also receives the outflow of the Laguna Bebedero, an
intensely saline lake of western San Luis. The lower course of the
Desaguadero is known as the Salado because of the brackish character
of its water. Another considerable river flowing into the same great
morass is the Atuel, which rises in the Andes not far south of the
Diamante. (A description of the Patagonian part of Argentina will be
found under PATAGONIA.)
_Rivers and Lakes._--The hydrography of Argentina is of the simplest
character. The three great rivers that form the La Plata system--the
Paraguay, Parana and Uruguay--have their sources in the highlands of
Brazil and flow southward through a great continental depression, two
of them forming eastern boundary lines, and one of them, the Parana,
flowing across the eastern part of the republic. The northern part of
Argentina, therefore, drains eastward from the mountains to these
rivers, except where some great inland depression gives rise to a
drainage having no outlet to the sea, and except, also, in the
"mesopotamia" region, where small streams flow westward into the
Parana and eastward into the Uruguay. The largest of the rivers
through which Argentina drains into the Plata system are the
Pilcomayo, which rises in Bolivia and flows south-east along the
Argentine frontier for about 400 m.; the Bermejo, which rises on the
northern frontier and flows south-east into the Paraguay; and the
Salado del Norte (called Rio del Jura-mento in its upper course),
which rises on the high mountain slopes of western Salta and flows
south-east into the Parana. Another river of this class is the
Carcaranal, about 300 m. long, formed by the confluence of the Tercero
and Cuarto, whose sources are in the Sierra de Cordoba; it flows
eastward across the pampas, and discharges into the Parana at Gaboto,
about 40 m. above Rosario. Other small rivers rising in the Cordoba
sierras are the Primero and Segundo, which flow into the lagoons of
north-east Cordoba, and the Quinto, which flows south-easterly into
the lagoons and morasses of southern Cordoba. The Lujan rises near
Mercedes, province of Buenos Aires, is about 150 m. long, and flows
north-easterly into the Parana delta. Many smaller streams discharge
into the Paraguay and Parana from the west, some of them wholly
dependent upon the rains, and drying up during long droughts. The
Argentine "mesopotamia" is well watered by a large number of small
streams flowing north and west into the Parana, and east into the
Uruguay. The largest of these are the Corrientes, Feliciano and
Gualeguay of the western slope, and the Aguapey and Mirinay of the
eastern. None of the tributaries of the La Plata system thus far
mentioned is navigable except the lower Pilcomayo and Bermejo for a
few miles. These Chaco rivers are obstructed by sand bars and snags,
which could be removed only by an expenditure of money unwarranted by
the present population and traffic. In the southern pampa region there
are many small streams, flowing into the La Plata estuary and the
Atlantic; most of these are unknown by name outside the republic. The
largest and only important river is the Salado del Sud, which rises in
the north-west corner of the province of Buenos Aires and flows
south-east for a distance of 360 m. into the bay of Samborombon. On
the southern margin of the pampas are the Colorado and Negro, both
large, navigable rivers flowing entirely across the republic from the
Andes to the Atlantic. Many of the rivers of Argentina, as implied by
their names (Salado and Saladillo), are saline or brackish in
character, and are of slight use in the pastoral and agricultural
industries of the country. The lakes of Argentina are exceptionally
numerous, although comparatively few are large enough to merit a name
on the ordinary general map. They vary from shallow, saline lagoons in
the north-western plateaus, to great, picturesque, snow-fed lakes in
the Andean foothills of Patagonia. The province of Buenos Aires has
more than 600 lakes, the great majority small, and some brackish. The
La Pampa territory also is dotted with small lakes. The Bebedero, in
San Luis, and Porongos, in Cordoba, and others, are shallow, saline
lakes which receive the drainage of a considerable area and have no
outlet. The large saline Mar Chiquita, of Cordoba, is fed from the
Sierra de Cordoba and has no outlet. In the northern part of
Gorrientes there is a large area of swamps and shallow lagoons which
are believed to be slowly drying up.
_Harbours._--Although having a great extent of coast-line, Argentina
has but few really good harbours. The two most frequented by
ocean-going vessels are Buenos Aires and Ensenada (La Plata), both of
which have been constructed at great expense to overcome natural
disadvantages. Perhaps the best natural harbour of the republic is
that of Bahia Blanca, a large bay of good depth, sheltered by islands,
and 534 m. by sea south of Buenos Aires; here the government is
building a naval station and port called Puerto Militar or Puerto
Belgrano, and little dredging is needed to render the harbour
accessible to the largest ocean-going vessels. About 100 m. south of
Bahia Blanca is the sheltered bay of San Bias, which may become of
commercial importance, and between the 42nd and 43rd parallels are the
land-locked bays of San Jose and Nueva (Golfo Nuevo)--the first as yet
unused; on the latter is Puerto Madryn, 838 m. from Buenos Aires, the
outlet for the Welsh colony of Chubut. Other small harbours on the
lower Patagonian coast are not prominent, owing to lack of population.
An occasional Argentine steamer visits these ports in the interests of
colonists. The beet-known among them are Puerto Deseado (Port Desire)
at the mouth of the Deseado river (1253 m.), Santa Cruz, at the mouth
of the Santa Cruz river (1481 m.), and Ushuaia, on Beagle Channel,
Tierra del Fuego. North of Buenos Aires, on the Parana river, is the
port of Rosario, the outlet for a rich agricultural district, ranking
next to the federal capital in importance. Other river ports, of less
importance, are Concordia on the Uruguay river, San Nicolas and
Campana on the Parana river, Santa Fe on the Salado, a few miles from
the Parana, the city of Parana on the Parana river, and Gualeguay on
the Gualeguay river.
_Geology._--The Pampas of Argentina are generally covered by loess.
The Cordillera, which bounds them on the west, is formed of folded
beds, while the Sierras which rise in their midst, consist mainly of
gneiss, granite and schist. In the western Sierras, which are more or
less closely attached to the main chain of the Cordillera, Cambrian
and Silurian fossils have been found at several places. These older
beds are overlaid, especially in the western part of the country, by a
sandstone series which contains thin seams of coal and many remains of
plants. At Bajo de Velis, in San Luis, the plants belong to the
"Glossopteris flora," which is so widely spread in South Africa, India
and Australia, and the beds are correlated with the Karharbari series
of India (Permian or Permo-Carboni-ferous). Elsewhere the plants
generally indicate a higher horizon and are considered to correspond
with the Rhaetic of Europe. Jurassic beds are known only in the
Cordillera itself, and the Cretaceous beds, which occur in the west of
the country, are of fresh-water origin. As far west, therefore, as the
Cordillera, there is no evidence that any part of the region was ever
beneath the sea in Mesozoic times, and the plant-remains indicate a
land connexion with Africa. This view is supported by Neumayr's
comparison of Jurassic faunas throughout the world. The Lower Tertiary
consists largely of reddish sandstones resting upon the old rocks of
the Cordillera and of the Sierras. Towards the east they lie at a
lower level; but in the Andes they reach a height of nearly 10,000
ft., and are strongly folded, showing that the elevation of the chain
was not completed until after their deposition. The marine facies of
the later Tertiaries is confined to the neighbourhood of the coast,
and was probably formed after the elevation of the Andes; but inland,
fresh-water deposits of this period are met with, especially in
Patagonia. Contemporaneous volcanic rocks are associated with the
Ordovician beds and with the Rhaetic sandstones in several places.
