TRANSITIONAL COPPER PERIOD
In Ireland the metal first used was copper. Native copper is plentiful
in Ireland, and has been chiefly obtained from the Counties of
Wicklow, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Tipperary, and Galway. In Waterford
stone implements have been found in copper mines in ancient workings,
showing copper was mined for at an early period.[7] The time during
which copper was in use was probably relatively only a short one, much
shorter than the Neolithic Period or than the true Bronze Age. The
evidence for this period is the large number of flat copper celts
which have been found in the north and south, and east and west, of
the country. The earliest copper celts resemble in form the stone
celts from which they are derived, and were cast in open moulds on one
side only, and then hammered flat on the other. Moulds for casting
celts in this way have been found in Ireland. It is also extremely
interesting to notice that some stone celts betray the influence of
metal types by their form. It may be well here to meet an objection
that has been raised against a special use of copper in Ireland. It
has been urged that the large number of flat copper celts may have
been due to a scarcity of tin, and that as copper cannot be cast in
closed moulds, casters who could cast advanced forms of bronze celts
were obliged to return to the primitive form necessary for casting in
an open mould. Copper ores are, however, very rarely found in a pure
state, and the small impurities of antimony, arsenic, &c., combine in
the smelting with the copper, and lend a hardness and ductibility
which would enable it to be cast in closed moulds.[8] The analyses of
Irish copper celts agree among themselves, and substantially with
those from other countries, the small quantities of tin, antimony,
arsenic, &c., which are found being due to impurities in the ore. The
celts may be taken to be of copper, and not of poor bronze.[9] The
earliest copper celts resemble the stone celts from which they are
derived; some of them are small. A development takes place throughout
the series, the celts becoming larger and the edges thinner as they
approach the bronze forms. No trace of a stop-ridge is ever found on
copper celts.
[7] Sir R. Kane, Industrial Resources of Ireland. Second edition, 1845,
p. 189.
[8] See analysis of a socketed celt of an alloy of copper and antimony
found at Elbing, West Prussia, Journal Anthropological Institute,
vol. xxxvi, p. 21.
[9] See paper "Irish Copper Celts," Journal Anthropological Institute,
vol. xxxi, p. 265, where the question is fully dealt with.
[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Copper Halberd, Birr find.]
The principal finds are as follows:--
1. Three copper celts, three copper awls, and a copper knife found,
in 1874, in a bog at Knocknague, Kilbannon, County Galway. Purchased
from the finder, Michael Rafferty, by the Royal Irish Academy. (Fig.
3.)
2. Three copper celts, a fragment of a fourth (butt-end), a copper
halberd, and a short blade of copper of somewhat similar form, found
in 1892, near Birr, King's County, formerly in the collection of Mr.
Robert Day, of Cork. (Fig. 2.)
3. Three copper celts found in 1868, when ploughing at Cullinagh,
near Beaufort, Killarney, County Kerry. (Day Collection.)
4. Two large and well-formed copper celts found together in street
excavations in Suffolk Street, Dublin, in May, 1857. (Ray
Collection.) (Fig. 4, nos. 1 and 7.)
[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Birr find.]
5. Two copper celts found together at Clontoo, near Kenmare, County
Kerry, in 1906. (Fig. 4, nos. 2 and 3.)
6. Six copper celts found together at Cappeen, County Cork.
The distribution, analyses, types, and finds show that the copper
celts represent a period when copper was in common use throughout
Ireland and before bronze was generally known. The celts from the Ray
Collection mentioned above show that the fully developed celt was in
use during this period, while the "Birr find" with the halberd shows
that the halberd was also known and in use during the full copper
period.
[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Copper Knife and Awls found at Knocknague.]
Moulds for casting flat celts, copper and bronze, have been found in
the following places in Ireland:--Carrickfergus; Ballymena; Loughgall,
County Antrim; Ballynahinch, County Down; and Lough Scur Crannog,
County Leitrim.[10]
[10] Crawford, "Early Bronze-Age Settlements in Britain," Journal Royal
Geographical Society, 1912, p. 217.
Copper celts have been found practically over the whole country; and
the following is a list of those in the National Collection, of which
the localities are known, and, as well as these, there are about
eighty for which the provenance has not been exactly recorded:--
LIST OF COPPER CELTS FOUND IN IRELAND.
