THE STORY OF THE MOUNTAINS
How these peaks and mountain ranges arose is a fascinating and
impressive study. It has been made by Mr. Hayden, who, in the fourth
part of the scientific memoir quoted in the previous chapter, has
compiled their history from his own personal investigations and the
accounts of his fellow-observers in the Geological Survey of India.
And surely a scientific man could have no more inspiring task than the
unravelling of the past history of the mighty Himalaya. Here we have
clue after clue traced down, the meaning of each extracted, and the
broad general outline of the mountain's story told in all its grand
impressiveness, till one sees the earth pulsating like a living being,
rising and subsiding, and rising again, now sinking inward till the
sea flows over the depression, then rising into continental areas,
anon subsiding again beneath the waters, and finally, under titanic
lateral pressure and crustal compression, corrugating into mighty
folds, while vast masses of granite well up from below, force their
way through, lift up the pre-existing rocks and toss themselves upward
into the final climax of the great peaks which distinguish the
Himalaya from every other range of mountains in the world.
For millions of years a perpetual struggle has been going on between
the inherent earth forces pressing upward and the opposing forces of
denudation wearing away the surface. Sometimes the internal forces are
in commotion, or the contracting crust of the earth finds some weak
spot and crumples upward, and the mountains win. A period of internal
quiescence follows, and the rain and snow, the frost and heat, gain
the victory, and wear down the proudest mountains--as they have worn
away the snowy glacier mountains which once stood in Rajputana.
[Illustration: RAMPUR, JHELUM VALLEY ROAD]
Of all this wonderful past the mountains themselves bear irrefutable
evidence. Near Rampur, on the road into Kashmir, are bold cliffs of
limestone, a rock which is merely the accumulation of the relics of
generations of minute marine shell-fishes. These cliffs, now
upturned to almost the perpendicular, must once have lain flat beneath
the surface of the ocean. High up in the Sind valley, embedded in the
rocks, are fossil oysters, showing that they too must once have lain
beneath the sea. More telling still at Zewan, a few miles east of
Srinagar, are fossils of land plants immediately below strata of rocks
containing fossils of marine animals and plants, from which may be
concluded that the land subsided under the sea, and was afterwards
thrust up again. Again, an examination of the rocks on the
Takht-i-Suliman shows that they are merely dried lava, and must have
had a volcanic origin--perhaps beneath the sea. And an investigation
of the rocks on the flanks of Nanga Parbat has shown that they are of
granite which must have been intruded from the interior of the earth.
Everywhere there is evidence that even K2 and Nanga Parbat lay
beneath the sea, and that where now are mountains once rolled the
ocean; that some once lay in soft, flat layers of mud or sand, or
plant and shell deposit on the ocean bottom, while others, as the
ocean bottom was upraised above the waters, were obtruded through
them; and that everywhere there has been an immense pressing and
crumpling of the earth's crust--a rising and subsiding, a throbbing
and pulsation, which at one time has brought Kashmir in direct contact
by land with Madagascar and South Africa, and at another has brought
it into through communication by sea with both America and Europe; and
which, finally, has projected it upward thousands of feet into the
air. The evidence, moreover, shows that millions of years have passed
while these titanic movements have been working out their marvellous
results.
Who can but be impressed by such ages and such forces? Who that looks
on those lovely Kashmir mountains, and on the mighty peaks which rise
behind, and has learnt their long eventful history, can help being
impressed by the immensity of time their structure betokens, by the
magnitude of the movements unceasingly at work within, and by the
dignity with which they yet present a front so impassive and so
sublime?
[Illustration: IN THE SIND VALLEY]
To realise the full, long-measured roll of their majestic evolution we
should have to go back to the time when the swift revolving
sun--itself one only among a hundred million other stars of no less
magnitude--swished off from its circumference the wreath of fiery
mist now called the Earth; and we should have to trace that mist,
cooling and consolidating, first to a molten mass with a plastic crust
enveloped in a dense and watery atmosphere, and then to a hardened
surface of dry land with cavities in which the ocean settled. But the
story, as it is with more detailed accuracy known, commences at the
time when a shallow sea covered central and northern India, and
extended over the site of the present Himalaya, including Kashmir and
the region of the mighty peaks behind. This, then, is the first
essential fact to lay hold of, that at the commencement of the
authentic history of Kashmir, the whole--vale and mountain peak
alike--lay unborn beneath the sea.
How long ago this was it is not possible to say within a million years
or so. But this much may be said with certainty, that the period is to
be reckoned not in thousands, nor yet in hundreds of thousands, but in
millions of years. Geologists have names for different geological
epochs, and do not usually speak of them by definite numbers of years,
for there is still much controversy as to the precise length of time
occupied by each. But to fix in the mind of the general reader a rough
idea of the immense periods of time with which we are dealing in
tracing the history of the mountains, it is useful to speak in terms
of numbers, even though they may be only very approximately correct.
We may then assume that the oldest rocks in Kashmir were deposited in
sediment at the bottom of the afore-mentioned shallow sea a hundred
million years ago. Some geologists and biologists think that a still
longer time must have elapsed. Some physicists would maintain that
even so much is not allowable. But as an average opinion, we may take
a hundred million years ago as the commencement of Kashmir history.
What were the limits of the sea which then rolled over the site of
Kashmir is not yet precisely known. But the lower portion of the
Indian peninsula was then dry land, and connected by land with Africa;
and the sea probably extended westward to Europe and eastward to
China. Into it the rivers bore down the debris and detritus worked off
by the rain from the dry land; and thus were slowly deposited, in the
long course of many million years, sediments hundreds and thousands of
feet in thickness which, subsequently upheaved and hardened, form the
Kashmir mountains of the present day.
