From Japan as well as China we get many fine temple sets. Whence come

they? some may ask. Perhaps they have been discarded because they have

been replaced with newer or more elaborate ornaments, although they

may have been obtained through the cupidity of some of the temple

attendants. From whatever sources they came there are numerous examples

in the London curio-shops and in our museums. The crane and tortoise

have long been held in veneration in Japan. The tortoise especially

is frequently found on old Chinese pottery and metal-work, as

well as being fashioned in Corea and Japan. In Fig. 74 there is a

Japanese pricket candlestick, in the form of a crane and tortoise, of

eighteenth-century workmanship, and it evidently formed one of a set

of five altar pieces. Some of the altar sets gave special prominence

to two flower vases as part of the set, of somewhat later style of

decoration to Fig. 90; it was probably made early in the nineteenth

century. This vase was formerly used in a set in which a figure of

Buddha occupied the centre. It was a common practice to hang over the

Buddhist altars lamps, many of which are to be seen in our museums.

In Fig. 75 is shown a Japanese ritual vase, intended for wine (_hu_);

it is of square shape, with cover of Kwei and dragon pattern, animal

feet and bosses on the shoulders, and bird-shaped arris on the lid,

the inside of which is inscribed with twelve characters; the patina of

this vessel ranges from deep brown to bright malachite-green. Fig. 76

is a smaller ritual vessel, with two handles at the shoulder and one

meander band and knob. The vase shown in Fig. 77, with dragon handles,

a beautifully patinated specimen, shading from brown to red with

green accretions, is a ritual _tsui_ or vase for offering corn. These

remarkable relics formed part of a large collection dispersed recently

at a well-known London salesroom. Now and then less important pieces

come under the hammer, and it is by no means difficult to secure for

a small outlay an excellent representative collection of these deeply

interesting objects associated with idol worship.

XV

NATIVE

METAL-WORK

CHAPTER XV

NATIVE METAL-WORK

Outside influences--Benin bronzes--Other African curios.

There are few collections of copper and brass without a fair sprinkling

of curiously formed and often crude objects which we class under the

generic term "native curios." There is much that is of extreme interest

in the work of the smiths and founders of races possessing but little

apparent touch with civilized nations; for such metal objects are true

guides to the state of the advancement of the peoples of the countries

from which such curios come. We delight in the art of early Eastern

nations, and find much to admire in the almost barbaric ornament of

Asiatic metal-workers of mediæval and even later days, as counted

by the progress made by European artists at contemporary dates. The

marvellous skill with which the natives of India and other Asiatic

countries incised and inlaid their metal wares has already been pointed

out. There is, however, an especial charm about the metal-work of

nations we are apt to class as "savage," or at least untutored, if

not uncivilized. And we would not have it otherwise, for it is from

these curios--metal and of other materials--that we are enabled to

trace the influences of other countries with whom those races or tribes

have had dealings in the past. We are to some extent able from these

antiquities to connect the links in the chain of nations, and from the

characteristics of their art (?) to settle their origin and affinity to

other races.

Outside Influences.

The Ethnological Gallery of the British Museum is one of the finest

instructors. The silent exhibits tell the observant man or woman,

boy or girl, much that cannot be learned from book knowledge. In

the cases in that gallery are many objects fashioned by peoples who

until recently were in their Stone Age, and had no knowledge of the

outer world. There are some who from the curios--old and new--have

apparently, until taught their use by travellers and traders from the

far-off West, never discovered the value of metals. Some of the native

races--not a few of them fellow-subjects of the Empire--as yet prefer

wood, stone, and crude pottery vessels and utensils to metal, judging

from the very limited use of the few brass or copper objects they

possess, those few, probably, being imported. The ethnology of the race

is traced in these relics, especially in the really old ones. In a

few instances by way of contrast, metal objects, although so limited,

are conspicuous. They are chiefly confined to the native countries

brought under the influence of more advanced peoples; as instanced by

the work of the Sinhalese, the natives of Ceylon, who early came into

touch with the metal-workers of India. Another native race by their

wealth of rare metallic curios, the art of producing which they have

lost, are shown to be a people with a past; thus it is with the tribes

of Southern Nigeria in and around Benin City. On the occasion of its

capture by the British in 1897, it was found to possess a remarkable

store of wonderful bronzes, evidently of the sixteenth or seventeenth

centuries. In these and other native curios the collector revels, and

in their study finds history, geography, and even the folk-lore of

nations revealed; for in such curios there are stories in brass of

social life, religious functions, ceremonies, and sacrifices.

The Benin Bronzes.

A few years ago very many bronzes (nearly pure copper) were sold

under the hammer. They were looted from Benin City during the war

which ended in the country in and around the city being taken by the

British troops, and eventually incorporated in Southern Nigeria. These

wonderful bronzes throw a light upon the history of that country, and

tell of a powerful nation far advanced in the art of modelling and

casting metals long before they had come into close touch with Western

influence. This remarkable people who possessed so much wealth in

copper and in ivory have long gone; their descendants or the tribes

occupying their city have no knowledge of the craft, and apparently

retained these relics of barbaric splendour with silent awe. The

entire series of bronze panels from which the figures so cleverly

stand out in bold relief, must have presented a wonderful sight to the

British soldiers as they entered Benin. The collection in the British

Museum was sent home to this country by Sir Ralph Moor, K.C.M.G., H.M.

Commissioner and Consul-General for the Niger Coast Protectorate. It

is impossible to describe their beauty or the details of the elaborate

modelling of the dress, arms, and costumes of the Benin king and his

chiefs and officers as they existed in the sixteenth century. There

is a model of the king's house, his attendant guards, high officials,

a sword-bearer, and another bearing a ceremonial axe. Some of the

bronzes represent musicians playing various instruments, and others

performing all kinds of functions. The bronze panels of fishes and

animals are very lifelike, especially bulls, crocodiles, and the heads

of oxen, even the twisted cords with which the animals were tethered

being correctly modelled. The bronzes representing Europeans are

exceptionally valuable in that from the costumes portrayed the date

of those bronzes has been fixed, approximately. The matchlocks and

flint-guns are reproduced with the greatest exactitude, as also the

Egyptian figures, copied presumably from the remains of Ancient Egypt,

with which these metal-workers were evidently familiar.

In addition to the panels of copper, which show marks of how they

were attached to the walls, were bronze masks or warriors' heads

which served as stands for the splendidly carved tusks of ivory also

discovered when the expedition visited that country. There are many

minor objects in bronze which show that this remarkable civilization,

now lost, was far advanced in the arts.

As it has been suggested Benin relics are not entirely confined to

museum specimens, and collectors are not without opportunities of

securing pieces.

Many of the early tribes of Africa had knowledge of metal-working,

although some have lost or neglected to practice it.

Other African Curios.

Some metal curios were included in the trophies brought to this country

at the time of the Ashanti Expedition, among the rare regal metal-work

being an old brass vase, with repoussé decorations and a copper dragon

handle. It was discovered behind the house of King Prempeh's aunt,

who had been acting as Regent. Another curio discovered in the same

district was a brass box containing gold dust. Bells, too, have been

brought from Ashanti; one in the British Museum is the executioner's

bell, which was rang prior to an execution.

There are many bronzes from Southern Nigeria, especially some curious

ornaments worn by the women. Some of these are veritable antiques and

were found buried; many are finely patinated and heavy. Some of the

bangles are beautifully formed and highly decorated with inlaid enamels.

Some very interesting brass castings come from Lagos, not at all unlike

the Benin modelling, except that they are in brass instead of pure

copper. They include figures of natives, some on horseback, others

in the act of shooting with guns. There are brass staves of office

carried as symbols of authority by the messengers of the Oshogbo, a

native secret society; and there are spoons, knives and other domestic

sundries, as well as armlets and anklets of copper and brass.

From north-east Central Africa we get a little metal-work, some of the

head-dress ornaments being enriched with circular brass plates, on

which are repoussé decorations. Among the curios from this district

in the British Museum are several exceptional pieces, one being a

head-dress or helmet of brass with circular brass ornaments.

The knives used in ceremonials are often very handsome. There is a fine

executioner's knife from north-east Central Africa, with brass studs

all over the wood handle. Another chief's knife, which came from near

the Stanley Falls, is decorated with strips of copper and brass.

The metal castings from Central Sudan, representing ostriches,

giraffes, and camels, are cleverly done, and with bangles and anklets

make up an interesting group.

It is curious how valuable finds are sometimes made many miles from the

locality where the object was made. It is the same in our own country,

for we dig and find a bronze from ancient Rome, brought over by the

conquering armies of the Romans when Britain was brought under the

Imperial sway. Our armies have probably left relics behind them in the

past as in the present, for it is no uncommon thing for reminders of

the Crusaders and others to be found even in Africa. One of the most

remarkable finds was a large bronze jug and cover now in the British

Museum; on it are the arms of Richard II of England, and two mottoes in

Lombardic letters: "HE THAT WILL NOT SPARE WHEN HE MAY, HE SHALL NOT

SPEND WHEN HE WOULD" is one; the other reads: "DEEM THE BEST IN EVERY

DOUBT TILL THE TRUTH BE TRIED OUT." This splendid jug was found in

Ashanti; the date of its manufacture was about A.D. 1400.

The South African curios in brass are very limited; they consist

chiefly of collars and armlets worn by the women of Basutoland and

Bechuanaland, and by the Kaffir women who have also girdles of brass

cleverly formed.

Although by no means numerous and of limited variety, a few objects of

native workmanship are worth securing if only to compare the way in

which natural ingenuity has at different times helped the craftsman and

enabled him to work even metals without any instructions from nations

more advanced in their use.

XVI

CONTINENTAL

COPPER

AND BRASS

[Illustration: FIG. 78.--BRONZE OVIFORM EWER.]

[Illustration: FIG. 79.--BRASS EWER WITH ARTISTIC HANDLE.]

CHAPTER XVI

CONTINENTAL COPPER AND BRASS

Italian bronzes--French art--Dutch brasswork--German metal-work.