Antrim, Craigbally, 1 (1897: 111).
[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Copper Celts.]
Cavan, 1 (R. 1685).
Cork, Cappeen (6); County Cork, 1 (1881: 136).
Donegal, Letterkenny, 1 (1897: 114).
Dublin, Suffolk Street, 1857: 2 large copper celts. (Ray
Collection.)
Galway, Knocknague, Kilbannon, three copper celts, a copper knife,
and three copper awls. County Galway, 1. (R. 1660) (Fig. 3.)
Kerry, Beaufort, Killarney, three copper celts found together in
1868 when ploughing at Cullinagh. (Day Collection.) Clontoo, near
Kenmare, two copper celts found together in 1906.
Londonderry, in the River Bann, near Coleraine, 1. (W. 3.).
Louth, 1. (R. 362).
Mayo, Killala, 1 (W. 4.).
[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Copper celts from Cappeen, Co. Cork.]
Meath, Dunshaughlin, 1 (172, W.).
Tipperary, Dundrum, 1 (1881: 133).
Tyrone, Mountfield, 1 (112: 1897).
Waterford, Tramore, 1 (W. 10.).
The localities of the following copper celts in other collections are
known:--
Antrim, 3 (Knowles Collection.)
Cork, 5 (Day Collection, about 4. Evans Collection, 1.)
Fermanagh, 2 (Day Collection, 1. Evans Collection, 1.)
Kerry, 3 (Day Collection.)
Kilkenny, 1 (Day Collection.)
[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
King's County, 8 (Birr three, and five others found in the King's
County. Day Collection.)
Limerick, 2 (Day Collection.)
Sligo, 2 (Sir John Leslie's Collection.)
HALBERDS
As already stated the Birr find shows that the halberd was in use
during the full Copper Period; and, though to judge by the form of the
celts, we may place it at the end of the period, yet more primitive
types are known, and we may therefore presume the halberd goes well
back into the Copper Period.
The National Collection at Dublin contains forty-nine specimens of
these broad coppery blades. In a few cases there may possibly be a
doubt as to whether they should be classified as halberds or primitive
daggers. The localities of the majority are not known further than
that they have been found in Ireland; but from the known localities
they seem, like the copper celts, to have been found in all parts of
the island; and local distinctions of type, if they existed, are not
now possible.
[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Halberd blades.]
Of the forty-nine mentioned, twenty have localities as
follows:--Antrim 1, Cavan 3, Roscommon 2, Galway 8, Meath 1, King's
County 1, Queen's County 1, Clare 1, Limerick 1, Cork 1. Seven of
those from Galway represent a single find, which gives that county an
undue proportion.
[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Halberd blades.]
TYPES
[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Halberd blades.]
[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Halberd blades.]
What may be considered as the developed or normal type of the Irish
halberd blade is slightly but distinctly curved, so that they have
been called "scythe-shaped." They vary from about 9 inches to 15 or 16
inches in length, and from about 3 to 4 inches in breadth at the
widest part; with few exceptions they have three rivets with large
heads. The various sizes are well represented in a find of seven of
these blades obtained in 1888 when making the railway near Hollywood,
County Galway. They were described as having been found about 2-1/2
feet under the surface of a shallow bog "stuck in a bunch in the
ground, with points down. No other relics appeared near them." We do
not think it is any use attempting to place the halberds in a series
of development; and no progression can be claimed for their forms
other than that there appears to be a movement of development from the
smaller straight blades to the larger and curved blades. In one or two
cases the mid rib has been brought to a slight roof-ridge; and a fine
example in the late Sir John Evans' collection shows a well-marked
bead down the mid rib ("Bronze Implements," fig. 331); but in most
cases the mid rib is quite plain with a rounded curve in section.
ANALYSES
Analyses of the halberd blades show that the metal of which they are
composed does not differ much from that of the copper celts. A recent
analysis of five specimens is appended which shows that the blades are
practically of pure copper. This is interesting, as it removes the
doubt expressed by Sir John Evans in "Bronze Implements," p. 265, that
"many of these blades have the appearance of being made of copper; but
the absence of tin in their composition has not been proved."