The first great movement of which authentic record has yet been
traced took place at the close of the Jaunsar period. The bosom of the
earth heaved restlessly, and what had already been deposited in the
depths of the sea now emerged above the surface. Volcanoes burst
through the crust, and the sedimentary deposits, hardened into rock,
were covered with sheets of lava and volcanic ash, which now form the
hills at the back of Srinagar, including the Takht-i-Suliman.
This was Kashmir's first appearance--not, however, in the form of a
beautiful valley surrounded by forests and snow-capped mountains, but
rather in the form of an archipelago of bare volcanic islands. And
even these were not permanent, for a period of general subsidence
followed and they slowly sank beneath the sea which was then probably
connected with America.
During the Devonian period Kashmir was still submerged; but in a
subsequent portion of the time when the Carbonaceous system was being
deposited there was a second period of great volcanic activity, when
the southern portion of Kashmir again formed an archipelago of
volcanic islands.
Eventually all Kashmir emerged, and became part of the mainland of
India at that time joined with Africa; so that Kashmir which had
before been joined by sea with America was now joined by land with
Africa. Such are the mighty movements of this seemingly immovable
earth.
But it was only for a brief space that Kashmir was visible. Then once
again, in mid-Carboniferous times, it subsided beneath the sea, there
to remain for some millions of years till the early Tertiary period,
four million years ago, when it again emerged, and the sea was
gradually pushed back from Tibet and the adjacent Himalaya, till by
the end of the Eocene period both Tibet and the whole Himalaya had
finally become dry land. Kashmir was now a portion of the continental
area and the culminating effort of the earth forces was at hand. For
yet another period of great volcanic activity ensued, connected,
perhaps, with the crustal disturbances to which the origin of the
Himalaya is attributed. Masses of molten granite were extruded from
beneath the earth's surface through the sedimentary deposit. And these
granitic masses, issuing from the fiery interior of the earth, pushing
ever upward, reached and passed the level of eternal snow till they
finally settled into the line of matchless peaks now known as the
Himalaya.
[Illustration: LAKE SHISHA NAG AT SUNSET]
This then, briefly, is a record of the successive phases of
upheaval and subsidence through which Kashmir has passed. Through by
far the greater portion of the earth's history--through perhaps ninety
out of the hundred million years--Kashmir has lain beneath the sea.
And it is only within the last four million years that it has finally
emerged.
* * * * *
What has actually caused the final upheaval; from whence came the
force which raised the mountains is not yet entirely known. One
well-known theory is that the earth's crust in cooling has to
accommodate itself to a constantly decreasing diameter, and so gets
crinkled and crumpled into folds. Anyhow from whatever cause, and
quite apart from the ordinary up-and-down movements of the crust,
there has evidently been immense lateral pressure, and on the drive
into Kashmir many instances may be observed of the once level strata
being crumpled into folds as the leaves of a book might be on being
laterally pressed. There has been, says Mr. Middlemiss, "a steadily
acting lateral pressure of the earth's crust tending to bank it up
against the central crystalline zone [that is the core of intrusive
granite of which the line of great peaks is formed] by a movement and
a resistance in two opposite directions." And besides this pressure,
the effect of tangential stresses tending to compress the earth's
surface laterally and so form corrugations on it, there was from some
remote internal cause this welling up from below of vast masses of
granite which forced their way through the pre-existing rocks and
formed the high peaks, the core of the Himalayan ranges.
These were the approximate causes--though the ultimate causes are not
known--from which the Kashmir mountains originated. And tremendous
though the forces must have been to cause such mighty effects, there
is no evidence that they were violent. The stupendous result may have
been imperceptibly attained. If Nanga Parbat rose not more than one
inch in a month, it would have taken only 26,600 years to rise from
the sea-level, and this is but a moment in the vast epochs with which
we are dealing. Nature has worked without haste and without violence.
Slowly, relentlessly, and uninterruptedly her work has progressed till
the great final result stands before us in all its impressive majesty.
* * * * *
Such was the origin and history of the Kashmir mountains. It remains
to trace the course of life upon them, and picture their
appearance in the various stages of their history.
[Illustration: THE TANNIN GLEN, LIDAR VALLEY]
In that remote time, which we have roughly taken as a hundred million
years ago, when the oldest rocks, those for instance at Gulmarg, were
first laid down in level soft deposit on the ocean bottom, there was
no life on land or sea. In no part of the world have the rocks of this
period given the slightest trace of any form of life. But in the
course of time, in some warm climate and in some quarter where sea and
land meet, and where, through the action of the tides, a portion of
the land is alternately covered and laid open to the sunshine--that
is, in some spot where earth and air, light, heat and water might all
have their effect--it has been surmised that minute microscopic specks
of slime must have appeared imbued with just that mysterious element
which distinguishes life from all chemical combinations however
complex.
Of this initial stage, which would not have been perceptible to the
naked eye, no trace could possibly be left, but in the pre-Cambrian
rocks in Europe there have been detected very minute specimens of the
simplest known forms of life--the Protozoa--and obscure tracks and
markings indicating the existence of life of some kind. And in the
next geological period--the Cambrian and Silurian, say between thirty
and fifty million years ago--there is not indeed in the Kashmir rocks
yet any sign of life, but in the neighbouring district of Spiti there
has been found in corresponding rocks fossils of corals, trilobites,
shell-fish, worms, brachiopods (lamp-shells), and gastropods.
* * * * *
When Kashmir made its first brief emergence from the waters, in an
archipelago of volcanic islands, though there was life of low and
simple kind in the sea, on land there was none, and the islands must
have been absolutely bare. Neither on hill-side nor on plain was there
a speck of vegetation, not even the humblest moss or lichen, and not a
sign of animal life. No bird or insect floated in the air. And over
all there must have reigned a silence such as I remember in the Gobi
Desert, and which was so felt that when after many weeks I arrived at
an oasis, the twittering of the birds and the humming of the insects
appeared as an incessant roar.