During the Tertiary period the great volcanoes of the Andes were
formed, and there were smaller eruptions in the Sierras. The principal
rocks are andesites, but trachytes and basalts are also common. Great
masses of granite, syenite and diorite were intruded at this period,
and send tongues even into the andesitic tuffs.
Silver, gold, lead and copper ores occur in many localities. They are
found chiefly in the neighbourhood of the eruptive masses of the hilly
regions. (See also ANDES.)[1]
_Climate._--The great extent of Argentina in latitude--about 33
deg.--and its range in altitude from sea-level westward to the
permanently snow-covered peaks of the Andes, give it a highly
diversified climate, which is further modified by prevailing winds and
mountain barriers. The temperature and rainfall are governed by
conditions different from those in corresponding latitudes of the
northern hemisphere. Southern Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, for
instance, although they correspond in latitude to Labrador, are made
habitable and an excellent sheep-grazing country by the southerly
equatorial current along the continental coast. The climate, however,
is colder than the corresponding latitudes of western Europe, because
of the prevailing westerly winds, chilled in crossing the Andes. In
the extreme north-west an elevated region, whose aridity is caused by
the "blanketing" influence of the eastern Andean ranges, extends
southward to Mendoza. The northern part of the republic, east of the
mountains, is subject to the oscillatory movements of the south-east
trade winds, which cause a division of the year into wet and dry
seasons. Farther south, in Patagonia, the prevailing wind is westerly,
in which case the Andes again "blanket" an extensive region and
deprive it of rain, turning it into an arid desolate steppe. Below
this region, where the Andean barrier is low and broken, the moist
westerly winds sweep over the land freely and give it a large
rainfall, good pastures and a vigorous forest growth. If the republic
be divided into sections by east and west lines, diversities of
climate in the same latitude appear. In the extreme north a little
over a degree and a half of territory lies within the torrid zone,
extending from the Pilcomayo about 500 m. westward to the Chilean
frontier; its eastern end is in the low, wooded plain of the Gran
Chaco, where the mean annual temperature is 73 deg. F., and the annual
rainfall is 63 in.; but on the arid, elevated plateau at its western
extremity the temperature falls below 57 deg. F., and the rainfall has
diminished to 2 in. The character of the soil changes from the
alluvial lowlands of the Gran Chaco, covered with forests of palms and
other tropical vegetation, to the sandy, saline wastes of the Puna de
Atacama, almost barren of vegetation and overshadowed by permanently
snow-crowned peaks. Between the 30th and 31st parallels, a region
essentially sub-tropical in character, the temperature ranges from 66
deg. on the eastern plains to 62-5 deg. in Cordoba and 64 deg. F. on
the higher, arid, sun-parched tablelands of San Juan. The rainfall,
which varies between 39 and 47 in. in Entre Rios, decreases to 27 in.
in Cordoba and 2 in. in San Juan. The republic has a width of about
745 m. at this point, three-fourths of which is a comparatively level
alluvial plain, and the remainder an arid plateau broken by mountain
ranges. In the vicinity of Buenos Aires the climatic conditions vary
very little from those of the pampa region; the mean annual
temperature is about 63 deg. (maximum 104 deg.; minimum 32 deg.), and
the annual rainfall is 34 in.; snow is rarely seen. South of the pampa
region, on the 40th parallel, the mean temperature varies only
slightly in the 370 m. from the mouth of the Colorado to the Andes,
ranging from 57 deg. to 55 deg.; but the rainfall increases from 8 in.
on the coast to 16 in. on the east slope of the Cordillera. This
section is near the northern border of the arid Patagonian steppes. In
Tierra del Fuego (lat. 53 deg. to 55 deg.), the climatic conditions
are in strong contrast to those of the north. Here the mean
temperature is between 46 deg. and 48 deg. in summer and 36 deg. and
38 deg. in winter, rains are frequent, and snow falls every month in
the year. The central and southern parts of the island and the
neighbouring Staten Island are exceptionally rainy, the latter having
251-1/2 rainy days in the year. The precipitation of rain, snow and
hail is about 55
in.
[Illustration: Map of Argentina, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay.]
The prevailing winds through this southern region are westerly, being
moist below the 52nd parallel, and dry between it and the 40th
parallel. In the north and on the pampas the north wind is hot and
depressing, while the south wind is cool and refreshing. The north
wind usually terminates with a thunderstorm or with a _pampero_, a
cold south-west wind from the Andes which blows with great violence,
causes a fall in temperature of 15 deg. to 20 deg., and is most
frequent from June to November--the southern winter and spring. In the
Andean region, a dry, hot wind from the north or north-west, called
the _Zonda_, blows with great intensity, especially in
September-October, and causes much discomfort and suffering. It is
followed by a cold south wind which often lowers the temperature 25
deg. The climate of the pampas is temperate and healthy, and is
admirably suited to agricultural and pastoral pursuits. Its greatest
defect is the cold southerly and westerly storms, which cause great
losses in cattle and sheep. The Patagonian coast-line and mountainous
region are also healthy, having a dry and bracing climate. In the
north, however, the hot lowlands are malarial and unsuited to north
European settlement, while the dry, elevated plateaus are celebrated
for their healthiness, those of Catamarca having an excellent
reputation as a sanatorium for sufferers from pulmonary and bronchial
diseases.
_Flora._--The flora of Argentina should be studied according to
natural zones corresponding to the physical divisions of the
country--the rich tropical and sub-tropical regions of the north, the
treeless pampas of the centre, the desert steppes of the south, and
the arid plateaus of the north-west. The vegetation of each region has
its distinctive character, modified here and there by elevation,
irrigation from mountain streams, and by the saline character of the
soil. In the extreme south, where an Arctic vegetation is found, the
pastures are rich, and the forests, largely of the Antarctic beech
(_Fagus antarctica_), are vigorous wherever the rainfall is heavy. The
greater part of Patagonia is comparatively barren and has no arboreal
growth, except in the well-watered valleys of the Andean foothills.
