prohibiting the drinking of wine. Busbequius says: "Mahomet, making a
journey to a friend at noon, entered into his house, where there was a
marriage feast; and sitting down with the guests, he observed them to be
very merry and jovial, kissing and embracing one another, which was
attributed to the cheerfulness of their spirits raised by the wine; so
that he blessed it as a sacred thing in being thus an instrument of much
love among men. But returning to the same house the next day, he beheld
another face of things, as gore-blood on the ground, a hand cut off, an
arm, foot, and other limbs dismembered, which he was told was the effect
of the brawls and fightings occasioned by the wine, which made them mad,
and inflamed them into a fury, thus to destroy one another. Whereon he
changed his mind, and turned his former blessing into a curse, and
forbade wine ever after to all his disciples." (Epist. 3.) "This
prohibition of wine hindered many of the prophet's contemporaries from
embracing his religion. Yet several of the most respectable of the pagan
Arabs, like certain of the Jews and early Christians, abstained totally
from wine, from a feeling of its injurious effects upon morals, and, in
their climate, upon health; or, more especially, from the fear of being
led by it into the commission of foolish and degrading actions. Thus
Keys, the son of Asim, being one night overcome with wine, attempted to
grasp the moon, and swore that he would not quit the spot where he stood
until he had laid hold of it. After leaping several times with the view
of doing so, he fell flat upon his face; and when he recovered his
senses, and was acquainted with the cause of his face being bruised, he
made a solemn vow to abstain from wine ever after."--_Lane's Arab.
Nights_, vol. i. pp. 217, 218.
[58] The following elucidation of the above circumstance is given by
Sale: "Mahomet having undertaken an expedition against the tribe of
Mostalek, in the sixth year of the Hegira, took his wife Ayesha with
him. On their return, when they were not far from Medina, the army
removing by night, Ayesha, on the road, alighted from her camel, and
stepped aside on a private occasion; but on her return, perceiving she
had dropped her necklace, which was of onyxes of Dhafar, she went back
to look for it; and in the mean time her attendants, taking it for
granted that she was got into her pavilion, set it again on the camel,
and led it away. When she came back to the road and saw her camel was
gone, she sat down there, expecting that when she was missed some would
be sent back to fetch her; and in a little time she fell asleep. Early
in the morning, Safwan Ebu al Moattel, who had stayed behind to rest
himself, coming by, perceived somebody asleep, and found it was Ayesha;
upon which he awoke her, by twice pronouncing with a low voice these
words, 'We are God's, and unto him must we return.' Ayesha immediately
covered herself with her veil; and Safwan set her on his own camel, and
led her after the army, which they overtook by noon, as they were
resting. This accident had like to have ruined Ayesha, whose reputation
was publicly called in question, as if she had been guilty of adultery
with Safwan."--_Sale's Koran_, xxiv. _note_.
[59] He once thought to have ordered the pilgrimage to Jerusalem; but
finding the Jews so inveterate against him, thought it more advisable to
oblige the Arabs.
[60] "An implicit belief in magic is entertained by almost all
Mussulmans. Babil, or Babel, is regarded by the Mussulmans as the
fountain-head of the science of magic, which was, and, as most think,
still is, taught there to mankind by two fallen angels, named Haroot and
Maroot, who are there suspended by the feet in a great pit closed by a
mass of rock."--_Lane's Arab. Nights_, vol. i. pp. 66, 218.
"From another fable of these two magicians, we are told that the angels
in heaven, expressing their surprise at the wickedness of the sons of
Adam, after prophets had been sent to them with divine commissions, God
bid them choose two out of their own number, to be sent down to be
judges on earth. Whereupon they pitched upon Haroot and Maroot, who
executed their office with integrity for some time, in the province of
Babylon; but while they were there, Zohara, or the planet Venus,
descended, and appeared before them in the shape of a beautiful woman,
bringing a complaint against her husband. As soon as they saw her they
fell in love with her, whereupon she invited them to dinner, and set
wine before them, which God had forbidden them to drink. At length,
being tempted by the liquor to transgress the divine command, they
became drunk, and endeavored to prevail on her to satisfy their desires;
to which she promised to consent upon condition that one of them should
first carry her to heaven, and the other bring her back again. They
immediately agreed to do so, but directly the woman reached heaven she
declared to God the whole matter, and as a reward for her chastity she
was made the morning star. The guilty angels were allowed to choose
whether they would be punished in this life or in the other; and upon
their choosing the former, they were hung up by the feet by an iron
chain in a certain pit near Babylon, where they are to continue
suffering the punishment of their transgression until the day of
judgment. By the same tradition we also learn that if a man has a fancy
to learn magic, he may go to them and hear their voice, but cannot see
them."--_Sale's Koran_, ii. and _notes_
[61] Moore thus alludes to the circumstance in _Lalla Rookh_:--
"And here Mahomet, born for love and guile,
Forgets the _Koran_ in his Mary's smile,
Then beckons some kind angel from above,
With a new text to consecrate their love!"
--_Veiled Prophet of Khorassan_.
[62] "The death of Jaafar was heroic and memorable; he lost his right
hand, he shifted the standard to his left, the left was severed from his
body, he embraced the standard with his bleeding stumps, till he was
transfixed to the ground with fifty honorable wounds. 'Advance,' cried
Abdallah, who stepped into the vacant place, 'advance with confidence;
either victory or paradise is our own.' The lance of a Roman decided the
alternative; but the falling standard was rescued by Kaled, the
proselyte of Mecca; nine swords were broken in his hand; and his valor
withstood and repulsed the superior numbers of the Christians. To
console the afflicted relatives of his kinsman Jaafar, Mahomet
represented that, in paradise, in exchange for the arms he had lost, he
had been furnished with a pair of wings, resplendent with the blushing
glories of the ruby, and with which he was become the inseparable
companion of the archangel Gabriel, in his volitations through the
regions of eternal bliss. Hence, in the catalogue of the martyrs he has
been denominated _Jaaffer teyaur_ ('the winged Jaaffer')."--_Milman's
Gibbon_, 1.