[Illustration: GOING TO THE WEDDING, UPPER INDUS VALLEY]
It does not, however, follow from its bareness that the scenery of
this archipelago may not have been beautiful, for those who have
frequently passed up the Gulf of Suez know that the early morning
and evening effects on bare deserts and rocky hills are often the most
perfect in the delicacy and brilliance of their opalescent hues, and
that the combination of this colouring with the bluey-green and the
life and sparkle of the sea makes up a beauty which wooded
mountain-sides may often lack. And as from the islands the summits of
snowy ranges in India and Central Asia might be discerned, Kashmir
even in its primitive and most barren stage must yet have had many a
charm of its own.
But the bareness of the islands must have shortened the term of their
existence, for it meant that the hills and plains were easily scoured
out by the torrential rains which then fell upon them. It seems
difficult in these days to imagine that when tropical rains fall on
barren land they will not at once bring up a luxuriant crop of
vegetation which would do much to keep the soil in its position; but
in those days there was on land no plant life of any description. The
hills and plains must, in consequence, have been deeply scoured, and
rushing rivers have rapidly carried, in sand and boulders and muddy
and chemical solution, the disintegrated surface of the land to the
bottom of the sea, and laid down there the sediments and deposits
which, subsequently upheaved, form the Kashmir rocks of the present
day.
* * * * *
It is not until we come to the almost mediaeval period corresponding to
the Coal Measures, about twenty million years ago, that the record of
land life in Kashmir begins.
In the hill-sides behind Khunmu, a little village about ten miles east
of Srinagar, there is a series of rocks lying in layers over the older
"trap" rocks of volcanic origin which form the great bulk of the
neighbouring mountains, and in these sedimentary rocks, in what are
called carbonaceous shales, are found some ferns named gangamopteris.
They were discovered in 1906 by Mr. Hayden, and they are estimated by
him to be "not younger than Upper Carboniferous," and they "may belong
to the basis of that subdivision, or even to the Middle
Carboniferous," that is, they may be about fifteen to eighteen million
years old. At the same place, but on a layer of later date, have also
been found fossil brachiopods--marine shell-fish resembling
cockles--also of Upper Carboniferous times.
[Illustration: MOUNTAIN MISTS]
This, as it happens, was an interesting period in the earth's history.
For there occurred about then, or somewhat earlier, an extensive
upheaval in many parts of the world, and mountains which have been now
removed were upheaved to an altitude comparable with that of the
highest ranges of the present day, and in the Punjab there then
existed a snowy range with glaciers.
It was at this period that Kashmir was joined with the mainland of the
Indian peninsula, which in its turn was joined with Africa, and now,
at least, there must have been some vegetation and animal life. At
this time of the Coal Measures--the remnants of forests growing in
shallow sea-water--life was well advanced. Birds and mammals and
flowers, and the more highly developed animals and plants had not yet
appeared, but in the sea lived such things as star-fishes,
shell-fishes, corals, sea-urchins, sea-lilies, sea-cucumbers, feather
stars, sea-worms, sea-snails, cuttlefish, water-fleas and mussels,
shrimps, and lobsters and fishes. In the coal swamps were ferns,
"horse-tails" similar to the horse-tails of the present day, but of
gigantic size, club mosses more than fifty feet high, lycopods, trees
with trunks fifty feet high, and which bore catkins ripening into
berries not unlike those of yews. In the fresh water were some
shell-fishes, crustaceans, and fishes. On land were spiders,
scorpions, some of gigantic size, and centipedes. Through the air flew
hundreds of different kinds of insects, May flies, cockroaches,
crickets, and beetles. The magnate of the vertebrate world was the
labyrinthodont (traces of which have been found in Kashmir), which had
a salamander-like body, a long tail, bony plates to protect his head,
and armour of integumentary scales to protect his body. Of land trees
and plants there were lepidodendrons with huge stems clad with linear
leaves and bearing cones; huge club mosses, climbing palms, such as
grow in tropical forests of the present day, great funguses, and
numerous ferns.
Such was the type of vegetation and of land and sea animal life of the
Coal period, and although not many remains of this age have yet been
found in Kashmir, enough traces have been discovered to satisfy us
that in the shallow estuarial water and on the islands of the inland
sea there lived an animal and vegetable life which must have been very
similar to what we know existed elsewhere.
[Illustration: NEAR THE KOLAHOI GLACIER, LIDAR VALLEY]
For another fourteen million years or so after the Coal period there
is nothing special to record in the history of Kashmir. There may have
been a line of islands along the core of the present ranges, but
the greater part of Kashmir had sunk once more beneath the waters, in
which new sediments to enormous thickness were being accumulated, till
in the late Cretaceous period, or about four million years ago, the
great crustal compression began which finally upheaved these deposits
from the ocean bottom, and formed the Kashmir of the present day. This
upheaval was, however, neither sudden nor continuous. It was very
gradual, it had three distinct phases, and was not complete till a
million years ago when the dividing ocean entirely disappeared, and
the Himalaya reached its maximum height.
* * * * *
And now at this period of upheaval--the Tertiary period of
geologists--a great change had come in the animal and vegetable
worlds. _Man_ had not arisen even yet, but birds and mammals and
flowers, and all kinds of trees were now developed; and this marked
the threshold of the modern type of life. The ages when the great
ferns and palms and yew-like conifers were the leading forms of
vegetation had passed away, and the period of the hard-wood trees and
evergreens had commenced. The great reptiles, too, which in such
wonderful variety of type were the dominant animals of the earth's
surface in the period following the Carboniferous now waned before the
increase of the mammals.