The water-courses and depressions of the shingly steppts afford
pasturage sufficient for the guanaco, and in places support a thorny
vegetation of low growth and starved appearance. The Antarctic beech
and Winter's bark (_Drimys Winteri_) are found at intervals along the
Andes to the northern limits of this zone. The pampas, which cover so
large a part of the republic, have no native trees whatever, and no
woods except the scrubby growth of the delta islands of the Parana,
and a fringe of low thorn-bushes along the Atlantic coast south to Mar
Chiquita and south of the Tandil sierra, which, strictly speaking,
does not belong to this region. The great plains are covered with
edible grasses, divided into two classes, _pasto duro_ (hard grass)
and _pasto blando_, or _tierno_ (soft grass)--the former tall, coarse,
nutritious and suitable for horses and cattle, and the latter tender
grasses and herbs, including clovers, suitable for sheep and cattle.
The so-called "pampas-grass" (_Gynerium argenteum_) is not found at
all on the dry lands, but in the wet grounds of the south and
south-west. The _pasto duro_ is largely composed of the genera _Stipa_
and _Melica_. In the dry, saline regions of the west and north-west,
where the rainfall is slight, there are large thickets of low-growing,
thorny bushes, poor in foliage. The predominating species is the
chanar (_Gurliaca decorticans_), which produces an edible berry, and
occurs from the Rio Negro to the northern limits of the republic. Huge
cacti are also characteristic of this region. On the lower slopes of
the Andes are found oak, beech, cedar, Winter's bark, pine (_Araucaria
imbricata_), laurel and calden (_Prosopis algarobilla_). The provinces
of Santa Fe, Cordoba and Santiago del Estero are only partially
wooded; large areas of plains are intermingled with scrubby forests of
algarrobo (_Prosopis_), quebracho-blanco (_Aspido-sperma quebracho_),
tala (_Celtis tola_, _Sellowiana_, _acuminata_), acacias and other
genera. In Tucuman and eastern Salta the same division into forests
and open plains exists, but the former are of denser growth and
contain walnut, cedar, laurel, tipa (_Machaerium fertile_) and
quebracho-colorado (_Loxopterygium Lorentzii_). The territories of the
Gran Chaco, however, are covered with a characteristic tropical
vegetation, in which the palm predominates, but intermingled south of
the Bermejo with heavy growths of algarrobo, quebracho-colorado,
urunday (_Astronium fraxinifolium_), lapacho (_Tecoma curialis_) and
palosanto (_Cuayacum officinalis_), all esteemed for hardness and
fineness of grain. Other palms abound, such as the pindo (_Cocos
australis_), mbocaya (_Cocos sclerocarpa_) and the yatai (_Cocos
yatai_), but the predominating species north of the Bermejo is the
caranday or Brazilian wax-palm (_Copernicia cerifera_), which has
varied uses. The forest habit in this region is close association of
species, and there are "palmares," "algarrobales," "chanarales," &c,,
and among these open pasture lands, giving to a distant landscape a
park-like appearance. In the "mesopotamia" region the flora is similar
to that of the southern Chaco, but in the Misiones it approximates
more to that of the neighbouring Brazilian highlands. Among the
marvellous changes wrought in Argentina by the advent of European
civilization, is the creation of a new flora by the introduction of
useful trees and plants from every part of the world. Indian corn,
quinoa, mandioca, possibly the potato, cotton and various fruits,
including the strawberry, were already known to the aborigines, but
with the conqueror came wheat, barley, oats, flax, many kinds of
vegetables, apples, peaches, apricots, pears, grapes, figs, oranges
and lemons, together with alfalfa and new grasses for the plains. The
Australian eucalyptus is now grown in many places, and there are
groves of the paradise or paraiso tree (_Melia azedarach_) on the
formerly treeless pampa. The cereals of Europe are a source of
increasing wealth to the nation, and alfalfa promises new prosperity
for pastoral industries.
_Fauna._--The Argentine fauna, like its flora, has been greatly
influenced by the character and position of the pampas. Whatever it
may have been in remote geological periods, it is now extremely
limited both in size and numbers. Of the indigenous fauna, the tapir
of the north and the guanaco of the west and south are the largest of
the animals. The pampas were almost destitute of animal life before
the horses and cattle of the Spanish invaders were there turned out to
graze, and the puma and jaguar never came there until the herds of
European cattle attracted them. The timid viscacha (_Lagostomus
trichodactylus_), living in colonies, often with the burrowing owl,
and digging deep under ground like the American prairie dog, was
almost the only quadruped to be seen upon these immense open plains.
The fox, of which several species exist, probably never ventured far
into the plain, for it afforded him no shelter. Immense flocks of
gulls were probably attracted to it then as now by its insect life,
and its lagoons and streams teemed with aquatic birds. The occupation
of this region by Europeans, and the introduction of horses, asses,
cattle, sheep, goats and swine, have completely changed its aspect and
character. On the Patagonian steppes there are comparatively few
species of animals. Among them are the puma (_Felis concolor_), a
smaller variety of the jaguar (_Felis onca_), the wolf, the fox, the
Patagonian hare (_Dolichotis patagonica_) and two species of wild cat.