The Italian renaissance in art exercised such a wide influence upon

manufactured goods in this and other countries that the collector of

antiques naturally turns to the achievements of the artists in metal

who worked in Florence and Rome for the highest ideals he can seek. In

this he is not disappointed, for just as the connoisseur of ancient art

finds his delight in the bronzes of Greece and Rome, the collector of

more modern art sees grace and beauty combined with skilful grouping

in Italian craftsmanship. European influence has been brought to

bear upon the metal-work of the world at different times, but it

has not always come from the same country. At different periods the

metal-workers of certain localities appear to have made their peculiar

characteristics take precedence of others. In most of the European

countries quite distinct styles and even unique treatment of metals

have been noticeable; so much so that our museums to-day contain

groups of metal-work having little or no affinity to one another,

although coming, perhaps, from towns not far removed in point of

geographical position. The collector recognizes as distinct the bronzes

of Italy; the screens, candlesticks, and ecclesiastical metal-work

of Spain; the beaten bronze, champlevé enamels, and the decorative

brass of the Empire period of France; the eighteenth-century Dutch

brasswork; the metal forged and cast in Germany, and the decorative

copper and brass of Turkey showing such distinctly Oriental influence

in Saracenic touch. To study all these rival styles at their best the

collector, however large his private collection, must perforce visit

either one of the more important Continental museums or the Victoria

and Albert Museum at South Kensington, where so many cases are filled

with Continental works of art in gold, silver, and the baser metals.

Local museums rarely possess a selection large enough for comparative

purposes. The loan exhibits from the national collection, carefully

selected as representative specimens, are very helpful, and many such

loan cases strengthen local exhibits and add interest to them. In the

United States of America public museums are well arranged with the view

of showing the metal-work of different countries at varied periods, and

many of them are peculiarly rich in exhibits of domestic metal-work

which was taken over in the early days from Europe.

As a guide to curators and others wishful to secure the right kind of

exhibits it may be useful to mention the contents of a case on view at

a South coast town public library recently. There were some beautiful

Italian bronzes of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, a damascened

candlestick from Venice, a Florentine statuette, a handsome cabinet

handle chased with foliated ornament, a bronze mask of Pan, a table

lamp stand with winged lions at the base, and a handsome ewer, the body

of which was ornamented with foliage, around it figures representing

the triumph of Bacchus, a typical seventeenth-century specimen. Among

the minor objects in that case were vases from many countries, door

knockers, and a few examples of Dutch metal-work, decorative and

artistic.

Italian Bronzes.

The metal-workers from the sixth to the tenth centuries, when so

many decorative bronzes were being made for St. Peter's and Italian

churches, derived their inspirations from Byzantium, hence those

early works were often inlaid with silver and gold, and were quite

different from those of later date. Art developed, and gradually a more

distinctive character was given to the bronze gates and candelabra

which were made with such consummate skill. One of the greatest

triumphs of that period was the great candelabrum in Milan Cathedral,

wrought in the thirteenth century. Its height is 14 ft., and it has

seven branches for candles, the stem being supported by four winged

dragons. It is one mass of marvellous scrollwork, relieved by the

introduction of figures, each one of which is perfect in itself--a

study of expression and character. Casts of these remarkable pieces of

metal-work may be seen at South Kensington.

In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the Florentine artists

worked. It was then that statues in bronze were sculptured by

Verrocchio, Donatello, and others. A century later the wonderful

candlesticks in the Certosa, near Pavia, and in the cathedral at Padua,

were made. It was about that time that Venetian metal-workers were

fashioning so much that was beautiful in domestic utensils and the

minor church ornaments.

From that time onward collectable brasses were made, and after long

years of use they passed into the category of antiques, rendered

beautiful by their artistic merits, and possibly by the touch of age.

Even then there was an Oriental look about many of the designs, but

it seldom intrudes, and does not spoil the effect of the forms and

style so clearly Venetian. Such vessels were chiefly made for the then

wealthy merchants of the city, and often their arms were incorporated

into the design. Fig. 78 is a bronze oviform ewer made in Venice about

1530. Another beautiful vase is shown in Fig. 79. Other objects much

favoured were candlesticks, hand-warmers, and perfume sprinklers, to

which must be added the more strictly utilitarian.

The Spanish metal-workers do not appear to have developed a very

well-defined school of metallic art of their own. They were especially

noted for their highly ornamental jewellery; in the common metals they

were influenced by Italy, and to some extent Germany. It is said that

the finest piece of work accomplished in the country was the great

sixteenth-century candelabrum or _tenebrarium_ in Seville Cathedral,

the work of Bart. Morel in 1562.

French Art.

Connoisseurs of the fine arts naturally regard enamels of Limoges as

the greatest achievements of the country (see Chapter XVIII). There is,

however, much to admire in the early unadorned metal-work, especially

that made in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries--effigies in

beaten copper, some portions of which were usually adorned by coloured

"champlevé" enamel. They were afterwards desired by Englishmen, and

some good examples of "imported" effigies are to be seen, a notable

example being one on the tomb of William de Valence in Westminster

Abbey, erected about 1296. Of domestic metal-work there are not many

early pieces. In Fig. 82 is shown a cup or ewer of brass with artistic

handle and spout ornamented with a grotesque mouth; the date assigned

to it is 1570. It may be seen in the Victoria and Albert Museum, where

also is deposited a fine seventeenth-century ewer or tankard with plain

cylindrical body and a deep and long spout with fancy handle (see Fig.

81). There is also a trumpet of brass, dated 1738, in the same gallery;

it has upon it the owner's monogram, "S.M.A.," ensigned with a count's

coronet and crest.

Dutch Brasswork.

The brasswork from Holland, largely imported into this country at the

commencement of the eighteenth century, although decorative, cannot

be claimed as artistic. Most of the objects are strictly utilitarian,

and the ornament stiff and formal; they were hammered by hand, an

effective finish being made by small punches, repoussé work being

occasionally added. Fig. 80, which represents one of the larger pieces,

illustrates a highly ornamental cistern with cover and tap. Its shape

is semicircular, a dome-shaped back acting as a hanger; that as well

as the perforated grille under the cistern being ornamented. The chief

ornament consists of star devices, the points of which are united

together by curved lines composed of small straight indentations. In

the Victoria and Albert Museum there is a Dutch foot-warmer, the sides

of which are ornamented with repoussé panels of flowers and circular

bosses; in the centre of the top, which is slightly curved, is a

medallion engraved "I.W.H.M. 1733," surrounded by open-work decoration

and floral scrolls arranged in geometrical patterns, on either side of

which are birds.

[Illustration: FIG. 80.--DUTCH ORNAMENTAL BRASS CISTERN.]

[Illustration: FIG. 81.--FRENCH EWER OR TANKARD WITH FANCY HANDLE.

FIG. 82.--FRENCH EWER WITH GROTESQUE MOUTH (SIXTEENTH CENTURY).]

The brass milkcans used by modern milk sellers, and the beautifully

ornamented churns and milk perambulators seen in some neighbourhoods,

are not altogether new or the outcome of modern advertisement. In

Holland brass ornament has been used on tinware for many years, and

some very quaint old milkcans and dairy utensils in shining polished

brass are met with by collectors who visit Holland. The milkcans of

that country, or perhaps more correctly large bowls, in which milk and

cream are served have double handles, and make extremely handsome

flower-bowls or fern-pots on the table, although perhaps collectors

would consider such a desecration an improper use for a genuine

antique. Many of the chestnut roasters, skimmers, and brass chimney

ornaments used in England in the eighteenth century came from Holland.

The artists of that country were famous for the characteristic Dutch

scenes engraved on their metal-work, just as they were for their tiles

with quaint windmills and pictures of peasants in native costume

on them. So famous has the collection of these brasses become that

much modern metal-work, copies of genuine antiques, has been sent

over for sale in London curio-shops. Some of these reproductions are

excellent copies; others are "too new" and would scarcely deceive the

amateur. Caution should be observed, especially when buying "old time"

fire-brasses, knockers and trivets.

German Metal-Work.

Curios, as well as modern antiques "made in Germany," are not always

labelled as such; there is, however, a distinctly German look about old

metal-work from that country. Elaborate and massive with its wealth

of floral embellishment, some of the German metal-work of early days

stands out conspicuously. Some elaborate cast bronze gates and door

furniture enriched the churches of the eleventh and twelfth centuries.

Augsburg and Nuremberg have always been famous centres for artistic

metal work, and in those towns many objects large and small have

been made. Among minor works are the very handsome lock plates and

cases. The shapes of domestic utensils, especially of ewers, were

very quaint. There is a German aquamanile or ewer in the form of an

animal, embodying a lion and stag, along with several others equally as

curious, in the British Museum. Nuremberg contributes to our national

collection a variety of hand wash-basins in brass; the earlier examples

being richly ornamented with engravings typifying different virtues and

vices; St. George, the patron saint of England, also figures on some

pieces. Turkish metal-work includes copper ewers, chased and decorated

with enamels, mostly with handles and spouts, some of the sets or

pairs consisting of ewer (_ibrik_) and basin (_tisht_). These copper

vessels are sometimes embossed with scale ornaments. There are braziers

and some vessels of bulbous form, mostly of bronze, and now and then

Turkish collapsible lanterns of brass with pierced decorations are met

with.

XVII

SUNDIALS,

CLOCKS,

AND BRASS

INSTRUMENTS

CHAPTER XVII

SUNDIALS, CLOCKS, AND BRASS INSTRUMENTS

The mystery of dialling--Some old dials--Antique clocks--Old

watches--The weather--Scientific instruments.

The modern man can scarcely realize what it must have been in this

England of ours when clouds obscured the sun, and thick mists drew a

veil over the shadow cast by the gnomon, before clocks were known.

The time of day was of less importance when the sundial on the church

tower, or on a pillar erected at some convenient place, had to be

consulted, when the sun shone it is true, but even then many must have

inwardly fretted and rebelled against the uncertainty. Reader, have you

ever spent a day away from public clocks in the country when the sky

was overcast _without a watch in your pocket_? If not, do it now, and

the result will be startling. It will create a sympathetic touch with

the past, and bring vividly to mind the trials of patience which had to

be endured when under such conditions inscriptions on dials were read,

but no clear line marked the onward march of Sol.

The Mystery of Dialling.

Dialling is a science which few except experts understand now; the

antiquary takes little note of it as he gazes upon the old dial plate

and makes out the inscription upon it. The collector gladly buys

the brass dial with its quaint lettering and division marks without

even knowing where it came from, or what kind of stone column or

pillar it originally capped. Yet there is far more interest in an old

sundial installed in a modern garden amidst reconstructed old-world

surroundings when the origin of the relic is known.

We have no record of the type of sundial referred to in Isaiah xxxviii,

8: "Behold, I will bring again the shadow of the degrees which is gone

down on the _sun-dial_ of Ahaz, ten degrees backward." There are,

however, records of the sundial of the Chaldean astronomer Perosus,

who lived about 340 B.C. It consisted of a hollow hemisphere placed

with its rim horizontal, having a head or globule fixed so that as long

as the sun shone above the horizon the shadow of the head fell on the

inside of the hemisphere.