At the commencement of the Tertiary period there grew cypress, sequoiae
(Wellingtonia and redwood trees), chestnuts, beeches, elms, poplars,
hornbeam, willows, figs, planes, maples, aloes, magnolia, eucalyptus,
plums, almonds and alders, laurels, yews, palms, cactus, smilax,
lotus, lilies, ferns, etc. Later on appeared cedars, spurge laurel,
evergreen oak, buckthorn, walnut, sumachs, myrtle, mimosa and acacia,
birch, hickory, bamboos, rose laurel, tulip trees; and among flowers
buttercups, marsh marigolds, chick-weed, mare's tail, dock, sorrel,
pond-weed, cotton-grass, and royal ferns. Traces of all these trees
and plants have not been found in Kashmir, but remains of a great many
of them have been discovered, and, as it was linked on with Europe
where they have been found, there is no doubt that they and the
animals now to be described must have grown in the varying altitudes
of the now upraised mountains.
This period, as we have seen, is particularly remarkable for the
advent of mammals, and there now appeared the earliest representative
of the tribe of monkeys; the ancestors of the horse, about the size
of small ponies with three toes on each foot; herds of ancestral
hornless deer and antelope; animals allied to our wolves; foxes;
numerous hog-like and large tapir-like animals, some the size of
elephants with the habit of a rhinoceros; opossums; and
representatives of hedgehogs, squirrels, and bats. The reptiles
included tortoises and turtles, crocodiles and serpents. Birds had
also for some time past developed from reptiles, and now included a
kind of albatross and birds allied to the buzzard, osprey, hawk,
nuthatch, quail, pelican, ibis, and flamingo.
Later in the same period appeared parroquets, trogons, cranes, eagles,
and grouse. And now was the reign of the hippopotamus, while there
followed rhinoceros, shrew, moles, and musk rats. Later still the huge
animals with probosces held the first place--the colossal mastodons
and troops of elephants. The forests were also tenanted with apes.
Other animals were sabre-toothed tigers and the earliest form of bear.
Altogether Kashmir would at the time have been a paradise for
sportsmen. But man had not yet appeared.
* * * * *
After the mountains had been finally upheaved it is evident, from the
existence of those level plateaux of recent alluvial deposit called
karewas, that the Kashmir valley must have been filled with a lake to
some hundreds of feet higher than the present valley bottom. Where the
Jhelum River at present escapes from the valley was then blocked up,
and the whole valley filled with what must have been the most lovely
lake in the world--twice the length and three times the width of the
Lake of Geneva, and completely encircled by snowy mountains as high
and higher than Mont Blanc; while in the immediately following glacial
period mighty glaciers came wending down the Sind, Lidar, and other
valleys, even to the very edge of the water.
[Illustration: LAKE SINSA NAG, LIDAR VALLEY]
Whether man ever saw this lovely lake it is not yet possible to say.
The Glacial period commenced rather more than a quarter of a million
years ago, and it was about then that man first appeared, among other
places, in the great river valleys of central and southern India,
where the climate is not extreme, and wild fruits, berries, etc., were
procurable at every season of the year. But when he spread up the
valley of the Jhelum to Kashmir we have not yet the means of saying.
What appear to be some remains of the handiwork of man were recently
found by Mr. Radcliffe in a cave in the Lolab, near the borders
of the Wular Lake, and seem to indicate the presence of man long
anterior to the first dawn of Kashmir history. But the dawn of Kashmir
history is only 2200 years ago, and man must have appeared 250,000
years before that. For thousands of years he must have been bravely
battling against Nature and against the numerous and powerful animals
which then lorded the earth. Slowly he must have made his way from the
warm valleys of the Nerbudda and the Ganges to the rivers of the
Punjab, and up the Jhelum valley into Kashmir. But he eventually
established himself there as the beautiful lake was almost drained
away and the Kashmir of the present day was finally evolved.
* * * * *
So we bring up the history of the mountains till it joins with the
history of the people; and as the story finishes, does not one great
thought emerge--the thought of the youth, the recentness of man
alongside the hoary mountains? During the one hundred million years of
the mountains' history mankind has existed only a quarter of a
million; and his recorded history extends over not even a hundredth
part of a single million years. And if we reflect on this, and
consider, too, that the sun's heat will last to render life possible
for many millions of years yet, does it not seem almost criminally
childish for us--Hindus, Christians, and Mohamedans alike--to be so
continually and incessantly looking backward to great and holy men of
the past, as if all the best were necessarily behind, instead of
sometimes looking forward to the even greater men to _come_--to the
higher _species_ of men who will yet evolve; of whom our holiest and
our greatest are only the forerunners; and for the production of whom
it should be our highest duty to consciously and of purpose pave the
way, as the poor primitive men, though unconsciously, prepared the
ground for the civilised men of to-day? Ought we not to more
accurately adjust our sense of proportion; to rise above the ant-like
attitude of mind, and attune our thoughts to the breadth and height of
the mountains, to the purity of their snowy summits, and to the depth
and clearness of the liquid skies they almost touch?
To some the sight of these mountain masses, the thought of the
tremendous forces which gave them rise, and the idea of the aeons of
time their moulding has involved, brings no other feeling than
depression. The size, the titanic nature of the forces and the
vastness of the time impress them only with a sense of the littleness
of man in comparison. But why should the mountains thus depress? Why
should not their history bring us the more worthy thought of the
mighty possibilities of the race? For man, small in stature though he
may be, is after all the flower and finish of the evolutionary process
so far; he is century by century acquiring a completer mastery over
Nature; and when we see how young and recent he is beside the aged
mountains, when we realise how they have only evolved by minute
gradations accumulating over vast periods of time, and when we reflect
that nearly similar periods may yet lie before mankind, should not our
thoughts dwell rather on man's future greatness and on the mighty
destiny which he _himself_ may shape?