The huge glyptodon once inhabited this region, which now possesses the
smallest armadillo known, the "quir-quincho" or _Dasypus minutus_. The
guanaco (_Auchenia_), which ranges from Tierra del Fuego to the
Bolivian highlands, finds comparative safety in these uninhabitable
solitudes, and is still numerous. The "nandu" or American ostrich
(_Rhea americana_), inhabiting the pampas and open plains of the
Chaco, has in Patagonia a smaller counterpart (_Rhea Darwinii_), which
is never seen north of the Rio Negro. On the arid plateaus of the
north-west, the guanaco and vicuna are still to be found, though less
frequently, together with a smaller species of viscacha (_Lagidium
cuvieri_). The greatest development of the Argentine fauna, however,
is in the warm, wooded regions of the north and north-east, where many
animals are of the same species as those in the neighbouring
territories of Brazil. Several species of monkeys inhabit the forests
from the Parana to the Bolivian frontier. Pumas, jaguars and one or
two species of wild cat are numerous, as also the Argentine wolf and
two of three species of fox. The coati, marten, skunk and otter
(_Lutra paranensis_) are widely distributed. Three species of deer are
common. In the Chaco the tapir or anta (_Tapir americanus_) still
finds a safe retreat, and the peccary (_Dycotyles torquatus_) ranges
from Cordoba north to the Bolivian frontier. The capybara
(_Hydrochoerus capybara_) is also numerous in this region. Of birds
the number of species greatly exceeds that of the mammals, including
the rhea of the pampas and condor of the Andes, and the tiny,
brilliant-hued humming-birds of the tropical North. Vultures and hawks
are well represented, but perhaps the most numerous of all are the
parrots, of which there are six or seven species. The reptilians are
represented in the Parana by the jacare (_Alligator sclerpos_), and on
land by the "iguana" (_Teius teguexim, Podinema teguixin_), and some
species of lizard. Serpents are numerous, but only two are described
as poisonous, the cascavel (rattlesnake) and the "vibora de la cruz"
(_Trigonocephalus alternatus_).[2]
_Population._--In population Argentina ranks second among the republics
of South America, having outstripped, during the last quarter of the
19th century, the once more populous states of Colombia and Peru. During
the first half of the 19th century civil war and despotic government
seriously restricted the natural growth of the country, but since the
definite organization of the republic in 1860 and the settlement of
disturbing political controversies, the population had increased
rapidly. Climate and a fertile soil have been important elements in this
growth. According to the first national census of 1869 the population
was 1,830,214. The census of 1895 increased this total to 3,954,911,
exclusive of wild Indians and a percentage for omissions customarily
used in South American census returns. In 1904 official estimates, based
on immigration and emigration returns and upon registered births and
deaths, both of which are admittedly defective, showed a population
increased to 5,410,028, and a small diminution in the rate of annual
increase from 1895 to 1904 as compared with 1860-1895. The birth-rate is
exceptionally high, largely because of the immigrant population, the
greater part of which is concentrated in or near the large cities. In
the rural districts of the northern provinces, the increase in
population is much less than in the central provinces, the conditions of
life being less favourable. According to the official returns,[3] the
over-sea immigration for the forty-seven years 1857-1903 aggregated
2,872,588, while the departure of emigrants during the same period was
1,066,480, showing a net addition to the population of 1,806,108. A
considerable percentage of these arrivals and departures represents
seasonal labourers, who come out from Europe solely for the Argentine
wheat harvest and should not be classed as immigrants. Unfavourable
political and economic conditions of a temporary character influence the
emigration movement. During the years 1880-1889, when the country
enjoyed exceptional prosperity, the arrivals numbered 1,020,907 and the
departures only 175,038, but in 1890-1899, a period of financial
depression following the extravagant Celman administration, the arrivals
were 928,865 and the departures 532,175. Another disturbing influence
has been the high protective tariffs, adopted during the closing years
of the century, which increased the costs of living more rapidly than
the wages for labour, and compelled thousands of immigrants to seek
employment elsewhere. The influence of such legislation on unsettled
immigrant labourers may be seen in the number of Italians who
periodically migrate from Argentina to Brazil, and _vice versa_, seeking
to better their condition. Of the immigrant arrivals for the forty-seven
years given, 1,331,536 were Italians, 414,973 Spaniards, 170,293 French,
37,953 Austrians, 35,435 British, 30,699 Germans, 25,775 Swiss, 19,521
Belgians, and the others of diverse nationalities, so that Argentina is
in no danger of losing her Latin character through immigration. This
large influx of Europeans, however, is modifying the population by
reducing the Indian and _mestizo_ elements to a minority, although they
are still numerous in the mesopotamian, northern and north-western
provinces. The language is Spanish.
_Science and Literature._--Though the university of Cordoba is the
oldest but one in South America, it has made no conspicuous contribution
to Argentine literature beyond the historical works of its famous
rector, Gregorio Funes (1749-1830). This university was founded in 1621
and the university of Buenos Aires in 1821, but although Bonpland and
some other European scientists were members of the faculty of Buenos
Aires in its early years, neither there nor at Cordoba was any marked
attention given to the natural sciences until President Sarmiento
(official term, 1868-1874) initiated scientific instruction at the
university of Cordoba under the eminent German naturalist, Dr Hermann
Burmeister (1807-1892), and founded the National Observatory at Cordoba
and placed it under the direction of the noted American astronomer,
Benjamin Apthorp Gould (1824-1896). Both of these men made important
contributions to science, and rendered an inestimable service to the
country, not only through their publications but also through the
interest they aroused in scientific research. A bureau of meteorology
was afterwards created at Cordoba which has rendered valuable service.
Dr Burmeister was afterwards placed in charge of the provincial museum
of Buenos Aires, and devoted himself to the acquisition of a collection
of fossil remains, now in the La Plata museum, which ranks among the
best of the world. Not only has scientific study advanced at the
university of Buenos Aires, but scientific research is promoting the
development of the country; examples are the geographical explorations
of the Andean frontier, and especially of the Patagonian Andes, by
Francisco P. Moreno. In literature Argentina is still under the spell of
Bohemianism and dilettanteism. Exceptions are the admirable biographies
of Manuel Belgrano (d. 1820) and San Martin, important contributions to
the history of the country and of the war of independence, by
ex-President Bartolome Mitre (1821-1906). Buenos Aires has some
excellent daily journals, but the tone of the press in general is
sensational. The number of newspapers published is large, especially in
Buenos Aires, where in 1902 the total, including sundry periodicals, was
183.
_Political Divisions and Towns._--The chief political divisions of the
republic consist of one federal district, 14 provinces and 10
territories, the last in great part dating from the settlement of the
territorial controversies with Chile. For purposes of local
administration the provinces are divided into departments. The names,
area and population of the provinces and territories are as follows:
+---------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
| | Area | Pop. | Pop. est.|
| Administrative Divisions. | sq. m. | 1895. | for 1904.|
+---------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
| _Provinces_-- | | | |
| Federal Capital | 72 | 663,854 | 979,235 |
| Buenos Aires | 117,778 | 921,168 |1,312,953 |
| Santa Fe | 50,916 | 397,188 | 640,755 |
| Entre Rios | 28,784 | 292,019 | 367,006 |
| Corrientes | 32,580 | 239,618 | 299,479 |
| Cordoba | 62,160 | 351,223 | 465,464 |
| San Luis | 28,535 | 81,450 | 97,458 |
| Santiago del Estero | 39,764 | 161,502 | 186,206 |
| Mendoza | 56,502 | 116,136 | 159,780 |
| San Juan | 33,715 | 84,251 | 99,933 |
| Rioja | 34,546 | 69,302 | 82,099 |
| Catamarca | 47,531 | 90,161 | 103,082 |
| Tucuman | 8,926 | 215,742 | 263,079 |
| Salta | 62,184 | 118,015 | 136,059 |
| Jujuy | 18,977 | 49,713 | 55,430 |
| | | | |
| _Territories_-- | | | |
| Misiones | 11,282 | 33,163 | 38,755 |
| Formosa | 41,402 | 4,829 | 6,094 |
| Chaco | 32,741 | 10,422 | 13,937 |
| Pampa | 56,320 | 25,914 | 52,150 |
| Neuquen | 42,345 | 14,517 | 18,022 |
| Rio Negro | 75,924 | 9,241 | 18,648 |
| Chobut | 93,427 | 3,748 | 9,000 |
| Santa Cruz | 109,142 | 1,058 | 1,793 |
| Tierra del Fuego | 8,299 | 477 | 1,411 |
| Los Andes | 21,989 | .. | 2,095 |
| +----------+----------+----------+
| Total |1,135,840 |3,954,911 |5,410,028 |
| Gotha computations of 1902| | | |
| with corrections for | | | |
| boundary changes. |1,083,596 | | |
+---------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
The principal towns, with estimated population for 1905, are as follows:
Buenos Aires (1,025,653), Rosario (129,121), La Plata (85,000), Tucuman
(55,000), Cordoba (43.000), Sante Fe (33,200), Mendoza (32,000), Parana
(27,000), Salta (18,000), Corrientes (18,000), Chivilcoy (15,000),
Gualeguaychu (13,300), San Nicolas (13,000), Concordia (11,700), San
Juan (11,500), Rio Cuarto (10,800), San Luis (10,500), Barracas al Sud
(10,200).