In more recent days the making and fixing of the dial with its gnomon

was carried out on fixed principles, and there is now no difficulty

about such an installation provided that the same astronomical

conditions are observed. (For rules governing dialling, see Glossary.)

[Illustration: FIG. 83.--EARLY DIALS--ON THE LEFT AN ARMILLARY DIAL; IN

THE CENTRE PILLAR DIAL; AND ON THE RIGHT A RING DIAL.

(_In the British Museum._)]

[Illustration: FIG. 84.--CURIOUS OLD MICROSCOPE, MADE IN 1780.

(_In the Municipal Museum, Hull._)]

Some Old Dials.

The pattern known as the garden dial is that commonly met with (for the

large dials once fixed on church towers and in public places rarely

come into the market); and the old dial plates seen in curio-shops

have come from such pillars. Charles Dickens had a fine old sundial

in his garden at Gad's Hill Place, and it has often been copied. The

globe dial, set on suitable pillars, has been made frequently for

modern antique gardens. An enterprising maker of dials purchased the

beautiful balustrades of old Kew Bridge when it was removed a few

years ago, and capping them with replicas of old dials--in some cases

with genuine antiques--produced excellent examples of the old type of

garden sundial. Similar dials, more imposing in size, are met with in

curious and yet very suitable places by motorists, cyclists, and others

when touring in the country. A charming Elizabethan relic is the stone

bridge across the River Wye in the village of Wilton, near Ross. On the

north wall of the parapet is a stone pillar surmounted by a sundial

having four faces--an interesting landmark and often admired; and when

the sun shines on it the traveller invariably pulls out his watch and

compares it with the shadow of the gnomon. There were once many famous

dials _in situ_ in London; most of them are gone; there are some,

however, readily seen, like the noted pillar dial in the Temple and

that on the front of one of the old buildings in Lincoln's Inn.

Of other forms of dials, the eccentricities of the horologists they

might be called, there are the "goblet" dials in the form of a cup,

the hour-lines being engraved on the interior; pillar dials which are

cylinders with movable gnomons; the quadrant, in the use of which the

altitude of the sun is taken through pierced sights, the time being

shown on curved hour-lines by means of a plumb-line hanging from the

angle; and the ring dials, which were very popular in England down to

the year 1800. In Fig. 83 are shown earlier dials of the sixteenth and

seventeenth centuries. On the left there is an armillary dial by F.

Culpeper, of London. In the middle there is a pillar dial dated 1567,

and on the right of the figure a ring dial made by Humphrey Cole in

1575, all three important types. Perhaps one of the chief delights

of the study of sundial plates is to read and make out the different

mottoes and legends on them--most of them relating to the flight of

time, some alluding to man's duties which, when neglected, can never be

made up, for "Time and tide wait for no man."

Another type of dial is the portable one, in which form dials or pocket

clocks, as they were sometimes called, can be collected--and they are

generally of brass, some being very decorative.

Antique Clocks.

There is no intermediate stage between the general use of clocks and

watches and sundials, for their use overlaps. We have but to look

at many an old church tower on which is to be seen the dial still

operative--for sun and gnomon fail not--and the clock which has told

the time for many years. Both were probably working before pocket

clocks or watches became general and timepieces were to be found on the

mantelpiece or sideboard.

Brass was used from the commencement of clockmaking for wheels and

dials; and wonderfully, too, the early clockmakers cut and carved the

metal into the required form and gauged the works with accuracy. Some

may be familiar with that wonderful astronomical clock in Wimborne

Minster, made in 1220 by Peter Lightfoot, a monk of Glastonbury, who

also constructed a clock for Wells Cathedral. In it, according to the

early belief that the sun, moon, and stars revolved round the earth,

the sun travels its appointed circuit every twenty-four hours, and by

its position marks the time.

In the evolution of the clock there have been many marked stages.

The clock when first devised was a great stride from the sundial,

the beautiful plates of which have already been described. Progress

followed, and in a century or two clocks with wheels and complicated

mechanism, which when once set going and wound up periodically told

the time with exactitude, enabled the populace to know the time of

day even when the sun was not shining. That was the age of decorative

art, and many of the brass plates and dials were magnificent in their

engravings, glorious in their beautiful old fretwork, and rich in

brass cherubims and emblems of Old Father Time. Moving figures were in

the early days regarded as ideal attractions in clocks. The two old

figures which strike the hour and go through some quaint evolutions

over the clock which for many years has been a great attraction in

Cheapside, are typical of the figures which in miniature might have

been seen playing on brass gongs and chiming bells in many towns in

the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. They were in abundance in

Norwich and towns in the eastern counties, seeming to reflect the old

Flemish cities on the Continent, where they are even now fairly common.

Collectors are very enthusiastic in their search for genuine "Cromwell"

or lantern clocks. A few years ago they might have been found discarded

on the old metal rubbish-heaps of the clockmaker. To-day these clocks,

all brass in their construction, are polished bright, set going once

more, and treated with care; good specimens changing hands for sums

varying from eight to fifteen pounds. Originally they were usually

placed on a bracket, over which was often a wooden hood to protect the

clock. Then came a hinged glass door, and in that we have the origin

of the "grandfather" with enlarged dial and rich oak or mahogany case

reaching down to the ground.

[Illustration: FIG. 85.--ENGRAVED POCKET CLOCK.]

Those who wish to study the beautiful dials and engraved faces of

clocks and watches in order that they may realize the difference in

the products of makers during the last few centuries, should visit the

splendid collection in the Guildhall Museum, loaned by the Clockmakers'

Company. The work of the old clockmakers was that of the very best.

It was made to last, and the metal they chose for their operations

appears to have been very suitable for the purpose. In evidence of

the lasting quality of old brass works, a well-known writer has put

forward the interesting story of a chamber clock presented by Henry

VIII to Anne Boleyn on their wedding day. It found its way into the

Strawberry Hill collection of Horace Walpole, and at the famous

sale of those interesting curios and souvenirs of great persons that

noted minister had gathered together, it was purchased for £100 by the

late Queen Victoria. Harrison Ainsworth says: "This token of endless

affection remains the same after three centuries; but four years after

it was given, the object of Henry's eternal love was sacrificed on the

scaffold. The clock still goes, but surely it should have been stopped

for ever when Anne Boleyn died!"

The advent of table clocks came with the discovery of the use of a

mainspring by the Nuremberg clockmakers in the sixteenth century. In

the British Museum there is a clock in the form of a ship made for

the Emperor Rudolph II in 1581. There are many other fine examples

of curiously designed clocks, including a water clock by Finchet, of

Cheapside, and a French astronomical clock with astrolabe, and others

with automatic figures on view there, as well as very remarkable types

in the collection of clock dials and watches given to the Museum by the

late Mr. Octavius Morgan.

The early clocks, the dials of which were of brass, had only one

finger, for the minute-hand was not known until 1670, and the second

finger a much later invention.

In Fig. 85 is a typical example of a brass engraved watch clock face

and dial, which has a perforated hinged cover and is exceptionally well

engraved.

Old Watches.

Watches were costly in the days when so much time was expended on

their manufacture. Those were the days of good workmanship in which

watchmakers excelled. They put much labour into the ornamentation of

the works, "watch-clocks," and dial plates, so many of which were

beautifully engraved, tooled with great skill, and cleverly perforated.

The dials were in early days unprotected, hence the need of a case,

often of brass, and when made of some other material were frequently

ornamented with brass inlay. It was not until the middle of the

seventeenth century that glass or crystal covers were invented; that

was about the time, too, when the enamelling of dials came into vogue.

The pocket watch brought with it fobs, chains, and watch-keys or

winders, mostly of brass, which should not be overlooked. In a

representative collection there are crank keys similar to large

clock winders, but, of course, made in miniature. Then after various

developments brass and Pinchbeck fob keys came into vogue, and later

still ornamental keys with and without the addition of stones, the

majority being made in brass. A number of these little objects can

still be collected quite cheaply, and nicely mounted make a very

interesting addition to the more ornamental side of brass metal-work.

Forecasting the Weather.

The weather has found men a subject for discussion and given them

opportunities of speaking a pleasant word of comradeship when meeting

in the country or in town. To comment upon its fickleness has become

as common a mode of salutation as passing the time of day. The topic

is an ancient one and the interest in it has been sustained, for to

gauge the coming changes has taken the attention of men from the

earliest times. To study the fleeting cloud, to note the coming storm

by the direction of the wind, or to notice the damp in the air as the

mist rises and is wafted over the fields, has always been a favourite

occupation. It was so before the day of barometers and scientific

instruments, and it is equally so by those who prefer the pronouncement

of the weather prophet rather than the barometer gauge. Galileo is said

to have invented the thermometer, but it was his pupil Torricelli,

who discovered the barometer. His townsmen in Faenza, in the north of

Italy, some years ago erected a monument to his memory, putting up the

biggest barometer known. In common with other scientific instruments

the barometer has afforded opportunities to the worker in metal and to

the art designer, for like the clock case it has been made a thing of

beauty as well as one of use. The very remarkable barometer illustrated

in Fig. 86 is an elaborate work of the brassfounder and exceedingly

ornate. It is a very exceptional piece, but there are other barometers

of considerable beauty in the hands of collectors of old bronze and

metal-work.

Some of the old scientific instruments are very clumsy looking when

compared with modern workmanship. About them it is true there is a

quaint beauty and a silent tribute to the skill and ingenuity of

early inventors, those who were but groping, perhaps blindly, in the

initial stages of an undeveloped science. Scientists always take a

delight in the instruments which their predecessors have used, and

when they realize by comparison the difficulties the early pioneers

had to contend with on account of the inefficient instruments in their

possession they wonder at the advance that particular science made in

their day.

In Fig. 84 we illustrate a curious old microscope and case, made

about the year 1780. It is on a mahogany stand, in which is a

drawer containing four magnifying powers. It formerly belonged to

a Mr. Charles Sherborne and is now in the Hull Museum, where, as

the connecting link between the older type and the modern, there is

another interesting microscope made some fifty or sixty years ago. The

engineer, mechanic, and scientist find much pleasure in the curios

which were associated with their professions in former days, and

delight in the possession of "old brass" which seems to bring them

nearer to the great men who years ago laid the foundations on which

present-day advance has been built.

[Illustration: FIG. 86.--A HANDSOME BRONZE BAROMETER.]