With our imagination tethered to the hard-rock fact that man has
developed from a savage to a Plato and a Shakespeare, from the
inventor of the stone-axe to the inventor of telegraphy in the paltry
quarter million years of his existence, may we not safely give it rope
to wander out into the boundless future? We are still but children. We
may be only as young bees, crawling over the combs of a hive, who have
not yet found their wings to fly out into the sun-lit world beyond.
Even now we suspect ourselves of possessing wing-like faculties of the
mind whose use we do not know, and to which we are as yet afraid to
trust. But the period of our infancy is over. The time to let
ourselves go is approaching. Should we not look confidently out into
the future and nerve ourselves for bold, unfettered flight?
And may we not still further hope that in the many million years the
earth may yet exist we may master the depressing fate which lies
before us when the sun's heat is expended; and look forward to
evolving from ourselves beings of a higher order who will be
independent of the used-up planet which gave them birth, and may be
swarm away to some far, other sun-lit home?
INDEX
Abbotabad, 57
Achibal, 60, 116, 123
Administration, 183
Afghanistan, 138, 232
Afghans, 159, 176
Africa, 258, 265
South, 254
Aghil range, 237
Agra, Taj at, 157
Aishmakam, 210
Ajit Singh, 166
Akbar, 142, 157
Alexander the Great, 139
Alfred, King, 143
Aliwal, 168
Almonds, 199
Amar Singh, Raja Sir, 68, 69, 118, 184, 215
Amaranth, 202
Amarnath, caves of, 60, 113, 114
America, 257, 258
Aparwat, 106
Apples, 196, 217
Apricots, 96, 176, 199, 202
trees, 19, 36, 158
Archaeological Department Survey, 81
Arts, 210
Aru, 113, 123
Asia, Central, 61, 143, 263
Asoka, the Buddhist king, 33, 75, 138, 139, 140
Astor, 62, 120, 121
Austin, Godwin, 236
Autumn in Kashmir, 36, 38
Avantipur, 135
Avantipura, 145
Avantivarman, 145, 146
Awatkula, 111
Baber, Emperor, 211
Badakhshan, 143
Badwan, 123
Baltistan, 3, 50, 61, 109, 120, 121, 164, 184, 232
Governor of, 50
Bandipur, 61, 62
Banihal Pass, 17
Baramula, 5, 6, 57, 69, 104, 124, 146, 183, 206, 231, 232, 241
Road, 84
Bara-singh. _See_ "Kashmir stag."
Barley, 200, 205
Barstow, Captain, 120
Basket work, 215
Bauxite, 210
Bawan, 112
Beans, white, 201
Beas river, 169
Bedford, Duke of, 122
Bengal, 138
settlement of, 191
Beoru, 123
Bernier, 1, 2, 158
Bijbehara, 60, 111, 112
Birches, 206
Biscoe's School, Mr., 72
Blue pine, 206
Boat-building, 216
Boatmen, 132
Bodhisattva, 141
Bokhara, 216
Bombay, 196
Brahminism, 139
Brahministic Hinduism, 141
Brahmins, 112, 149, 156
British Government, 168, 169, 170, 173, 182, 183, 184, 210
troops, 167
Indian troops, 167
Resident, 183
territory, 167
Buckwheat, 201
Buddha, 135
Buddhism, 139, 140, 141
Buddhist monasteries, 61
temple, 5, 138
Bulbuls, 7
Bullock carts, 56
"Bund," 69, 70
Buniar, 134
Burbank, Mr. Luther, 94
Burma, 249
Burrard, Colonel, 234, 236, 238, 240, 242, 246, 250
Burzil, 123
Butter, clarified, 201, 218
Calcutta, 31, 44, 196
Cambrian period, 262
rocks, pre-, 261
Carbonaceous system, 257
Carboniferous period, 268
Carpets, 212
Cashmere, 171
Cauvery Falls, 223
Chamba, 163, 170
Charlemagne, 143
Chenab river, 208
Chenar, trees, 6, 19, 20, 23, 27, 28, 29, 32, 34, 36, 37, 43,
60, 65, 66, 70, 76, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 87, 89, 92, 97,
112, 116, 208, 209
foliage, 24
Chenars, Isle of, 29, 78
China, 250
Chitral, 164, 155, 175
frontier, 62
Cholera, 232
Christians, 272
Clarified butter. _See_ "Butter"
Coal Measures, 264, 265
Coal period, 266
Columbines, 93
Copper, 210, 220
work, 214
Cornwallis, Lord, 191
Cotton, 202, 205
cloth, 216
piece-goods, 219
Cretaceous period, late, 267
Customs, the (source of revenue), 184, 187
Dabgarh, 203
Dachigam stream, 26, 123, 124
valley, 27, 79
Dak bungalows, 31, 56, 57
Dal Darwaza lock, the, 75, 78
Dal Lake, 20, 28, 29, 32, 59, 74, 75, 79, 81, 82, 132, 141, 159,
198, 203, 209
Danjhibhoy, 47
Darjiling, 3, 102, 235, 239
Dauvergne, M., 211
Deccan, 138
Decentralisation, Royal Commission on, 46
Deodar forest, 116, 206
trees, 71, 206, 226