_Communications._--The development of railways in Argentina, which
dates from 1857 when the construction of the Buenos Aires Western was
begun, was at first slow and hesitating, but after 1880 it went
forward rapidly. Official corruption and speculation have led to some
unsound ventures, but in the great majority of cases the lines
constructed have been beneficial and productive. The principal centres
of the system are Buenos Aires, Rosario and Bahia Blanca, with La
Plata as a secondary centre to the former, and from these the lines
radiate westward and northward. The creation of a commercial port at
Bahia Blanca and the development of the territories of La Pampa, Rio
Negro and Neuquen, have given an impetus to railway construction in
that region, and new lines are being extended toward the promising
districts among the Andean foothills. Beginning with 6 m. in 1857, the
railway mileage of the republic increased to 1563 m. in 1880, 5865 m.
in 1890, 7752 m. in 1891, 10,304 m. in 1901, and 12,274 m. in 1906,
with 1794 m. under construction. The greater development of railway
construction between 1885 and 1891 was due, principally, to the
dubious concessions of interest guarantees by the Celman
administration, and also to the fever of speculation. Some of these
lines resulted disastrously. The Transandine line, designed to open
railway communication between Buenos Aires and Valparaiso, was so far
completed early in 1909 that on the Argentine side only the summit
tunnel, 2 m. 127 yds. long, remained to be finished. The piercing was
completed in Nov. 1909, but in the meantime passengers were conveyed
by road over the pass. The gauge is broken at Mendoza, the Buenos
Aires and Pacific having a gauge of 5 ft. 6 in. and the Transandine of
one metre.
Tramway lines, which date from 1870, are to be found in all important
towns. Those of Buenos Aires, Rosario and La Plata are owned by public
companies. According to the census returns of 1895, the total mileage
was 496 m., representing a capital expenditure of $84,044,581 paper.
Electric traction was first used in Buenos Aires in 1897, since when
nearly all the lines of that city have been reconstructed to meet its
requirements, and subways are contemplated to relieve the congested
street traffic of the central districts; the companies contribute 6%
of their gross receipts to the municipality, besides paying $50 per
annum per square on each single track in paved streets, 5 per thousand
on the value of their property, and 33% of the cost of street repaving
and renewals.
The telegraph lines of Argentina are subject to the national telegraph
law of 1875, the international telegraph conventions, and special
conventions with Brazil and Uruguay. In 1902 the total length of wires
strung was 28,125 m.; in 1906 it had been increased to 34,080 m. The
national lines extend from Buenos Aires north to La Quiaca on the
Bolivian frontier (1180 m.), and south to Cape Virgenes (1926 m.), at
the entrance to the Straits of Magellan. Telegraphic communication
with Europe is effected by cables laid along the Uruguayan and
Brazilian coasts, and by the Brazilian land lines to connect with
transatlantic cables from Pernambuco. Communication with the United
States is effected by land lines to Valparaiso, and thence by a cable
along the west coast. The service is governed by the international
telegraph regulations, but is subject to local inspection and
interruption in times of political disorder.
The postal and telegraph services are administered by the national
government, and are under the immediate supervision of the minister of
the interior. Argentina has been a member of the Postal Union since
1878. Owing to the great distances which must be covered, and also to
the defective means of communication in sparsely settled districts,
the costs of the postal service in Argentina are unavoidably high in
relation to the receipts.
_Shipping._--Although Argentina has an extensive coast-line, and one
of the great fluvial systems of the world, the tonnage of steamers and
sailing vessels flying her flag is comparatively small. In 1898 the
list comprised only 1416 sailing vessels of all classes, from 10 tons
up, with a total tonnage of 118,894 tons, and 222 steamships, of
36,323 tons. There has been but slight improvement since that date.
There are excellent fishing grounds on the coast, but they have had no
appreciable influence in developing a commerical marine. The
steamships under the national flag are almost wholly engaged in the
traffic between Buenos Aires and Montevideo, the river traffic, and
port services.
Live stock, &c.
_Agriculture._--In 1878 the production of wheat was insufficient for
home consumption, the amount of Indian corn grown barely covered local
necessities, and the only market for live stock was in the
slaughtering establishments, where the meat was cut into strips and
cured, making the so-called "jerked beef" for the Brazilian and Cuban
markets. But three years later a new economic development began. In
1881 President Roca offered for public purchase by auction the lands
in the south-west of the province of Buenos Aires, the Pampa Central,
and the Neuquen district, these lands having been rendered habitable
after the campaign of 1878 against the Indians. The upset (reserve)
price was L80 sterling per square league of 6669 acres, and, as the
lands were quickly sold, an expansion of the pastoral industry
immediately ensued. The demand for animals for stock-breeding purposes
sent up prices, and this acted as a stimulus to other branches of
trade, so that, as peace under the Roca regime seemed assured, a
steady flow of immigration from Italy set in. The development of the
pastoral industry of Argentina from that time to the end of the
century was remarkable. In 1878 the number of cattle was 12,000,000;
of sheep, 65,000,000; and of horses, 4,000,000; in 1899 the numbers
were--cattle, 25,000,000; sheep, 89,000,000; and horses, about
4,500,000. Originally the cattle were nearly all of the long-horned
Spanish breed and of little value for their meat, except to the
saladero establishments. Gradually Durham, Shorthorn, Hereford and
other stock were introduced to improve the native breeds, with results
so satisfactory that now herds of three-quarters-bred cattle are to be
found in all parts of the country. Holstein, Jersey and other
well-known dairy breeds were imported for the new industries of
butter- and cheese-making. Not only has the breed of cattle been
improved, but the system of grazing has completely altered. Vast areas
of land have been ploughed and sown with lucerne (alfalfa);
magnificent permanent pasturage has been created where there were
coarse and hard grasses in former days, and Argentina has been able to
add baled hay to her list of exports. In 1889 the first shipment of
Argentine cattle, consisting altogether of 1930 steers, was sent to
England. The results of these first experiments were not encouraging,
owing mainly to the poor class of animals, but the exporters
persevered, and the business steadily grew in value and importance,
until in 1898 the number of live cattle shipped was 359,296, which
then decreased to 119,189 in 1901, because of the foot-and-mouth
disease. In 1906 the export of live stock was prohibited for that
reason. Large quantities of frozen and preserved meat are exported,
profitable prices being realized. Dairy-farming is making rapid
strides, and the development of sheep-farming has been remarkable. In
1878, 65,000,000 sheep yielded 230,000,000 Ib weight of wool, or an
average per sheep of, about 3-1/2 lb. In the season of 1899-1900 the
wool exports weighed 420,000,000 Ib, and averaged more than 5 lb. per
sheep. The extra weight of fleece was owing to the large importation
of better breeds. The export, moreover, of live sheep and of frozen
mutton to Europe has become an important factor in the trade of
Argentina. In 1892 the number of live sheep shipped for foreign ports
was 40,000; in 1898 the export reached a total of 577,813, which in
1901 fell off to 25,746. In 1892 the frozen mutton exported was 25,500
tons, and this had increased in 1901 to 63,013 tons.