Engineers have been very skilful in creating models of engines and

machinery with which they have been familiar, and in reproducing in

miniature replicas of noted engines which have been used for practical

purposes. These little models, some of which were made more than a

hundred years ago, in days when steam power was but in its infancy,

have been very valuable to engineers to-day, in that they provide them

with actual models of old-time engines, the details of construction of

which might otherwise have been lost. In one of the museums at South

Kensington there are many of these scientific and mechanical models

in brass, some of them working on the penny-in-the-slot principle, so

that visitors can by the expenditure of a few coppers set in motion any

machine they are interested in, and so judge of the actual effects of

old-time inventions as illustrated by models which have been made to

scale.

In addition to working models of large objects there are some

remarkably small models which are stored and treasured by collectors.

Some are so small and minute, although perfect in every detail, that it

is difficult to understand how the worker in brass even if he had been

a jeweller and accustomed to fashion the settings of small stones could

so accurately have produced such tiny machines. It is said that the

smallest engine in the world, a beautiful piece of metal-work, owned by

an American collector, stands on a ten-cent piece! Yet remarkable as

it may seem, when connected with an electric power cable of very small

calibre the engine starts off as if it were a full-size horizontal

engine. The chief materials used in the construction are copper and

brass, although the band of the fly-wheel is of solid gold. So small is

this little engine that its measurements are all taken in sixty-fourths

of an inch. Thus the diameter of the fly-wheel, practically the largest

piece of mechanism in the construction of the engine, is 28/64 in., and

the fly-wheel band only 7/64 in. The valve rod is only 1/64 in., and

the outside diameter of the cylinder 12/64 in.; completed, standing

on the small coin referred to, the engine weighs 3 dwt., a truly

remarkable work of metallic art.

XVIII

ENAMELS

ON

COPPER

CHAPTER XVIII

ENAMELS ON COPPER

Processes of enamelling--Chinese and Japanese enamels--British

enamels.

Copper has been used frequently as the most suitable metal to coat

over with enamels, to be afterwards fired or fixed. Even the ancients

discovered the art of colouring the metal-work they had wrought by the

aid of different enamels more or less translucent. Such substances were

used in varied forms, often as paste, filling up incised designs, the

workmen in some cases rubbing them down smooth when fixed, in others

firing them by heat or simply heating until they ran smoothly over

the surface of the metal to which they adhered. The enamels which are

to be obtained vary in substance, the beauty of their workmanship,

and in their rarity and curio values. They cover the entire period of

known art and although such enamels are widely distributed, the art of

enamelling having been practised in almost all countries where art has

flourished, some have won greater fame than others, many of these rare

types being easily distinguished by characteristic forms, colours, or

designs.

Among the earlier exponents of enamelling were the Egyptians, the early

Greeks, and to some extent the Romans. It would appear that enamelling

was understood, too, in England, and was early practised as a British

art, but it soon died out, to be restored again in this country under

more favourable circumstances in the greater renaissance of mediæval

art.

The enamels which have attained such great fame, and which are so

keenly appreciated by connoisseurs, are those made at Limoges in

Southern France, and again to a lesser extent in Italy and the

Rhenish Provinces. Two beautiful examples of twelfth-century pricket

candlesticks, now in the British Museum, are of that early form which,

except for ecclesiastical purposes, soon gave way to the socket

candlestick, a more convenient form for domestic use.

Processes of Enamelling.

The basis of most of the enamels on copper is a fusible silicate, or

colourless glass mixed with metallic oxides, reduced to a fine powder,

which is applied according to the skill of the artist. The metal, with

the enamel powder upon it, is then fired until it is melted and adheres

to the metal. The different treatments help the expert to distinguish

the period when a specimen under investigation was made, and to some

extent the place of its manufacture. There is the translucent enamel,

which shows up the design through the vitreous matter, a method

originally adopted in Italy. Another process was that of applying

different colours over an incised pattern, the figures or pictures

being usually engraved in low relief. Coarser lines of engraving were

used on the copper basis of the early enamels made at Limoges. Those

of somewhat later date may be distinguished by the surface-painted

enamels adopted in the later style, which flourished until about 1630.

In this process dark enamel for the shadows was placed over the metal

plate, the picture being painted in white with some portions in colour;

a thin enamel surface was then given and the whole fired. The later

surface-painted enamels were for the most part copies of well-known

paintings or engravings, the colour or enamel being afterwards fixed

by firing. In the process of enamelling known as champlevé the design

was cut into the metal, the pattern or incisions made filled with

colours, the enamels being then fused; the basis was nearly always of

copper. The cloisonné enamel was generally on a brass basis, and as in

the more recent examples from China and Japan, the cloisons or tiny

cells of metal were filled with the right and appropriate colours;

afterwards subjected to heat. In some cases the metal foundation is in

the centre and cloisons or cells formed on either side of it. There is

something about the _old_ enamels of this type besides the wear and

tear of centuries which distinguishes them from the more modern, which,

generally speaking, are more brilliant in colouring, cruder and sharper

in design, and without that beautiful tone which is so pleasing in the

antique.

Chinese and Japanese Enamels.

The rarer examples of Chinese art date back to the beginning of the

Ming period in 1368, continuing until its close in 1643. The charm of

these early examples is at once recognizable when they are compared

with others of a later date. Fig. 87 represents a large Ming bowl

florally decorated in rich red, yellow, and white on a background

of cobalt blue outside and turquoise blue within. Quite a different

style of decoration is shown in Fig. 88; the design of butterflies and

gourd-vine tracery being carried out in Pekin enamels in five colours.

This remarkably fine box, so charmingly formed, contains a set of

nine sweetmeat dishes, each one bordered with bats of cobalt blue on

a lighter blue ground, on the cover of the outer box being the Shu

monogram. Another splendid piece, represented in Fig. 89, is typical

of a different style of decoration. This fine bowl, also of the Ming

period, is florally enamelled, the inside showing the pattern outlined

by wire cloisons upon a white ground, the flowers being worked in five

colours. This bowl, which is four inches high, is represented in the

illustration as standing on a beautifully carved stand of about equal

height. These choice pieces are illustrated by the courtesy of Messrs.

Glendining & Co., Ltd., at whose well-known London auction rooms they

recently changed hands. The second great period of Chinese art is that

of the Ching Dynasty, which commenced in 1644 and extended until more

recent times. While to some extent the art and the decorative effect

of that period was inferior to that of to-day, when judged from the

present-day standard of modern art, there was a rare beauty about the

old designs. The enamels of the Ching Dynasty were carefully prepared

and placed, and the colouring soft and yet rich. The preparation of

coloured matter by experts of that period when the best ceramics of

China were made, has always been a subject of admiration and wonder

to the potters and enamellers of more recent years. Examples of these

charming wares are not exceptionally rare, among the collectable

pieces being cups and bowls, exquisitely designed kettles, tiers of

boxes, water vessels, round and oblong dishes, and incense burners.

Some of the bowls with covers are of quaint forms, a favourite one

being that of a peach. Vases of which the base is enamel are often

further enriched by ornaments of copper-gilt. Among the rarer little

curios seen in a representative collection may be mentioned small water

droppers, mostly made in the eighteenth century.

[Illustration: FIG. 87.--BOWL OF THE MING PERIOD.

FIG. 89.--MING BOWL.

FIG. 88.--BOX OF PEKIN ENAMEL.]

The Ch'ien Lung period which followed extended from 1736 to 1796,

and included many candlesticks and altar pieces as well as braziers,

some of the copper vessels being practically encrusted with enamels,

some of the finer ornamentation being attached to the ground-work as

additional or supplementary decorative effects. As in the earlier

periods much labour was expended on the production of the many fine

temple sets which were presented to such uses. The exceptionally fine

altar set wrought in cloisonné enamels, illustrated in Fig. 90, is of

the Ch'ien Lung period, and consists of a beautifully designed koro,

supported on legs in the form of tigers' heads, two candlesticks 18 in.

high, and a pair of vases. The style of decoration is very rich, being

turquoise blue ground on which are floral designs in red, green, dark

blue, yellow, and other bright colours. The pieces stand on brass-gilt

foundations, which rest on carved wooden stands, the set forming an

extremely interesting group, typical of the highest art of the Ch'ien

Lung period. There are many richly ornamented and extremely valuable

specimens of more recent date admired by connoisseurs of art in the

galleries and curio-shops; but however beautiful they are the collector

of the older curios appraises their values from a modern commercial

standpoint, and does not view them as he would antiques.

British Enamels.

It was not until the art of enamelling had been perfected at Lillè

and other places on the Continent of Europe, that an attempt was made

to produce similar trinkets and a few more important pieces, such as

candlesticks and inkstands, in this country. The works established

at Battersea by Mr. S. T. Janssen about the middle of the eighteenth

century soon gained notoriety, and it was not long before the enamels

made there were eagerly sought after. In addition to those articles

mentioned, they consisted chiefly of tea-canisters, snuff-boxes, spirit

labels, and patchboxes, the copper being coated over with an opaque

white enamel, which was coloured over and then decorated with floral

and other designs. Rose tint afterwards became one of the favourite

ground colours at Battersea. Among the rarer examples may be classed

inkstands and writing-table appointments. The inkstands usually include

an ink-container, a pen-box, and a sand or pounce pot, for Battersea

enamel inkstands were made before blotting-paper was invented, and the

wet ink, chiefly applied with a quill pen, was dusted over with pounce

to prevent blotting, and when dry the surplus was dusted off. The

collector finds much to interest in the little patchboxes of enamel, of

which there were many varieties. They remained useful when the fashion

of wearing patches declined, for then they came in handy for cosmetics,

salves, and pomades. These curious little boxes were frequently

given by admirers and friends, as may be imagined from the mottoes

and sentimental inscriptions upon them. Among the commoner varieties

seen in a collection are little oval boxes on which are pictured two

love-birds, sometimes accompanied by a bird's nest. Others will have

imitations of needlework pictures, such as the fair ones worked in

those days. Sometimes a little church is seen in the distance, and in

the foreground a boy and girl exchanging love-tokens. "This gift is

small, but love is all," is a favourite motto. "Virtue fair, manners

sweet, Together in my fair one meet," are two oft-quoted lines, and

another favourite verse is:

"If you, my dear,

Accept of this,

Reward the giver

With a kiss."

Some boxes, however, have evidently been the gifts of those who could

only claim "friendship" or acquaintance with the recipient, for they

bear such sentiments as "A token of my respect," "Accept this as a

token of my esteem," and "Esteem the giver." Some appear to have been

made for sale as place souvenirs, for they are inscribed "A trifle from

Bath," or other town where they had been procured. Battersea portrait

placques were made between 1750 and 1760, among the favourite subjects

being the then Prince of Wales (afterwards George IV), the Duke of

Cumberland, and statesmen, among whom Horace Walpole was evidently one

of the most popular.