Devonian period, 257
Dhulip Singh, 166, 167
Dhyan Singh, 164, 166
Dogra country, 163
Rajput, 163
Downes, Dr., 73
Dragon-flies, 39, 40
Drew, Mr., 174
Duck shooting, 16, 39, 41, 121
Dundee Chamber of Commerce, 204
Dunga-boats, 57, 58
Durbar, 54, 175, 233
East India Company, 172
Edwards, Colonel, 41, 121
Egypt, 139
Egyptian temples, 115
Electric installation, 214
Electrical Department, 185
Scheme, 222
Elizabeth, Queen, 157
Elm tree, 209
Elsmie, Dr., 73
Enamel work, 214
Engineer, Chief, 185
State, 185
Eocene period, 258
Erin, 123
Everest, Mount, 235, 237, 248
Ferozepur nulla, 105
Ferozepore fort, 167
Ferozeshah, 168
Field, Mr., 232
Fir, silver, 206
Flax, Russian, 204
Forest Department, 184, 207, 227
Forests, 206
Forests, Conservator of, 185
Food grains, 199
Fowls, 49
Fruit, 196
Game Preservation Department, 118, 121
Ganderbal, 60, 108
Gandhara, 115
Gangabal Lake, 60, 110, 123
Ganges, the, 144, 271
Gap, the, 28, 29
Garuda, 86
Ghi, 201, 218
Gilgit, 62, 184
district, 121
Gobi Desert, 262
Gold-washings, 210
Gopaditya, 74
Gorai, 123
Govardhanadhara, temple to the god, 86
Graeco-Buddhist art, 139
Grain, 49, 199
Grapes, 198
"Greater Vehicle of the Law," 141
Greece, 133, 137, 139
Gujars, 113
Gulab Singh, Raja, 160, 162, 163, 164, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170,
171, 172, 173, 174, 177
Gulmarg, 12, 17, 34, 98, 109, 114, 206, 241, 249, 260
Residency at, 98, 104
Gupkar, 28, 70
Gupta period, 115
Gurais, 34, 62, 183
Hanji (boatmen), 132
Haramokh peak, 6, 17, 18, 28, 30, 61, 85, 110, 235, 237, 239, 250
Hardinge, Governor-General, Lord, 168, 171
Hari Parbat fort, 20, 32, 157
Harsa, King, 150, 151
Harwan, 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 25, 26, 27, 141
hatchery, 25, 122, 124
Hayden, H. H., 234, 243, 244, 245, 246, 251, 264
Hazara, 147, 169
Hedin, Dr. Sven, 53
Hemp, 158
Hides, 218
Himalaya, 2, 36, 50, 131, 234, 239, 241, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248,
249, 250, 251, 255, 258, 260
Hindu, the, 126, 128, 159, 161, 202, 272
rule, 155
rulers, 160
temple, 5, 67, 70, 72, 74, 76, 156
Hindustan, plains of, 160
Hira Singh, 166
Hiuen Tsiang, Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, 141
Hokrar, 17
Ghat, "jheel," 16
marsh, 38
Lake, 38
Home Department, 184
Horse chestnut, 24, 92, 102, 206
House-boats, 57, 70, 216
Hunza, 3, 52, 154, 243
frontier, 63
river, 243
Ibex, 120, 121
Ice mountain, 248
Imports, 219
India, 38, 137, 139, 215, 236, 257, 263, 270
Central, 142
Geological Survey of, 235, 247, 251
Government of, 185, 186, 219, 234, 236
Native States of, 183
plains of, 224, 225, 240
Superintendent in the Geological Survey of, 234
Surveyor-General of, 234
Indian Civil Service, 185
Forest Department, 185
Ocean, 36
Peninsula, 265
Indus river, 169, 170, 171, 210, 250
Industries, 216
Iris, 21, 24, 25, 32, 91
Iron, 210, 217
Islam, 159
Islamabad, 33, 58, 60, 112, 116, 135, 161, 162, 210
Iyesthesvara, 74
Jama Masjid, the, 71
Jammu, 126, 163, 164, 167, 168, 169, 173, 210
Governor of, 184
State, 183
Jaunsar period, 257
Javasimha, King, 153
Jehangir, Moghal Emperor, 80, 83, 157
Jhelum, the, 5, 17, 31, 49, 60, 61, 63, 74, 85, 104, 120, 124,
135, 145, 149, 182, 183, 200, 206, 208, 209, 210, 214, 223,
225, 226, 232, 249, 270, 271
Josephine, Empress, 211
Judiciary, The, 184
Judge of the High Court, 184
Judge, Chief, 50, 187
K2 peak, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 241, 243, 244, 248
Kabul, 142, 163
_Kagazi_, 198
Kaj Nag mountains, 17, 20, 120
Kalhana, 154
Kamri Pass, 250
Kanauj, king of, 143, 144
Kangra, 147, 163
Kanibal, 116
Kanishka, King, 140
Karakoram Pass, 52, 61
range, 235, 236, 248
Karewa, a, 84, 270
Kashmir, Governor of, 184, 186
history of, 133
the people, 125
Proper, 2, 183
Province, 126
range, North, 183, 250
stag, 9, 10, 13, 41
State, 70, 126, 183, 209, 210, 235, 240
tulips, 66, 90
valley of, 2, 3, 6, 28, 34, 79, 114, 117, 121, 134, 136, 165,
183, 225, 237, 241
village, 25
Kashmirian architecture, 134, 145
Kashmiris, 98, 130, 137, 138, 186, 199, 201, 205, 216, 217, 220
Kennard, Mr. M. T., 58, 121
Khagan range, 17, 20, 70
Khagan snows, 30, 78
Khunnu, 264