Crops.
The advance made in agricultural industry also is of very great
importance. In 1872 the cultivated area was about 1,430,000 acres; in
1895, 12,083,000 acres; in 1901, 17,465,973 acres. In 1899 the wheat
exports exceeded 50,000,000 bushels, and the Indian corn 40,000,000
bushels. The area under wheat in 1901 was 8,351,843 acres; Indian
corn, 3,102,140 acres; linseed, 1,512,340 acres; alfalfa, 3,088,929
acres. The farming industry is not, however, on a satisfactory basis.
No national lands in accessible districts are available for the
application of a homestead law, and the farmer too often has no
interest in the land beyond the growing crops, a percentage of the
harvest being the rent charged by the owner of the property. This
system is mischievous, since, if a few, consecutive bad seasons occur,
the farmer moves to some more favoured spot; while, on the other hand,
a succession of good years tends to increase rents. The principal
wheat and Indian corn producing districts lie in the provinces of
Santa Fe, Buenos Aires, Cordoba and Entre Rios, and the average yield
of wheat throughout the country is about 12 bushels to the acre.
Little attention is paid to methods of cultivation, and the farmer has
no resources to help him if the cereal crops fail. In the Andean
provinces of Mendoza, San Juan, Catamarca and Rioja viticulture
attracts much attention, and the area in vineyards in 1901 was 109,546
acres, only 18% of which was outside the four provinces named. Wine is
manufactured in large quantities, but the output is not sufficient to
meet the home demand. In the provinces of Tucuman, Salta and Jujuy the
main industry is sugar growing and manufacture. In 1901 the production
of sugar was 151,639 tons, of which 58,000 tons were exported. The
sugar manufacture, however, is a protected and bounty-fed industry,
and the 51 sugar mills in operation in 1901 are a heavy tax upon
consumers and taxpayers. Other products are tobacco, olives,
castor-oil, peanuts, canary-seed, barley, rye, fruit and vegetables.
The pastoral and agricultural industries have been hampered by
fluctuations in the value of the currency, farm products being sold at
a gold value for the equivalent in paper, while labourers are paid in
currency. The existing system of taxation also presses heavily upon
the provinces, as may be seen from the fact that the national,
provincial and municipal exactions together amount to L7 per head of
population, while the total value of the exports in 1898 was only L6
in round numbers. The _guia_ tax on the transport of stock from one
province to another, which has been declared unconstitutional in the
courts, is still enforced, and is a vexatious tax upon the
stock-raiser, while the consumption, or _octroi_, tax in Buenos Aires
and other cities is a heavy burden upon small producers.
_Manufactures._--Manufacturing enterprise in Argentina, favoured by
the protection of a high tariff, made noticeable progress in the
national capital during the closing years of the last century,
especially in those small industries which commanded a secure market.
The principal classes of products affected are foods, wearing apparel,
building materials, furniture, &c., chemical products, printing and
allied trades, and sundry others, such as cigars, matches, tanning,
paints, &c. In some manufactures the raw material is imported partly
manufactured, such as thread for weaving. The lack of coal in
Argentina greatly increases the difficulty and cost of maintaining
these industries, and high prices of the products result. Electric
power generated by steam is now commonly used in Buenos Aires and
other large cities for driving light machinery.
_Commerce._--The rapid development of the foreign trade of the
republic since 1881 is due to settled internal conditions and to the
prime necessity to the commercial world of many Argentine products,
such as beef, mutton, hides, wool, wheat and Indian corn. Efforts to
hasten this development have created some serious financial and
industrial crises, and have burdened the country with heavy debts and
taxes. During the decade 1881-1890 great sums of European capital were
invested in railways and other undertakings, encouraged by the grant
of interest guarantees and by state mortgage bank loans in the form of
_cedulas_, nominally secured on landed property. In 1890 the crisis
came, the mortgage banks failed, credits were contracted, the value of
property declined, defaults were common, imports decreased, and the
losses to the country were enormous. The constant fluctuations in the
value of the currency, then much depreciated, intensified the distress
and complicated the situation. Recovery required years, although made
easier by the sound and steady development of the pastoral and
agricultural industries, which were slightly affected by the crisis;
and the steadily increasing volume of exports, mainly foodstuffs and
other staples, saved the situation. There have been some changes in
commercial methods since 1890, the retailer, and sometimes the
consumer, importing direct to save intermediate commission charges.
Such transactions are made easy by the foreign banks established in
all the large cities of the republic. The conversion law of 1899,
which gave a fixed gold value to the currency (44 centavos gold for
each 100 centavos paper), has had beneficial influence on commercial
transactions, through the elimination of daily fluctuations in the
value of the currency, and the commercial and financial situation has
been steadily improved, notwithstanding heavy taxation and tariff
restrictions. The import trade shows the largest totals in foodstuffs,
wines and liquors, textiles and raw materials for their manufacture,
wood and its manufactures, iron and its manufactures, paper and
cardboard, glass and ceramic wares. The official valuation of imports,
which is arbitrary and incorrect, was $164,569,884 gold in 1889, fell
off to $67,207,780 in 1891, but gradually increased to $205,154,420 in
1905. The exports, which are almost wholly of agricultural and
pastoral products, increased from $103,219,000 in 1891 to $322,843,841
in 1905.
_Government._--The present constitution of Argentina dates from the 25th
of September 1860. The legislative power is vested in a congress of two
chambers--the senate, composed of 30 members (two from each province and
two from the capital), elected by the provincial legislatures and by a
special body of electors in the capital for a term of nine years; and
the chamber of deputies, of 120 members (1906), elected for four years
by direct vote of the people, one deputy for every 33,000 inhabitants.