English enamellers in other places, such as Bilston, attained some

fame, but the Battersea works held their own, and not only produced

the trinket boxes and other toilet-table appointments referred to, but

many useful sundries, such as spirit and wine labels, little trays,

and the like. None of these, although beautiful indeed, equalled the

French enamels in the delicate miniature paintings and scenes such as

those produced by the celebrated French painter, Petitot, who gave

much attention to the decoration of exquisite toilet boxes and trinket

trays.

[Illustration: FIG. 90.--FINE ALTAR SET OF CLOISONNÉ ENAMELS (CH'IEN

LUNG PERIOD).]

XIX

MISCELLANEOUS

METAL

CURIOS

CHAPTER XIX

MISCELLANEOUS METAL CURIOS

Tobacco-boxes and pipe-stoppers--Snuff-boxes--Handles and

Handle-plates--Horse trappings--War relics--Tiny curios--Replicas.

The collectable curios in metal include many which cannot be

classified. They are isolated specimens of copper and brasswork

representing some special household utensil or workshop appliance

which, in the course of time, has become obsolete or has been

superseded by more modern contrivances of other materials. Copper

was almost exclusively used in works where acids and other chemicals

prevented the use of iron until enamelled wares, aluminium, and zinc

were available; but such workshop appliances are not usually very

attractive, and seldom come within the scope of the collector except as

museum specimens. Among the various sundry objects of interest, those

mentioned in the following paragraphs are worthy of notice, especially

as many of them are quite inexpensive, and can readily be obtained

from curio-shops and occasionally picked up cheaply from cottages and

farmhouses in out-of-the-way places.

Tobacco-boxes and Pipe-stoppers.

Smokers' sundries include many objects in brass, especially boxes for

storing tobacco. Most of the larger receptacles for the storage of

tobacco were in olden time of lead or pewter, or, in more recent times,

of japanned tin, followed in the present day by pottery and wood. The

small boxes in the days before rubber pouches were known were nearly

always of brass or other metal, such boxes being often elaborately

ornamented. Dutch metal-workers produced some very decorative boxes in

the seventeenth century. In some instances the sides are made of copper

and the covers or lids of brass, the two metals in contrast presenting

a very pleasing appearance. Several of these boxes are to be seen in

the Guildhall Museum; on one there is the representation of a bear-pit,

on another scriptural subjects, a third being more appropriately

covered with tavern scenes. Needless to say, Dutch artists were

then--as they have been in after years--famous for their scenic views.

The engravers appear to have divided their favours between religious

pictures and rural scenes. Battles, too, came in for a share of the

engraver's skill, and such pictures are noticeable on many of the

larger boxes, some of which possibly were not used as tobacco-boxes.

The picture scenes were continued until the close of the eighteenth

century, and in some instances a few years in the next. Then there came

a time of undecorated metal-work, and the engraving, if any, was stiff

and formal. Ornamental borders came into vogue, and the more elaborate

boxes were engraved with the crests or monograms of their owners.

Some show portraits, such as an eighteenth-century box on which is a

portrait of Frederick the Great.

The metal-work so freely imported into this country in the reign of

William and Mary, and on into the times of George III, of course

included many tobacco-boxes, but there are other pieces of those

periods, the uses of which are uncertain; some of the long, narrow

boxes were probably made for spectacle-cases, and others as cases or

boxes for the money-changers' and traders' scales (see Chapter XI).

Ash-trays of copper and brass, among the fanciful smokers' requisites

of the present day, are by no means novel, for among the antiques in

metal are found curious copper bowls with inverted feet and wooden

handles which were used by smokers in the days when "churchwarden"

pipes were mostly smoked; they were known as smokers' ashes pans.

Tobacco-stoppers of metal are of early date, and seem to have been

regarded by metal-workers as peculiarly suitable objects on which to

display skill in modelling and even engraving. An authentic record

of their use in Restoration days is met with in a will referring to

a bequest of Boscobel relics: "The owner of an old oak box, dated

1660, mentioned it as the 'one in which was a brass tobacco-stopper.'"

Of these curious and interesting stoppers there are many varieties.

Under Dutch influence some striking characters were portrayed as the

ornamental heads of these pieces. In the days of William and Mary they

were chiefly cast, and afterwards tooled and even engraved. James II

was chosen as the model of many; and stoppers with his bust as the

handle were, it is said, treasured by Jacobean admirers. The human hand

in which is seen a "churchwarden" pipe is a favourite type; pugilists,

too, figured, and others typified familiar objects of local fame,

even animals, birds, and domestic utensils serving the purpose of the

designer. In recent days "Punch" has appeared, and among the modern

replicas of "early types" (_sic_) to be seen in the shops are sets of

Dickens's characters as tobacco-stoppers.

Snuff-boxes.

There are some of the so-called tobacco-boxes which no doubt were in

reality used only for snuff in the days when snuff was taken in larger

quantities than it is to-day. A collection of snuff-boxes includes many

varieties, among which are some of metal. Some of the boxes made of

wood and of shagreen are decorated with tiny brass studs, producing a

very pleasing effect. The snuff-boxes were shaped according to popular

fancy, and some of the more eccentric patterns were local in their

use. In Scotland the curled-shaped mull was a favourite. In connection

with snuff-taking it must be remembered that in the earlier days snuff

as prepared now was little known. Those addicted to the habit had

to prepare their own snuff. For that purpose there came into vogue

snuff-rasps of iron enclosed in cases, which, although they were in

some instances of boxwood or carved pearwood, were now and then of

metal. Incidentally this early home preparation of the snuff produced

from a small plug or twist of tobacco gave rise to the popular trader's

sign of the "Crown and Rasp" over a tobacco shop. As intimated in

another chapter, many of the tobacco and snuff-boxes served a dual

purpose, and not infrequently formed part of the tinder box, an

essential in early days.

Handles and Handle-plates.

The condition of the metal-work upon old furniture and other curios

is a factor in its beauty and in its value too. The handles and

handle-plates should be of the same period as the antique, and hinges,

lock-plates, handles and their plates, ball feet and castors should

be _en suite_. Indeed, it is better to substantiate a well-made

reproduction rather than to admit the use of a later style. The want

of harmony in the "brass furniture" of antiques, although all portions

appear old, is somewhat puzzling at times. It is explainable in that

in early Victorian days when much that was then old was repaired the

village shopkeeper and even the cabinet-maker had little regard for

the preservation of the old style. To restore meant to them to repair,

and where necessary to introduce the _then_ prevailing materials

notwithstanding their obvious inappropriateness.

Fortunately, dealers in antiques and restorers have acquired nowadays a

genuine love of their work, and have learned how best to please their

clients; many of them having quite a store of odd handles and fittings

for the curio-hunter and would-be amateur restorer to choose from. To

be quite certain about getting a suitable style for the restoration

or repairs of old furniture it is desirable to know something of the

appropriate styles. The drop handle is a foreign importation, for it

is said to have come from Japan, being first seen in this country in

the Oriental lacquer cabinets brought here in the seventeenth century.

Such handles were at first pear-shaped, but they soon became larger and

of a type more adapted for drawers and the heavier furniture then in

use. Much hand labour was expended upon their manufacture; even in the

latter part of the eighteenth century they were filed up by hand. The

earliest form of brass handle-plate was the smooth and shiny "willow

brass," the edges of which were filed and shaped by hand. Later they

were distinguished from the newer styles as "Queen Ann brasses." The

handles were fastened to the plates with brass-headed screw bolts (in

the commoner types the "plates" were dispensed with). Chippendale and

his followers used an adaptation of the willow brass, placing over the

plain plate a fretwork grille or ornamental plate of thin brass. Then

came the bail handle and the oval plate with beaded ornamentation,

adopted by Hepplewhite and Adams. In the meantime, however, the drop

and the bail were made in a fancy design in keeping with Chippendale

"shells" and ornament. The rosette and ring handle of the year 1800

and onwards is a feature to be noticed, the round plate being pierced

in the centre instead of at the sides as in the bail handle. The ring

which formed the handle hung from the central screw. This got over

the difficulty of the necessary groove in which the old bail handle

had fallen, and allowed for a deeper projection and more ornamental

stamping. Such handles were in vogue in the Empire period. There were

heavier handles, too, which often took the form of a lion's head

instead of an ornamental pattern, the ring hanging from the mouth

of the lion, these being often miniature replicas of the brass door

knocker. These beautiful handles and the delightful brass knockers

which were used on furniture and doors concurrently gave way to the

ugly handles of the Victorian age, when wood and glass knobs reigned

supreme. It was a sad picture of the decadence of popular taste,

for there can be no question as to the more artistic and ornamental

decorativeness of the brassfounder's art over that of the wood-turner

as exemplified by the products of the nineteenth century.

At the time when the different styles in furniture decoration

influenced brasswork, including handles, knobs, lock-plates, and

hinges, a gradual change was going on in the castors used on furniture.

The square legs required a square-socketed castor; then came the

cabrioles or brass collars to the castors, very ornamental and suitable

to the style of the shaped legs of mahogany furniture ornamented by

carving and curiously turned. The runners of the castors were chiefly

of brass and generally very substantial. The brass wheels held sway

until the invention of the vitrified bowl, which seemed to harmonize

better with Victorian mahogany. In restoration work the collector

should see to it that the castors used are in keeping with the

furniture, for if no genuine antiques are available there are modern

replicas of all the styles.

Horse Trappings.

Horse harness is heavily loaded with brass bands, buckles, chains,

and "trappings," many of the latter appearing to be quite superfluous

and unnecessary. It would seem that the fanciful frets of perforated

brass were introduced from purely artistic motives. That, however,

is not quite correct, for even the brass ornaments of to-day are

chiefly replicas of more ancient trappings, and although their forms

may have deviated somewhat, the ancient idea is quite recognizable,

and agriculturists and stablemen still demand their retention. Such

brasses, which now make up so entertaining a collection, have meanings;

indeed, in the earlier examples the designs are true to well-understood

symbols which may or may not in their use have a beneficial influence.

To the superstitious they are not merely trappings; they are charms of

real purpose (see Fig. 91).

[Illustration: FIG. 91.--COLLECTION OF BRASS AMULETS (HARNESS BRASSES).