Khurruk Singh, Maharaja, 169
Kinchinjunga peak, 103, 237, 243, 248
range, 235
King-Emperor, 67
Kirghiz, 211
Kishenganga, 123, 249
Kishtwar range, 18
Kofwara, 111
Kohala, 183
Kolahoi glacier, 60, 113
peak, 114
Kolar gold-fields, 223
Kotwal, 161
Kumaon, 248
Kurseong, 239
Ladak, 51, 52, 54, 61, 109, 120, 164, 184, 210, 232
Lahore, 163, 165, 166, 167, 169, 171, 173
Court, 165
Government at, 168, 169
State, 169, 170
Treaty of, 169, 171
Lahoul, 170
Lalitaditya, King, 63, 85, 115, 142, 143
structures, 145
Lalpura, 111
Lal Singh, 167, 168
Land Revenue administration, 184
Lawrence, Mr., 159, 191, 200, 208
Lawrence, Sir Henry, 69, 173
Lawrence, Sir Walter, 125, 127, 131, 188
Leh, 61
_Letters of Queen Victoria, The_, 171
Lhasa, 61
Lidar stream, 112
valley, 34, 60, 111, 135, 270
Lidarwat, 113
Liddar, the, 123
Liddar valley, 210
Lilac, 93
Limestone, 210
Linseed, 33, 34, 201, 218
Log bridge, 6
Lolab, the, 48, 110, 161
valley, 209, 271
Lotbiniere, Major Alain de, R.E., 145, 146, 222, 223, 225, 226, 232
Lotus, the, 77
Lumberdars, 187
M'Mahon, Lieutenant-General, 244
Madagascar, 254
Madras, 223
Mahadeo peak, 20, 22, 23, 79
Maharaja, H.H. _See_ Pratab Singh
the late, 73, 181
Maharaja's preserves, 122
Mahdi of the Mohamedans, 129
Mahmud of Ghazni, 150, 155
Maize, 200, 205, 217
Manasbal Lake, 37, 210
Manchester, cotton goods, 219
Manjis, 132
Manufactures, 194, 210
Maple, 206
Markhor, a, 120, 121
Marshal, Mr., 115
Martand, 60, 85, 114, 115, 135, 144
Marwar, 123
"Meadow of Flowers," 98
Mecca, 71
Meruvad-dhana, minister, 75
Messiah of the Jews, 129
Metals, 220
Middlemiss, Mr., 259
Mihirakula, the "White Hun," 141
Millet, 201
Mineral products, 209
Minto, Lord, 27, 38, 69, 117, 123, 124, 204
Mirza Haider, 156
Mirpur, 163
Mitchell, Mr. Frank, 122, 124
Moghal emperors, 156
Empire, 159
gardens, 29, 59, 116
times, 77, 84
Moghals, the, 81, 150, 157, 159, 198
Mohamed, 143
Mohamed Jan, 59
Mohamedan buildings, 71
dynasty, 155
period, 154
Mohamedanism, 150, 155, 160
Mohamedans, 126, 128, 129, 161, 186, 272
Monsoon, the, 35
Montgomerie, Colonel, 235, 237
Moorcroft, Mr., 48, 49, 160, 161
Mosquitoes, 39
_Mothi_, 201
Mount Everest, 235, 237, 248
Mountain ranges, 234, 247
Mudki, 168
Mulberry, 22, 24, 28, 35, 36, 43, 85, 89, 92, 116, 176, 199
trees, 195, 196
Multan, 167
_Mung_, 201
Munshi Bagh, 68, 69
Munsiff, 187
Murree hill, 57, 232
Musherbrum Peak, 243
Mussouri, 239
Mustagh Pass, 50, 51, 248
Mustard, 203
fields, 32, 33, 34
Mutiny, the, 174
Mysore, 223
Nagarjuna, 141
Naib-tehsildars, 186
Nanga Parbat peak, 6, 61, 101, 103, 104, 106, 237, 241, 243, 244,
248, 250, 253, 260
Nasim Bagh, 59, 78, 79
Nedou's hotel, 47, 57, 70
Nepal, 234, 235
Nerbudda, 271
Neve, Dr. Arthur, 73
Neve, Dr. Ernest, 73
Neve, Miss, 73
Neve's Hospital, Dr., 72
Nichols, Dr., 81
Nicholson, John, 69
Nishat Bagh, 29, 32, 59, 77, 78, 80, 82, 157
Northern Canon, The, 141
Nun Kun peaks, 249
Nurmahal, 80, 157
Oil-seeds, 201
Oudh, 163
Ovis Poli, 62
Pahlgam, 34, 60, 100, 112, 113, 114
Pamirs, the, 52, 61, 62, 243
Pampur, 63, 135, 202, 210
plateau, 64
Pandit Rada Kishen Kol, 50
Pandrathan, 33, 75, 135, 139
Papier-mache, 214
Paraspur, 84
Pariansipura, plateau of, 63
Parihasapura, 84, 85, 144
Parsi shops, 70
Pashm, 211, 212
Patan, 135
temples of, 135
Patwari, 189
Payech, 135
Peaks, the, 234
Pears, 197, 217
Peas, 201
Peat, 210
Peking, 50, 143, 236
Peychaud, M., 197
_Phaseolus aconitifolius_, 201
_Phaseolus Mungo_, 201
_Phaseolus radiatus_, 201
_Picea morinda_, 206
_Pinus excelsa_, 206
Pir Panjal range, 11, 13, 17, 20, 28, 35, 37, 43, 79, 98, 105,
114, 241, 249
_Platanus orientalis_, 208
Pohru river, 111
Police, the, 184
Poplar trees, 21, 24, 32, 33, 35, 36, 65, 90, 91, 209
Post Office, 70
Potala at Lhasa, 157
Potatoes, 203, 218
Pratab Model Farm, 203
Pratab Singh, Maharaja Sir, G.C.S.I., 16, 26, 27, 38, 50, 54, 65,
66, 67, 87, 98, 117, 118, 123, 124, 145, 181, 184, 186, 187,
203, 222, 232
Palace, 68
Products, 194
Protozoa, 261
Public Works Department, 184, 185
Punch, 153
House of, 149
Raja of, 164
River, 123
Pundits, 126
Punjab, the, 5, 48, 49, 129, 138, 139, 143, 147, 150, 155, 159,