To the chamber of deputies exclusively belongs the initiation of all
laws relating to the raising of money and the conscription of troops. It
has also the exclusive right to impeach the president, vice-president,
cabinet ministers, and federal judges before the senate. The executive
power is exercised by the president, elected by presidential electors
from each province chosen by direct vote of the people. The president
and vice-president are voted for by separate tickets. The system closely
resembles that followed in the United States. The president must be a
native citizen of Argentina, a Roman Catholic, not under thirty years of
age, and must have an annual income of at least $2000. His term of
office is six years, and neither he nor the vice-president is eligible
for the next presidential term. All laws are sanctioned and promulgated
by the president, who is invested with the veto power, which can be
overruled only by a two-thirds vote. The president, with the advice and
consent of the senate, appoints judges, diplomatic agents, governors of
territories, and officers of the army and navy above the rank of
colonel. All other officers and officials he appoints and promotes
without the consent of the senate. The cabinet is composed of eight
ministers--the heads of the government departments of the interior,
foreign affairs, finance, war, marine, justice, agriculture, and public
works. They are appointed by and may be removed by the president.
Justice is administered by a supreme federal court of five judges and an
attorney-general, which is also a court of appeal, four courts of
appeal, with three judges each, located in Buenos Aires, La Plata,
Parana and Cordoba, and by a number of inferior and local courts. Each
province has also its own judicial system. Trial by jury is established
by the constitution, but never practised. Civil and criminal courts are
both corrupt and dilatory. In May 1899 the minister of justice stated in
the chamber of deputies that the machinery of the courts in the country
was antiquated, unwieldy and incapable of performing its duties; that
50,000 cases were then waiting decision in the minor courts, and 10,000
in the federal division; and that a reconstruction of the judiciary and
the judicial system had become necessary. In June 1899 he sent his
project for the reorganization of the legal procedure to congress, but
no action was then taken beyond referring the bill to a committee for
examination and report. The proceedings are, with but few exceptions,
written, and the procedure is a survival of the antiquated Spanish
system.
Under the constitution, the provinces retain all the powers not
delegated to the federal government. Each province has its own
constitution, which must be republican in form and in harmony with that
of the nation. Each elects its governor, legislators and provincial
functionaries of all classes, without the intervention of the federal
government. Each has its own judicial system, and enacts laws relating
to the administration of justice, the distribution and imposition of
taxes, and all matters affecting the province. All the public acts and
judicial decisions of one province have full legal effect and authority
in all the others. In cases of armed resistance to a provincial
government, the national government exercises the right to intervene by
the appointment of an interventor, who becomes the executive head of the
province until order is restored. The territories are under the direct
control of the national government.
_Army._--The military service of the republic was reorganized in 1901,
and is compulsory for all citizens between the ages of 20 and 45. The
army consists of: (1) The Line, comprising the Active and Reserve, in
which all citizens 20 to 28 years of age are obliged to serve; (2) the
National Guard, comprising citizens of 28 to 40 years; (3) the
Territorial Guard, comprising those 40 to 45 years. Conscripts of 20
years of age have to serve two years, three months each year. The active
or standing army comprises 18 battalions of infantry, 12 regiments of
cavalry, 8 regiments of artillery, and 4 battalions of engineers. A
military school, with 125 cadets, is maintained at San Martin, near the
national capital, and a training school for non-commissioned officers in
the capital itself. Compulsory attendance of young men at national guard
drills is enforced for at least two months of the year, under penalty of
enforced service in the Line. In 1906 the president announced that
permission had been given by the German emperor for 30 Argentine
officers to enter the German army each year and to serve eighteen
months, and also for five officers to attend the Berlin Military
Academy. The equipment of the standing army is thoroughly modern, the
infantry being provided with Mauser rifles and the artillery with Krupp
batteries.
_Navy._--The disputes with Chile during the closing years of the 19th
century led to a large increase in the navy, but in 1902 a treaty
between the two countries provided for the restriction of further
armaments for the next four years. The naval vessels then under
construction were accordingly sold, but in 1906 both countries,
influenced apparently by the action of Brazil, gave large orders in
Europe for new vessels. At the time when further armaments were
suspended, the effective strength of the Argentine navy consisted of 3
ironclads, 6 first-class armoured cruisers, 2 monitors (old), 4
second-class cruisers, 2 torpedo cruisers, 3 destroyers, 3 high-sea
torpedo boats, 14 river torpedo boats, 1 training ship, 5 transports,
and various auxiliary vessels. Two of these first-class cruisers were
sold to Japan. The armament included 394 guns of all calibres, 6 of
which were of 250 millimetres, 4 of 240, and 12 of 200. There are about
320 officers in active service, and the total personnel ranges from 5000
to 6000 men. The service is not popular, and it is recruited by means of
conscription from the national guard, the term of service being two
years. These conscripts number about 2000 a year. In addition, there is
a corps of coast artillery numbering 450 men, from which garrisons are
drawn for the military port, Zarate arsenal and naval prison. The
government maintains a naval school at Flores, a school of mechanics in
Buenos Aires, an artillery school on the cruiser "Patagonia," and a
school for torpedo practice at La Plata. The naval arsenal is situated
on the "north basin" of the Buenos Aires port, and the military port at
Bahia Blanca is provided with a dry dock of the largest size, and
extensive repair shops. There is also a dockyard and torpedo arsenal at
La Plata, an artillery depot at Zarate, above Buenos Aires, and naval
depots on the island of Martin Garcia and at Tigre, on the Lujan river.
_Education._--Primary education is free and secular, and is compulsory
for children of 6 to 14 years. In the national capital and territories
it is supervised by a national council of education with the assistance
of local school boards; in the 14 provinces it is under provincial
control. Secondary instruction is also free, but is not compulsory. It
is under the control of the national government, which in 1902
maintained 10 colleges. Of these colleges four are in Buenos Aires, one
in each province, and one in Conception del Uruguay. For the instruction
of teachers the republic has 28 normal schools, as follows: three in the
national capital; one in Parana, three (regional) in Corrientes, San
Luis and Catamarca; 14 for female teachers in the provincial capitals;
and seven for either sex in the larger towns of the provinces of Buenos
Aires, Santa Fe, Cordoba and San Luis. The normal schools, maintained by
the state on a secular basis, were founded by President Sarmiento, who
engaged experienced teachers in the United States to direct them; their
work is excellent; notably, their model primary schools. For higher and
professional education there are two national universities at Buenos
Aires and Cordoba, and three provincial universities, at La Plata, Santa
Fe and Parana, which comprise faculties of law, medicine and
engineering, in addition to the usual courses in arts and science. To
meet the needs of technical and industrial education there are a school
of mines at San Juan, a school of viticulture at Mendoza, an agronomic
and veterinary school at La Plata, several agricultural and pastoral
schools, and commercial schools in Buenos Aires, Rosario, Bahia Blanca
and Concordia. Schools of art and conservatories of music are also
maintained in the large cities, where there are, besides, many private
schools. Secular education has been vigorously opposed by strict
churchmen, and efforts have been made to maintain separate schools under
church control. The national government has founded several scholarships
(some in art) for study abroad. The total school population of Argentina
in 1900 (6 to 14 years) was 994,089, of which 45% attended school, and
13% of those not attending were able to read and write. The illiterate
school population was about 41%, and of those of 15 years and over 54%
were illiterate. Of the whole population over 6 years, 50.5% were
illiterate.