(_In the possession of Mr. Chas. Wayte, of Edenbridge._)]

In all parts of the country there is a lingering superstition which

aids and abets the continuance of the use of amulets. Indeed, the very

general belief in the protective value of symbols, the true history and

origin of which may have been forgotten, is truly astonishing. One of

the most remarkable indications that old fables and beliefs, antedating

in their origin the introduction of the Christian religion in this

country, have a hold still on rural districts, is seen in the brass

harness trappings used by all classes alike. Years ago the makers of

harness fashioned their brasses with care, and the artists who engraved

them and cut them out of solid plates of metal laboured long and

tediously in producing exact replicas of similar ornaments which had

been used from time immemorial. They rarely deviated from the emblems

they copied to any material extent, although new designs were at times

added, based possibly on some specific local emblem which was then

gaining notoriety.

Then came the less expensive processes of reproduction by casting

and stamping, which multiplied the designs and very often made them

grotesque in the eyes of experts and those who had been accustomed to

realize and understand a true meaning in the designs they had been

familiar with.

The ornamental brasses which hung in rows round horses' necks, and

conspicuously on the foreheads or chests of the animals, deemed

inseparable from a set of harness in olden times, were regarded as

charms, protective against danger, accident, and, in wilder times,

perils unknown to-day.

These very pleasing objects in brass, which look so handsome when

polished and arranged on a cloth-covered shield in the harness-room,

or, perchance, framed as a trophy for the hall or gun-room, are so

varied, and yet for the most part quite distinct, that it is said

nearly two hundred designs are collectable. A complete set of brasses,

as worn by one horse properly harnessed, includes the face brass

already mentioned as the chief ornament on the forehead, ear-brasses

hanging behind the ears, three brasses on each side of the shoulders,

and ten martingale (a strap passing from the horse's girth between his

forelegs) brasses for the breast. To trace their purport and hence

their forms it may be pointed out that they are associated with the

folk-lore of the districts where they were originally used, and were

chiefly intended to keep off the "Evil Eye" or calamity. They go back

a long way into the past, and are nearly all attributable to symbols

understood by the Saxons, early British, and still older races. Their

modern exponents are the gypsies, and strange as it may seem, most of

them are either Buddhist, Egyptian, or Moorish. The genuine antiques

include such well-known emblems as the crescent, the symbol brought

back, it is said, by the Crusaders from Eastern lands. The crescent

moon, like the horseshoe brass, is valued. There are others showing

the radiated sun's rays indicating the sun worship of our ancestors.

Conspicuous among the floral emblems may be noticed the iris; the lotus

of Egypt is a common emblem, often enclosed in a crescent-like form,

occasionally met with in a shield-like frame. There are the bull's head

with horns and the horse of the Saxon banner, both essentially English

types. Then there are clubs and diamonds, hearts and spades, and many

heathen symbols. In a few instances brasses in the shape of crosses

are met with, but these are rare; possibly they were introduced in the

days of the Canterbury pilgrims. In this connection may be related a

pretty story of the good luck associated with the horseshoe, which

comes from Russia, where peasants used to paint a picture of the Virgin

Mary with a golden halo round her head outside their doors to protect

them from harm. The snows and the rains washed off the paint, but left

the more lasting gilding in the shape of the horseshoe. Hence it is

said the superstitious legend of the protective power or good luck

of the symbolical horseshoe, or the crescent moon, is spread all the

world over. Another legend tells us how the Greeks and Romans gave the

world the crescent moon as an emblem of good luck, so many thousands

of replicas of which have been fashioned in brass and used as horse

trappings by horsemen of all races. The crescent moon was to those

nations the symbol of their loyalty to the huntress Diana, the goddess

they worshipped as a protector under many varied conditions.

An exceptionally fine early brass of crescent form is seen in South

Kensington, where there are other early specimens pointing to the

ancient and very general acceptance of the belief in the potency of

symbolical horse trappings as talismans against evil and dangers of

the road, happily unknown now. Almost as common is the brass fashioned

like the sun god, whose face was so often looked upon with awe by the

ancients. Side by side with these pagan symbols the emblems adapted by

pilgrims in days when Christianity had been made the religion of the

race can be seen to-day, still adorning the breast of the horse.

The amulet or charm is not altogether banished at the present day. It

has been worn at the watch chain, round the neck, on a bangle, and

suspended from the chatelaine or the girdle. The greater use of the

road by motorist and cyclist has once more brought into prominence the

amulet or mascot, carried in front of the rider. The river-girl places

a mascot on the prow of her boat, and the aviator screws his mascot

into position "for luck." Why this should be done we cannot tell; the

general belief is in some mysterious advantage from the presence of the

mascot--an accepted theory by the sceptical man who shakes his head and

secretly marvels at the folly of the belief.

Strange to say many of the present-day mascots in brass--and that

is the favourite metal--are modelled upon amulets such as we have

referred to as finding their origin in pagan faiths. There are others

used by motorists, such as "Cæsar," the late King Edward's dog, the

"Chantecler," and the stag's head, which have no mystic meanings; on

the other hand, the most favoured are such brasses as the "star and

cresent" and the "rising sun" of pagan worship of our ancestors, and

"Mercury" the Greek god.

The brass mascot used in every form, large and small, by motorists

and worn by many others so extensively is the "Swastika" of Buddhist

fame, traceable in its varied form to Egyptian and other early nations.

These mascots in brass, made in thousands to-day, are brass curios in

the making; possibly in a century or so they may be classed with the

oldest brass amulets described in this chapter, and so add to the metal

relics to be collected by future curio-hunters!

Copper Sheathing and Nails.

Copper sheathing has been used by boat-builders and made to serve

a useful purpose, protecting the ship's bottom and resisting the

action of salt water. Oftentimes this valuable material--costly when

new--has been used over again when vessels have been broken up, and

not infrequently it is put to curious uses in old seaport towns.

Visitors to an old-world village built on the side of a hill near

the sea in North Cornwall, have looked with admiration upon two

remarkable gateposts in front of a cottage house, and admired their

quaint carvings. These relics in oak were once the ends of seats

in a neighbouring parish church; but either to preserve them from

injury from the village children or to give them a longer life as

they would be exposed to the weather, the upper portions have been

sheathed with copper from the bottom of some broken-up wreck, and

large copper nails keep the casing in place. Copper and brass nails

have been used for ornament as well as to resist acids and other

metal-destroying chemicals. Old furniture is evidence of this; for at

one time the leather covers to the chairs were almost invariably fixed

by round-headed brass studs, which from that use became known in the

trade as "chair nails." Such nails were used to ornament brass bellows

and other domestic utensils. They were also used to "decorate" the

skin-covered trunks which our ancestors took with them on their rare

journeys of pleasure or business, when they travelled by the mail-coach

or less expensive stage wagon. Nails of brass have been used and are

still sometimes used for sadder purposes, for they are a feature in the

ornament of cloth-covered coffins. That of King Edward VI was decorated

(_sic_) with upwards of two thousand brass nails with gilt heads.

War Relics.

What wonderful antiquities are sometimes found among scraps! Years

of neglect cause indifference to the contents of a scrapheap, and we

read occasionally of the dispersal of relics among which, unknown to

either sellers or buyers, there may be antiquities of more than passing

interest if their original ownership could only be traced, for in the

personal relics of great warriors in our national museums there clings

a halo of hero-worship, and what to many would be considered fictitious

values are attached to such curios. A few years ago the relics from the

battlefield of Waterloo, which had for some time past been accumulated

in a modest looking building at the foot of the Lion Mound, were

dispersed. There were upwards of three thousand pieces, including

helmets of brass, plates of shining metal, innumerable buttons and

ornaments belonging to different French regiments, including officers'

regimentals, and some relics of the British and Prussian armies.

In old curio-shops many metal relics of battlefields are offered

for sale, but they have little or no interest to the buyer, simply

because their identity with their original owners has been lost. It is

of the greatest importance to future generations of collectors that

all records relating to known curios should be chronicled, and that

even private collectors should hand on to their successors adequate

descriptions which may have been verbally given them, so that private

as well as national relics may be identified and the monetary value in

such curios increased. Even a brass plate on an old gun, bearing the

name of a great man, makes it a relic worth securing, whereas had the

identity of ownership been missing the weapon would be of little or no

value.

A visit to the United Service Museum at Westminster is full of

interest. There is an abundance of personal relics there--not many

of brass, it is true--many of which are of special interest. Perhaps

the one of greatest historical fame is the much battered copper bugle

on which it is said the signal was given for the fatal charge of the

Light Brigade at Balaclava, resulting so disastrously to that famous

regiment. There are some curious trophies of brass, too, which have

been brought home by our troops; one known as "Jingling Johnny" is of

special interest.

Tiny Curios.

At one time there was quite a rage for miniatures in metal-work.

Artists in copper and brass vied with one another in working

microscopically. They were very fond of making use of some recognized

piece of metal, the size, weight, and substance of which was well

understood by the public; hence the difficulties of manipulating the

works of art they produced would be realized. Thus, out of a copper

farthing, a worker in metal would with very tiny hammers and a still

smaller soldering-iron and miniature blow-pipe, fashion a complete

copper teakettle with a tiny spout out of which liquid could be poured,

a loose lid, a correctly formed knob, and a beautifully shaped handle.

Another would make a similar kettle out of a similar piece of metal,

and leave some portion of the farthing, perhaps the date, uninjured

as the central ornament on the side of the kettle, or on the top

of the handle; others would add a stand, like the then fashionable

toddy-kettles and stands. In a similar way other little domestic

utensils were made by the worker in copper, who used watchmakers'

hammers and tools such as jewellers employed in the setting of precious

stones. A collector at one time had in his possession a beautifully

shaped coffee boiler of the type used on the open fire when coffee

was boiled and afterwards allowed to stand on the hob for some time

before it was deemed sufficiently brewed. Another charming miniature

novelty was a brass stool, perforated, and made to revolve just as

the larger toasting stool once common in every fireplace. Fenders and

fire-brasses were favourite objects for miniature metal ornaments, and

the way in which the skilled worker manipulated the copper "sheets"

hammered out by hand from small coins showed mastery of the craft and

great patience. Such little objects were frequently displayed on the

"parlour" table under a glass shade, the woodworker being sometimes

requisitioned to make a stand, possibly a canopied top, on which to

show off to the best advantage these tiny ornaments.

In the same way the engraver of brass and copper worked under a strong

lens, and sought to produce whole texts of Scripture and quite long

inscriptions on an almost impossibly small surface. These little pieces

of metal were worn as charms, and similar objects were displayed as

trophies. Many of our readers have seen no doubt the whole of the

Lord's Prayer or the Ten Commandments engraved on a threepenny-piece

or a copper farthing. It is said such microscopic engraving took its

rise in the reign of Charles II when Thomas Simon, a noted engraver

of the Mint, engraved in double lines on his famous "Petition Crown"

a petition to the king. Specimens of the crown are very rare, and are

regarded as the scarcest treasures in a numismatic cabinet.