163, 166, 168, 171, 172, 177, 186, 198, 200, 203, 206, 207,
217, 218, 220, 224, 232
Bank, 70
peasants, 219
Puranadhisthana, 75
"Puttoo" cloth, 195, 215
Quadiani sect, 129, 130
Quinces, 198
_Raah_, 201
Radcliffe, Mr., 270
Rahem Sheikh, 43
Rajatarangini, the, 85
Rajavihara, the, 86
Rajput Hill States, 171
Rajputana, 163, 252
Rakaposhi peak, 243
Ramnager, Raja of, 164
Rampur, 5, 57, 135, 206, 210, 223, 226, 252
Ranbir Singh, Maharaja, 174, 175
Ranjit Singh, 48, 159, 162, 164, 166, 167
Ranjit Singh's Dewan, 164
Rape, 201, 202
Ravi river, 170
Rawal Pindi, 5, 55, 56, 69, 196, 224
Rawlence, Dr., 73
Rawlinson, Sir Henry, 236
Residency, the, 53, 54, 70
garden, 87, 208, 209
Resident, the, 16, 38, 43, 53, 65, 68
Revenue from land, 187, 193
Rice, 199, 205, 217
fields, 23, 35, 158
Robinson, Miss, 73
Roses, 25, 92, 94
Royal Engineer Officer, 185
Royal Geographical Society, 236
Saffron, 158, 202
Salt, 219
Sapphires, 210
_Sesamum indicum_, 202
Settlement Commissioner, 185
Shadipur, 37, 60, 61, 84, 85, 135, 144
Shah Hamadan, Mosque of, 67, 71
Shah Jahan, Emperor, 71
Shah Mir, 155, 156
Shalimar Bagh, 29, 59, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 157
Shalimar garden, 123, 203
Shawls, 134, 170, 194, 210, 211
Sher Singh, 162, 166
Shikar suit, a, 215
Shikara, 58, 65
Shikari, 9, 10, 12, 15, 17, 38, 41, 43, 57
Shisha Nag, 113
Shukar Ali, 51, 52, 53, 54
Shupaiyon, 161, 162
Siberian duck, 38
Sikh army, 167, 168
Government, 160, 169, 172
Sikh rulers, 163
soldiery, 166
State, 171
Sikhs, 147, 161, 164, 165, 169, 176
of the Plains, 171
Silk, 213, 218
Silurian period, 262
Silver fir, 206
work, 214
Sind river, 34, 37, 60, 61, 63, 75, 78, 85, 108, 111, 113, 135,
253, 270
Singhare, 132
Siva, the god, 74
Skins, 218
Sobraon, 168
Sonamarg, 34, 61, 100, 108, 109
Sopur, 111, 145, 203, 210
Spiti, 262
Sport, 118
Spring in Kashmir, 27, 30, 33
Spruce, Himalayan, 206
Srinagar, 5, 6, 7, 16, 18, 26, 27, 28, 30, 33, 41, 44, 48, 49, 55,
56, 57, 59, 63, 65, 69, 70, 71, 74, 75, 80, 88, 98, 103, 110,
112, 123, 127, 129, 130, 135, 139, 142, 145, 148, 153, 173,
181, 187, 195, 196, 203, 213, 214, 219, 231, 232, 249, 253,
257, 264
City of the Sun, 63
Guest House, 69
Museum, 69, 212
road, 84
State, the, 178, 184, 185, 192, 196, 213, 216
State Hospital, 69
Stein, Dr., 74, 137, 145
Sugar, 220
Sulphur springs, 210
Summer in Kashmir, 34
Sutlej river, 163, 167, 249
Suyya, 145, 146
Swadeshi movement, 195, 215
Taj at Agra, 80, 135
Takht-i-Suliman, 28, 34, 70, 74, 75, 135, 253, 257
Tannin, 123
Tatakuti peak, 17, 249
Tea, 220
Tehsildars, 186
Tej Singh, 167
Tertiary period, 258, 267, 268
Third Great Council of the Church, 140
Throv Deo, 163
Tian Shan mountains, 211
Tibet, 102, 164, 194, 235, 239, 258
Tibetan goat, 194, 211
_Til_, 201, 202
Tilail, 62
Timber, 218
Tobacco, 202
Tonga, 47, 55, 56
Trade, 217
Tragbal, 61, 62, 100, 123
Pass, 61
Travel in Kashmir, 47
Turkestan, 61, 128, 235
plains of, 243
Chinese, 51, 52, 194, 211
Turkis. _See_ Moghals
Uri, 49, 134, 206
Ush Turfan, 211
Vaishu stream, 124
Vecula, King, 152
Vernag, springs of, 60
Viceroy, 43
Viceroys, sport of, 27
_Victoria, Queen, Letters of_, 171
Vigne, 161, 164
Vishnu, 75, 112
Mahavaraha, temple of, 86
Muktakesava, temple of, 86
Parihasakesave, temple of, 85
Vishu, 123
Volcanoes, 257
Walker, General, 236
Walnut, 22, 24, 27, 35, 85, 92, 111, 116, 158, 198, 202, 209
Wangat, river, 123
Wangat ruins, 60
Valley, 110
Ward, Colonel, 112, 122
Water-lilies, 39
Water nuts, 132
Wheat, 158, 201, 205
fields, 33
Wigram, Major, 87, 118, 121, 124, 197
Willow, 22, 24, 32, 33, 34, 35, 70, 85, 88, 89, 209, 215
Wilson, Mr. S., 73
Wood-carving, 214
Wool, 218
Wular Lake, 58, 61, 103, 104, 132, 271
Yarkand, 51
serai, 66
Yus Asaf, 129, 130
Zain-ul-ab-ul-din, King, 156
Zenana hospital, 66
Zewan, 253
Zoji Pass, 250
Zoji-la-Pass, 61, 109, 249
Zorawar Singh, 164
_Printed by_ R. & R. CLARK, LIMITED, _Edinburgh_.
* * * * *
Transcriber's note:
Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original document have
been preserved. Obvious typographical errors have been corrected.
Page 56: "ckka" is possibly a typographical error.