+-+----------+-------+----+---------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
| | | | | | | | | |Bismuth|
| | |Copper.|Tin.|Antimony.|Arsenic.|Lead.|Silver.|Iron.| Nickel|
| | | | | | | | | | Zinc.|
+-+----------+-------+----+---------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
|1|King's Co.| | | | | | | | |
| |Day Coll.,| | | | | | | | |
| | No. 25,| 99.02 |0.22| Nil | Nil | 0.19| 0.26 | 0.04| Nil |
| | | | | | | | | | |
|2|Antrim, | | | | | | | | |
| |1903, 235,| | | | | | | | |
| | No. 9, | 97.31 |0.31| 0.14 | 0.18 | Nil | Nil | Nil | Nil |
| | | | | | | | | | |
|3|Galway, | | | | | | | | |
| | W. 241, | | | | | | | | |
| | No. 19,| 98.06 |0.22| Nil | Nil | 0.58| Nil | 0.17| Nil |
| | | | | | | | | | |
|4|Cork, | | | | | | | | |
| | R. 459, | | | | | | | | |
| | No. 7, | 98.30 |0.30| 0.27 | 0.37 | Nil | Nil | Nil | Nil |
| | | | | | | | | | |
|5| W. 248, | | | | | | | | |
| | No. 28,| 97.24 |0.18| Nil | 1.54 | Nil | 0.25 | Nil | Nil |
+-+----------+-------+----+---------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Halberds from North Germany and Sweden after
Montelius.]
The manner in which the halberd blades were attached to their shafts
is explained by the bronze halberds with bronze shafts--the blade and
upper part of the shaft often in one piece--from North Germany and
from Sweden. These halberds are referred to an early stage of the
Bronze Age; but they are of bronze, and, in casting and other
features, show a considerable advance on a primitive type; the large
imitation rivets cast in the head of the shaft no doubt represent an
earlier form in which the shaft was of wood and the rivets real. Ten
bronze halberd blades were found together near Stendal in Prussian
Saxony, but without handles, four of which are figured by Montelius in
"Die Chronologie der aeltesten Bronzezeit," figs. 115-118. An analysis
of one of the blades gave 15 per cent. of tin and of a rivet 4.5 per
cent. of tin. From the straight mark across the blades, and some
bronze tubular pieces for the handles, there seems no doubt that they
were intended for straight wooden handles, and thus represent the
earlier type. The blades are about 12-1/4 inches in length. It is
important to note that the rivets are of two kinds: some are large and
stout like the usual Irish form; and some have metal washers, like the
solitary example found in Ireland (fig. 7), and which has caused some
authorities to consider the Irish halberd blades somewhat later than
we should care to place them. In general appearance these halberd
blades from Stendal are closer to the Irish halberds than any of the
others which have been found on the Continent, but do not include the
curved or scythe-shaped form common to Ireland. Copper halberds, with
remains of transverse wooden shafts, have been found by the brothers
Siret on the south-east of Spain. In this case they go back to the
very beginning of the bronze age in this district. The form of the
blades is, however, in most cases #T#-shaped, and different from the
Irish examples (fig. 12). Halberds attached to their shafts are also
shown on the prehistoric rock-markings in the "Italian Maritime Alps,"
published by Mr. C. Bicknell. The actual blades, however, that can be
classified with any certainty as halberds are very rare in the North
and Middle Italian districts, though some of the copper and early
bronze triangular dagger forms may have been occasionally mounted as
halberds. It is possible, however, that the decoration of certain
halberds found in Germany may have been influenced by that of the
Italian dagger.
[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Halberts from South-east Spain.]
The halberd blade can be distinguished from the broad dagger by the
shape of the handle, which is curved or indented in the case of the
dagger, but straight across in the case of the halberd. There is,
however, another point. The hindmost rivets, both in the case of the
blades with four rivets and those with three only, are shorter than
those in front of them. The shortness of the end-rivets and slope of
the heads imply that the handle was rounded off behind the blade, as
would be the case with a transverse shaft. So there appears no room to
doubt the manner in which the long scythe-shaped blades were mounted
on handles, though some uncertainty was formerly expressed on the
subject. The Irish halberd-blades were evidently mounted at right
angles to the shaft in the same way as most of the Continental blades,
as can be seen from the straight-across marks of the handle, which can
be traced on several examples.