_Religion._--The Argentine constitution recognizes the Roman Catholic
religion as that of the state, but tolerates all others. The state
controls all ecclesiastical appointments, decides on the passing or
rejection of all decrees of the Holy See, and provides an annual subsidy
for maintenance of the churches and clergy. Churches and chapels are
founded and maintained by religious orders and private gift as well. At
the head of the Argentine hierarchy are one archbishop and five
suffragan bishops, who have five seminaries for the education of the
priesthood. From statistics of 1895 it appears that in each 1000 of
population 991 are Roman Catholics, 7 Protestants, and 2 Jews, the Jews
being entirely of Russian origin, sent into the republic since 1891 by
the Jewish Colonization Association under the provisions of the Hirsch
legacy; from 1895 to 1908 the number of Jews in Argentina increased from
6085 to about 30,000.
_Finance._--The revenue of the republic is derived mainly from customs
and excise, and the largest item of expenditure is the service of the
public debt. Since 1891 the national budgets have been calculated in
both gold and currency, and both receipts and expenditures have been
carried out in this dual system. The collection of a part of the
import duties in gold has served to give the government the gold it
requires for certain expenditures, but it has complicated returns and
accounts and increased the burden of taxation. According to a
compilation of statistical returns published by Dr. Francisco Latzina
in 1901, the national revenues and expenditures for the 37 years from
1864 to 1900, inclusive, reduced to a common standard, show a total
deficit for that period of $408,260,795 gold, which has been met by
external and internal loans, and by a continued increase in the scope
and rate of taxation. The growth of the annual budget is shown by a
comparison of the following years:--
Total Revenue. Total Expenditure.
1864 $7,005,328 gold. $7,119,931 gold.
1880 19,594,306 " 26,919,295 "
1890 73,150,856 " 95,363,854 "
1900 / 62,045,458 paper. / 104,501,614 paper.
\ 37,998,704 gold. \ 23,644,543 gold.
1905 / 63,439,000 paper. / 105,581,680 paper.
\ 43,461,324 gold. \ 24,865,016 gold.
The bane of Argentine finance has been the extravagant and
unscrupulous use of national credit for the promotion of schemes
calculated to benefit individuals rather than the public. The large
increase in military expenditures during the disputes with Chile also
proved a heavy burden, and in the continued strife with Brazil for
naval superiority this burden could not fail to be increased greatly.
A very considerable percentage of Argentina's population of five to
six millions is hopelessly poor and unprogressive, and cannot be
expected to bear its share of the burden. To meet these expenditures
there are a high tariff on imported merchandise, and excise and stamp
taxes of a far-reaching and often vexatious character. Nothing is
permitted to escape taxation, and duplicated taxes on the same thing
are frequent. In Argentina these burdens bear heavily upon the
labouring classes, and in years of depression they send away by
thousands immigrants unable to meet the high costs of living. For the
year 1900 the total expenditures of the national government, 14
provincial governments, and 16 principal cities, were estimated to
have been $208,811,925 paper, which is equivalent to $91,877,247 gold,
or (at $5.04 per pound stg.) to L18,229,612, 10s. The population that
year was estimated to be 4,794,149, from which it is seen that the
annual costs of government were no less than L3, 16s. for each man,
woman, and child in the republic. About 71% of this charge was on
account of national expenditures, and 29% provincial and municipal
expenditures. Had the expenses of all the small towns and rural
communities been included, the total would be in excess of $20 gold,
or L4, _per capita_.
In 1889 the public debt of the republic amounted to about L24,000,000,
but the financial difficulties which immediately followed that year,
and the continuance of excessive expenditures, forced the debt up to
approximately L128,000,000 during the next ten years. In the year 1905
the outstanding and authorized debt of the republic was as follows:--
External debt (July 31, 1905):
National loans L42,297,050
Provincial loans and others, assumed 30,395,916
National cedulas 11,763,923
----------
Total L84,456,889
Consolidated Internal debt (Dec. 31, 1904):
Gold $16,544,000
Paper 79,174,400
---------- L10,178,718
Total service on funded debt, 1905,
$24,375,067 gold, and $15,914,335 paper L6,225,669
Floating debt L259,170
Treasury bills (Apr. 30, 1905) 275,220
Unpaid bills, $3,332,594, paper 288,560
--------- L822,950
The paper currency forms an important part of the internal debt, and
has been a fruitful source of trouble to the country. Few countries
have suffered more from a depreciated currency than Argentina. During
the era of so-called "prosperity" between 1881 and 1890 an enormous
amount of bank notes were issued under various authorizations,
especially that of the "free banking law" of 1887. During this period
the bank-note circulation was increased to $161,700,000, and two
mortgage banks--the National Hypothecary Bank and the Provincial
Mortgage Bank (of Buenos Aires)--flooded the country with $509,000,000
of _cedulas_ (hypothecary bonds). When the crash came and the national
treasury was found to be without resources to meet current expenses,
further issues of $110,000,000 in currency were made. The free-banking
law which permitted the issue of notes by provincial banks was
primarily responsible for this situation. Under the provisions of this
law the provinces were authorized to borrow specie abroad and deposit
the same with the national government as security for their issues.
These loans aggregated L27,000,000. The Celman administration, in
violation of the trust, then sold the specie and squandered the
proceeds, leaving the provincial bank notes without guarantee and
value. The national government has since assumed responsibility for
all these provincial loans abroad. As on previous occasions, the great
depreciation in the value of the currency has led to a repudiation of
part of its nominal value. This depreciation reached its maximum in
October 1891 ($460.82 paper for $100 gold), and remained between that
figure and $264 during the next six years. To check these prejudicial
fluctuations and to prevent too great a fall in the price of gold (to
repeat a popular misconception), a conversion law was adopted on the
31st of October 1899, which provided that the outstanding circulation
should be redeemed at the rate of 44 centavos gold for each 100
centavos paper, the official rate for gold being 227.27. Provisions
were also made for the creation of a special conversion fund in specie
to guarantee the circulation, which fund reached a total of
$100,000,000 in March 1906. These measures have served to give greater
stability to the value of the circulating medium, and to prevent the
ruinous losses caused by a constant fluctuation in value, but the rate
established prevents the further appreciation of the currency. On the
18th of January 1906 the currency in circulation amounted to
$502,420,485, which is more than $95 _per capita_. (A. J. L.)