Replicas.

In conclusion, it may be pointed out that there is no branch of curio

collecting which has such a close and intimate touch with modern

art as that of copper and brass. The tools with which the ancient

coppersmiths wrought and fashioned their most beautiful works are still

used by the coppersmiths of to-day, for although in the eyes of some

the traces of machine-stamped or pressed ornament in the so-called

reproductions of the antiques are noticeable blemishes, there are few

distinguishing marks between the old and the new. Those modern artists

who specialize in providing those who furnish their houses in antique

style with replicas of the domestic copper-work of a century or two

ago, are very careful to produce their "modern antique" by the use of

tools which produce precisely similar effects to the hammered-by-hand

copper-work of days gone by. In the production of such work the

repoussé enrichments are wrought by hand, the anvil still holding sway

in the modern coppersmith's shop. Rarely is soldering used, the parts

being riveted together. In many cases although jardinieres and other

vessels have the appearance of being cast in a mould they are really

hollowed up under the rim by hammer and block, and are without seam or

joining. They are fashioned exactly the same way as the beaten work of

old. Collectors may be warned against these modern reproductions in

that they should be careful to pay a modern price for a modern antique.

The styles reproduced are chiefly those of the sixteenth and

seventeenth centuries, particularly those of the Elizabethan and

Cromwellian periods. Thus electroliers are made to match antique

furniture, the difference being that instead of holding electric bulbs

the antique would have been fashioned for candles or oil lamps. Many

of the modern reproductions of copper panels used for letting into

mantelpieces are designs, carefully copied, taken from old baronial

halls. The very grates of ormolu and brass and the canopies of

hammered copper and brass are being made to-day by the same firms who

manufactured the metal-work designed by the Adam Brothers, and who

in the eighteenth century had already become famous as makers of coal

stoves and hob-grates. Then, again, in the utilitarian reproductions

of to-day there are the copper and brass fender kerbs, reproducing the

eighteenth-century fenders without their bottom plates, and for use

with them the modern manufacturer makes fire-dogs and fire-brasses

of antique styles. Even the builder's brasswork for ornamenting the

interiors of houses, such as finger-plates and door handles, are exact

copies of the old door-plates and lock-plates found on doors and

cupboards in existing houses built in the seventeenth and eighteenth

centuries, and in their designs and processes of manufacture it is

difficult to distinguish the genuine antique from the modern replica.

Again, the buyer of such things is warned against the unscrupulous

dealer who fills his windows with brass and copper-work, almost hot

from the Birmingham foundry, and labels it "Antique." Not long ago

some of the shop windows were filled with chestnut roasters in brass,

with beautifully designed trivets, with door knockers innumerable, and

with even pipe-stoppers and tobacco-boxes, all quite recently made in

the Black Country. Yet all these objects, sold as modern by the honest

dealer, have been and are still not infrequently palmed off as antique,

for they have the finish which age in former years was wont to impart,

and in design and style they are correct reproductions of the genuine

antique.

The collection of metal has a peculiar charm, for the objects are so

numerous and the different alloys produce such a pleasing variety of

colour and appearance. The value of such curios is now more fully

recognized than formerly, for greater prominence is being given to them

in museums, where in those which have been re-arranged recently such

objects may be seen with labels on which their uses are fully described

and explained.

XX

WRINKLES

FOR

COLLECTORS

CHAPTER XX

WRINKLES FOR COLLECTORS

Cleaning copper and brass--Lacquering metal--Polishing

brass--Restoring antique finishes--Using the burnisher--Brass

rubbings.

The collector has frequently to decide whether he will entrust the

repair of some much battered curio to a local workman or undertake the

rôle of an amateur worker and repairer of copper or brass. There are

many who prefer the latter course; unless the antique needs expert

skill, and then, if a valuable specimen, it should be sent to one whose

professional knowledge will enable him to carry out its restoration

without injury. There are, however, many minor matters which, with a

few simple tools, and recipes which can be prepared quite easily, the

collector can very satisfactorily accomplish.

Before attempting to clean or repair old copper and brass curios or

those objects which are made all or in part of either of them or of any

of their alloys, it is well to know something of the constituents of

the metals usually met with. First on the list comes ancient bronzes

composed mainly of copper and tin on no accepted formula, but generally

in the proportion of about three to one. Modern statuary bronze is

made in several proportions; one compound is given by an authority as

copper, 83 parts; tin, 5 parts; zinc, 10 parts; and lead, 2 parts; and

by another as copper, 91 parts; tin, 9 parts. Bronze ornaments are

mostly copper, 80 parts; tin, 3 parts; zinc, 15 parts; and lead, 2

parts. Gongs are of copper, 80 parts; and tin, 20 parts--some Oriental

alloys have a little silver added. The ormolu of the brassfounder, used

extensively by French metal-workers, has more copper and less zinc

than brass. Red brass consists of copper, 25 parts; zinc, 5 parts; and

bismuth, 1 part. Yellow brass is made of copper, 35 parts; and zinc,

15 parts. Pinchbeck metal, of which watchcases and jewellery have been

made, consists of copper, 10 parts; and of zinc, 2 parts. Antimony

imparts a rich red to copper.

* * * * *

In the following paragraphs some very useful "wrinkles" are given:

Cleaning Copper and Brass.

It is scarcely necessary to warn the collector against over cleaning,

for to rub light bronzes which age has toned or encrusted with a

beautiful patina would be vandalism indeed. Yet there are many objects

which require attention when they arrive from the auction mart or

curio-shop. Ancient bronzes should be washed in soap and water with

soft brush or flannel--not scrubbed--and then dried in hot sawdust.

If any polishing is necessary, a chamois leather or an old silk

handkerchief will be sufficient. The green patina or verdigris of

antique metals should _not_ be removed nor its colouring spoiled with

cleaning.

Copper vessels, however, do very frequently require cleaning. When they

have turned a bluish green--not the much admired patina--they may be

cleaned by making a paste of well powdered chalk and methylated spirit.

This preparation should be rubbed on and then left until the spirit has

evaporated and the chalk is quite dry, at which stage it can be removed

and the copper polished with crocus powder or fine chalk.

Owing to long neglect there are some metal curios which cannot be

thoroughly cleansed without a powerful solvent. A weak solution of

oxalic acid may be safely applied with a piece of woollen material; it

will remove the tarnish, and then, after well washing, the metal can

be polished with fine chalk or whiting. When the brass is spotted with

damp but not too deeply marked, chalk and spirits of turpentine will

generally effect the purpose just as well.

Another recipe formerly much favoured by housewives in the days when

copper vessels were much in evidence, is to rub them over with half a

lemon dipped in salt; then after washing polish with a soft cloth. This

is a useful recipe in that it does not injure an antique appearance or

patina, but it will remove stains.

A somewhat more powerful preparation for metal-work is a cleaning paste

made as follows: oxalic acid, 1 oz.; rotten stone, 6 oz; gum arabic,

1/2 oz.; sweet oil, 1 oz.; and then add as much water as necessary.

The following recipe is given for the benefit of advanced collectors

who wish to avail themselves of modern methods. Such will no doubt

delight in experimenting on the cleansing of newly acquired curios with

a cleaning preparation operated by an electric current. Caustic soda,

1/2 lb.; sal soda, 1/2 lb.; resin, 1/4 oz.; and water, 1 gallon; 4 to

8 volts and a current density of 12 amps. The greater the density of

the current the quicker the cleaning is performed. A temperature of 120

Fahr. is recommended.

Lacquering Metal.

When it is desired to lacquer or coat over metal to prevent any future

oxidation (not commonly desired by collectors of antiques) the copper

or brass article should be pickled for several hours in aqua fortis

diluted with water. The acid will rot away a certain portion of the

tarnished surface and leave the metal bright. The article should then

be put into bran and well shaken until quite dry. It is then ready to

be cleaned, and, if desired, polished bright.

Old brasswork may be relacquered by the amateur with a little

experience, practice, and care. First of all it must be cleaned. The

liquid which is best suited to the purpose may be made of a strong lye

of wood ashes boiled and strengthened with soap lees. This will fetch

the old lacquer off. The article should then be dipped in aqua fortis

and water to take off the dirt, and immediately removed and cleansed

with clean water, and then when dried it is ready to be lacquered.

There are two processes in simple lacquering, which may be defined as

cold and hot. The cold lacquer is the application of a preparation

of brass lacquer, which can be purchased from any oil-shop, chemist,

or metal dealer, put on with a camelhair-brush like varnish, and

immediately placed in an oven or a hot stove, and exposed to the heat

for a few minutes until the lacquer is quite firm and set. A gas-oven

such as those in common use in so many kitchens nowadays answers the

purpose very well.

The second method is the application of lacquer after the article

has been heated. The heating may be done in a gas-oven, or by the

application of a flat-iron such as is used by laundresses. Then lacquer

should be applied hot, and if the object lacquered has cooled in the

process heat should again be applied as in the first process. It

should be clearly understood that cleaning and relacquering old brass

and copper-work should be done with very great care and with a full

appreciation of the curio value of old finish, and of the marks and

evidences of age which are so dear to the collector. The pickling of

brasswork in acid and subsequent lacquering should only be resorted

to when it is absolutely necessary to effect such restoration, and to

make the objects sufficiently presentable so that they may be included

in a cabinet or exhibited in the collection of metal curios; for the

possession of old copper and brass is nothing without the opportunity

of showing it. There are some specialists who devote their attention

to the restoration and bronzing of mediæval and early ecclesiastical

work. It may on occasion be necessary to consult such a firm before

attempting anything which would savour of vandalism and rob the

present-day possessor and curio-hunter of the future of what might

eventually become a rare antiquity.

Polishing Brass.

It may at times be necessary to polish parts of curios which have been

subjected to rough wear and are, therefore, badly scratched. A very

fine file will remove scratches; fine emery will then make the surface

quite smooth, after which it can be polished with rotten stone and oil,

some adding a little turpentine.

Restoring Antique Finishes.

There are many beautiful antiques which have been subjected to rough

usage or through some accident have had the oxidation rubbed off

in parts. To clean such an antique so as to secure uniformity of

appearance would be a mistake. It is better to "restore" the finish

and imitate that which age has imparted. The solution required is 60

gr. nitrate of silver and 2-1/2 oz. water, mixed with a solution of 60

gr. nitrate of copper and 2-1/2 oz. water. After the solution has been

applied to the parts the object should be heated in a gas-oven until it

is sufficiently dark coloured.