[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Rock Markings, Maritime Alps.]
From the analyses of copper halberds, it will be seen that the tin
varies from .18 to .31 per cent. We may therefore conclude that the
copper halberds are simply coarse or unrefined copper from similar
ores to the copper celts; and that the copper implements found in
Ireland may contain up to about .5 per cent. of tin. An increasing
percentage of tin was not found in any of the copper celts, or,
contrary to expectation, in the copper halberds; but, judging from the
widespread use of copper implements in Ireland, from which it may be
inferred that copper remained in use for a considerable time, it seems
probable that bronze was introduced as an alloy of a known percentage
of tin. As relatively few analyses of Irish bronze implements have
been made, it is not possible at present to come to any fixed
conclusions on the subject of the introduction of bronze into Ireland.
[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Stone Pick from the Bann.]
[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Deer Horn Pick.]
Also, in the case of the halberds, the great rarity of any specimens
of bronze blades which can be classified as halberds indicates that
the form of implement practically ceased to be used when bronze came
into use in Ireland. As the copper celts show a gradual transition
from stone to metal forms, it seems reasonable to look for the
prototypes of the copper halberd among the stone implements of the
preceding period. In the Bann Valley many flint wedges or picks have
been found, which may, perhaps, have influenced the copper halberds;
and if a stone pick-like instrument was in use in Neolithic times, it
may explain to some extent the prevalence of the metal halberd in
Ireland in the copper period. When the blades were made larger, the
curved form would come into existence, being suggested by the
deer-horn picks already in use. Copper came into use in Ireland, we
may suppose, in no sudden or violent manner. On the contrary, the
transition from stone was probably of some duration. The use of copper
made its way up through Europe, spreading from the lands of the
eastern Mediterranean along the old trade routes of Neolithic times,
influenced by the search for new deposits of ore. Though at first
implements of copper, and even, perhaps, the metal, might be carried a
considerable distance, an early use of the local ores seems to explain
the case better.
Whether this new knowledge of metal, coming from the eastern
Mediterranean, first crept round by way of Spain, or struck across
the Continent to the north and west of Europe, and so to Ireland, we
cannot at present definitely say; the line of march, as indicated by
the halberds, which are strangely deficient both in the south and the
north of France, seems to point to north Germany and Scandinavia, by
way of the rich ore-fields of middle Europe. But the archaeology of the
Peninsula for this early period is at present too uncertain to speak
with confidence. There are indications, even in Neolithic times,
which, perhaps, point to Spain; but, again, there are relations which
indicate a considerable correspondence with Brittany and the North of
France in the early Bronze Age. The late Dr. Much ("Die Kupferzeit,"
p. 131) compared the Irish halberds with the Spanish and German
examples, and came to the conclusion that the Irish halberds were
later than the Spanish and earlier than the German. This view is
supported by the form of the Irish halberds, which are more primitive
in type than the German examples.
Any conclusion as to the probable date when the halberds were in use
in Ireland can only be arrived at in an indirect and approximate
manner. We are, on the whole, inclined to think it is probable that
the Irish halberds were influenced by the Spanish examples; and
Herr Hubert Schmidt, who has worked out in much detail a scheme
of chronology for this period, based upon the Egyptian dating of
Professor Eduard Meyer, places the finds from El Argar at from 2500 to
2360 B.C.[11] Allowing, therefore, some margin on the later side, we
should probably be fairly safe in placing the period when the halberds
were in use in Ireland at the end of the third and beginning of the
second millennium B.C. We must remember that the whole of the Irish
Bronze Age has to be fitted in after the copper period; and if we are
to allow sufficient room for the several periods and their approximate
correspondence with the periods of the Continental chronology, it is
not easy to see how this dating can be much reduced. It may be noted
that Montelius in his recent scheme of Bronze Age chronology for the
British Islands, treats the halberds as bronze, and places them in his
second period (first period of the true Bronze Age) dated from the
beginning of the second millennium to the seventeenth century B.C.[12]
[11] Prehistorische Zeitschrift, vol. i, 1909, p. 138.
[12] Archaeologia, vol. lxi, p. 162, and pl. xi, fig. 43.