Some time ago an expert in Indian antiques, bronzes, and metal-work

published in _The Times of India_ an account of how Oriental bronze

and brass which had been soiled and scratched by time and climatic

conditions might be restored. The writer went on to describe how the

great secret of restoring the dull half-green and half-brown shades

had been revealed to him. The remedy he propounded was simple in the

extreme. It was that the statue should be washed in beer, which should

not be rubbed off but allowed to dry on.

Using the Burnisher.

The amateur restorer may frequently with advantage acquire a knowledge

of the burnisher, and thereby add much to the beauty of the metal.

Those who have watched an old coppersmith planishing copper-work, and

have noticed the very primitive materials used, will have learnt to

realize the value of "elbow grease." Crocus powder with oil and soft

rags works wonders, and will often bring up the original finish just as

the coppersmith converts the rough dull polish of the metal sheets he

has fashioned into domestic copper ware and shining pots and pans.

Brass Rubbings.

Rubbings of church and memorial brasses referred to in Chapter VII may

be taken with heel-ball, which is a compound of beeswax, and plain

white paper. When the brass has been evenly rubbed all over the picture

is complete and ready for mounting. It should then be cut out and

pasted on a prepared surface of fine canvas or calico, thus giving the

rubbing an appearance like tapestry. It can be touched up in colours,

if there is any heraldic enamelled work on the original. It can then be

sized and stretched on a frame ready for hanging on a wall.

INDEX

INDEX

African curios, 309-311

Alms-dishes, 140-143

Altar brasses, 142-143

Amulets, 33, 373-375

Ancient art, 70-72

Ancient bronze, 38-41

Aquamaniles, 101, 326

Arab influence, 267

Architectural metal-work, 121-124

Arms and armour, 106-109

Art influence, 128

Ashanti curios, 309

Ash-trays, 365

Astrolabes, 25

Badges of metal, 102

Ball and cross of St. Paul's, 143-144

Barometer of bronze, 341

Barrows, ancient, 25

Bath, 56

Battersea enamels, 31, 357

Bell founding, 43

Bell-metal, 43, 217-219

Bells, 217-226, 282, 309

Benares brasswork, 280

Benin bronzes, 307-309

Betel-nut boxes, 26, 278, 282

Betel-nut cutters, 279

Bidri ware, 26, 277

Bilston enamels, 31

Boadicea, Queen, 91

Boiling-pots, 98-101

Bowls, 84

Brass (of commerce), 42-43

Brass instruments, 340-345

Brass making, 45-46

Brass rubbings, 393

Brasses, 26

Brazier, 26

Braziers' Company, 117

British Museum exhibits, 59, 65, 168, 309, 326, 350, 356, 357

Bronze, 27

Bronze Age, 38, 66

Bronze alloys, 27

Bronze celts, 25

Bronze implements, 69

Bronze knives, 25

Bronze reaping-hooks, 72

Bronze saucepans, 283

Bronzes and their replicas, 249-258

Bronzes, Greek, 79-81

Bucklers, bronze, 28, 69

Buckles, 105

Bullock bells, 279

Burnishing metal, 293

Caldrons, 83, 160, 164

Candle clock, 208

Candles, 199-204

Candlesticks, 139, 140, 195-211, 301, 350

Card counters, 29

Central Africa, curios from, 310, 311

Champlevé enamel, 30

Chaufferette, 28, 128

Chatties, 28

Chimney ornaments, 184-188

Chinese bronzes, 41, 42, 283-288

Chinese enamels, 352-355

Chinese influence on art, 131

Church brasswork, 137-151

_Circe-perdu_ process, 28, 277

Cirencester curios, 54

Cisterns and taps, 322

City guilds, 116-121

Civic emblems, 231-235

Classic bronzes, 254

Classified arrangement, 188-191

Cleaning copper and brass, 388-390

Clockmakers' Company's collection, 336

Clocks, 329, 334-339

Cloisonné enamels, 30

Coffee-pots, 264, 268

Continental copper and brass, 317-326

Cooking-pots, 160

Copper as alloy, 44-47

Copper mining, 44, 45

Copper pans, 167

Copper sheathing, 377

Coppersmith, the, 37

Counters of brass, 29

_Couvre de feu_, 29, 102

Cromwell clocks, 336

Crusaders' effigies, 26

Crusaders' relics, 311

Cups, 271

Curfew, 29

Daggers, bronze, 69

Damascened metals, 29, 277

Dialling, 30

Domestic brasswork, 96-102

Domestic utensils, 155-191

Door knockers, 124-127

Drinking cups, 175

Dutch brasswork, 321

Dutch influence, 264

Egyptian bronzes, 267

Ember tongs, 30

Enamels, 30, 42

Enamels on copper, 349-358

Engraving on copper, 61

Exeter Museum exhibits, 183, 239

Ewers, 277

Fibulæ, 31, 71

Fire-making apparatus, 87, 196-199

Flagons, 175

Flagstaff head, 235

Foot-warmers, 183, 322

Forgeries, 74

Founders, 217-219

Founders, Worshipful Company of, 46, 97, 118, 236

French art, 321

Gemellions, 101

German metal-work, 325, 326

Gipcieres, 31, 106

Greek bronzes, 41, 42, 249

Greek curios, 79-92

Guildhall Museum exhibits, 83, 96, 103, 168, 183, 241, 364

Guild of Loriners, 107

Hand basins, 326

Handles and handle-plates, 367

Hand-warmers, 28, 128

Historic bells, 219, 220

Hob-grates, 178

Hooker bases, 31, 271

Horns, 232

Horse trappings, 370-371

Houseplace, the contents of, 175-184

Hull Museum exhibits, 342

Idols, 80, 293-298

Indian bronzes, 272

Indian Museum exhibits, 274-280, 294

Indian vessels, 28

Inkstands, 357

Italian bronzes, 319

Japanese bronzes, 41, 42

Japanese enamels, 352-356

Japanese metals, 28

Kaffir bangles and girdles, 311

Kashmir curios, 278

Kettles, 83-87, 380

Kitchen utensils, 159-175

Knockers, 368

Lacquering metal, 390-392

Lagos brasses, 309

Lamaistic temple relics, 281, 297

Lamps, 88, 92, 195-211, 278, 279, 282

Lanterns, 207-211

Later metal-work, 115-132

Latten, 31

Limoges enamels, 30, 321, 350

Local museums, 59

Lock plates, 131

Log boxes, 180

London Museum exhibits, 59, 70, 71, 91, 180, 207

London relics, 69, 70

Lucknow curios, 26, 277

Mace, 235

Mansfield mines, 44

Maundy alms-dish, 116

Mediæval antiquities, 95-109

Memorial brasses, 144-151

Metal and its alloys, 37-49

Microscopes, 342

Microscopic engravings, 381

Milk cans, 322

Miniature bronzes and models, 257, 258, 345

Miscellaneous metal curios, 363, 384

Mirrors, 32, 73, 87, 267

Monumental brasses, 26

Moradabad brasswork, 280

Mortars, 32, 226, 268

Muff-warmers, 183

National Museum, Washington, 203

Native metal-work, 305-311

Nepal metal-work, 274, 278

Nomenclature of metals, 27

Norman remains, 57

Nuremberg clocks, 339

Nutmeg graters, 163

Oil lamps, 207-211

Opaque enamels, 31

Oriental bronzes, 265-288

Patchboxes, 350

Patera, 73

Patina, 32

Patine, 32

Persian metal-work, 271

Pilgrims' signs, 32, 103

Pins, 105

Pipe-stoppers, 30, 364

Pipkins, 180

Pocket clocks, 334

Polishing brass, 392

Porridge-pots, 163

Portrait placques, 358

Pots and pans, 168

Prehistoric bronzes, 65-75

Pricket candlesticks, 203

Processes of enamelling, 350-351

Replicas, 381-383

Restoring antiques, 392

Ritual vases, 301

Roasting-jacks, 160, 167

Roman bronzes, 41, 249

Roman curios, 79-92

Romano-British art, 90-91

Rushlight holders, 200

Saracenic influence, 264

Saucepans, 83, 172

Saxon remains, 57

Scales, 241

Sinhalese metal-work, 282

Skillets, 170

Snuff-boxes, 350, 366

Snuffers, 204

Snuff-rasps, 366

Sources of metals, 43, 44

South African curios, 311

Spanish metal-work, 319

Spectacle cases, 365

Spice-boxes, 278

Spirit labels, 356

Spits, 160

Spurs, 107

Stafford House exhibits, 59

Standard measures, 236, 239

Standard weights, 240

Statues, 89

Statuettes, 187

Sundials, 30, 329-334

Tankards, 175

Temple vases, 298-301

Thibet tea-urns, 281

Tinder-boxes, 196

Tobacco-boxes, 364

Toilet requisites, 86

Tower of London exhibits, 107

Trinkets, 104-106

Trivets, 179

Trumpets, 69, 321

Turkish metal-work, 226

United Service Museum exhibits, 220, 379

United States National Museum, 210

Verulamium curios, 54

Victoria & Albert Museum exhibits, 59, 84, 101, 126, 131, 139, 180,

183, 220, 250, 268, 298, 318, 321, 342, 375

Wallace collection exhibits, 109

Warming-pans, 180, 183

Watches, 339

Watchmen's lanterns, 208, 211

Water jars, 227

Weather-vanes, 33, 123

Weighing instruments, 236-239

Weights and measures, 242-245

Welsh National Museum exhibits, 59

Winchester bushel, 236

Winchester moot horn, 232

Winchester Museum exhibits, 236

Wrinkles for collectors, 387-393

Writing boxes, 264

UNWIN BROTHERS, LIMITED, LONDON AND WOKING

Transcriber's Notes

Minor punctuation errors have been corrected.

There are a few inconsistent hyphens, and these have been left as

printed.

In the list of the books in series "CHATS ON OLD MINIATURES. By J. J.

Foster, F.S A" has been changed to "F.S.A."

p83. "like one round" changed to "found." The illustration and it's

companion blank page (p243 and 244) appear between p241 and 242 in the

Internet Archive scan from which this text has been derived. It has

been moved to the correct place.

p287. A single occurrence of cloissoné has been changed to cloissonné,

the spelling found in the rest of the text.

p397. (Index) "Boadicea, Queen, 99-91" changed to "Boadicea,

Queen, 91."

End of Project Gutenberg's Chats on Old Copper and Brass, by Fred. W. Burgess