[63] Mahomet's victims were camels; they may, however, be sheep or
goats, but in this case they must be male; if camels or kine,
female.--_Sale, Prelim. Dis._, p. 120.
[64] There are many ridiculous stories told of Mahomet, which, being
notoriously fabulous, are not introduced here. Two of the most popular
are: That a tame pigeon used to whisper in his ear the commands of God.
[The pigeon is said to have been taught to come and peck some grains of
rice out of Mahomet's ear, to induce people to think that he then
received by the ministry of an angel the several articles of the
_Koran_.] The other is that after his death he was buried at Medina, and
his coffin suspended, by divine agency or magnetic power, between the
ceiling and floor of the temple.
[65] Mirza Ibrahim (translated by Lee) states, however, that the
miracles recorded of Mahomet almost exceed enumeration. "Some of the
doctors of Islamism have computed them at four thousand four hundred and
fifty, while others have held that the more remarkable ones were not
fewer than a thousand, some of which are almost universally accredited:
as his dividing the moon into two parts; the singing of the gravel in
his hand; the flowing of the water from between his fingers; the animals
addressing him, and complaining before him; his satisfying a great
multitude with a small quantity of food, and many others. The miracle of
the speaking of the moon is thus related by Gagnier: On one occasion
Mahomet accepted a challenge to bring the moon from heaven in presence
of the whole assembly. Upon uttering his command, that luminary,
full-orbed, though but five days old, leaped from the firmament, and,
bounding through the air, alighted on the top of the Kaaba, after having
encircled it by seven distinct evolutions. It is said to have paid
reverence to the prophet, addressing him in elegant Arabic, in set
phrase of encomium, and concluding with the formula of the Mussulman
faith. This done, the moon is said to have descended from the Kaaba, to
have entered the right sleeve of Mahomet's mantle, and made its exit by
the left. After having traversed every part of his flowing robe, the
planet separated into two parts, as it mounted to the air. Then these
parts reunited in one round and luminous orb as before."
THE SARACEN CONQUEST OF SYRIA
A.D. 636
SIMON OCKLEY
Abu-Bekr was chosen caliph, or _khalif_ (signifying successor) to
Mahomet, but died after a reign of two years. His successor, Caliph
Omar, continued with unabated ardor the efforts for the spread of
Islam which Abu-Bekr had initiated by sending an invading
expedition into Persia, and another into the Roman provinces of
Syria.
The victorious armies of the Crescent were by this time far
advanced beyond the frontiers of Arabia, and with fanatic zeal
endeavoring to obey the prophet's injunction to Islamize mankind.
"_Allah il Allah!_" ("God is God!") was their inspiring war-cry,
and "Mahomet is the prophet of God" their watchword. With cimeter
and _Koran_ in either hand they offered the conquered "Infidels"
"Islam or the sword."
The Oxus, which alone separated Saracen territory from that of
Syria, was easily passed. Damascus was conquered, and the impetuous
spirit of the Moslems led them rapidly on to Heliopolis, then to
Hems or Emesa. In subtlety they were no less practised than they
were well proved in courage, and by many arts they succeeded in
creating diversions among their adversaries, and often in enlisting
them under the Saracen standard. By making the Syrians understand
something of their language, customs, and religion, they prepared
them for assimilation when once subjected. In some cases
dissensions among the Syrians led them to invoke the intervention
of those who came to subjugate them.
In less than two years the Saracens had conquered the Syrian plain
and valley, but still they reproached themselves for loss of time,
and with redoubled zeal pressed on to new victories. The forces
arrayed against them were greatly augmented both from Asia and
Europe, but the disciplined veterans of the Roman emperor
Heraclius, and the recruits from the provinces, vainly confronted
the Arabs, whose valor was of the nature of religious frenzy, which
no assault could cause to quail. They won, at fearful cost to
themselves, but with greater loss to their enemies at the battle of
Yermouk, and there caused the Roman army to abandon active warfare
against them.
It was then open to the victors to select their own objective among
the Syrian cities, and following the counsel of Ali, they entered
at once upon the siege of Jerusalem, although they held that city
next to Mecca and Medina in veneration.
After a siege of four months Jerusalem capitulated, her defenders
having no rest from the ceaseless assaults of the besiegers. Hard
work still lay before the Saracens in Syria; but after the
reduction of Aleppo, which cost several months' siege, with great
loss of lives to the invaders, they passed on to Antioch and other
strongholds, until, one by one, all had been subdued; the surrender
of Cæsarea completing the great conquest and the subjection of
Syria to the rule of the Caliph.
Heraclius, wearied with a constant and uninterrupted succession of ill
news, which like those of Job came every day treading upon the heels of
each other, grieved at the heart to see the Roman Empire, once the
mistress of the world, now become the scorn and spoil of barbarian
insolence, resolved, if possible, to put an end to the outrages of the
Saracens once for all. With this view he raised troops in all parts of
his dominions, and collected so considerable an army as since the first
invasion of the Saracens had never appeared in Syria--not much unlike
one engaged in single combat who, distrustful of his own abilities and
fearing the worst, summons together his whole strength in hopes of
ending the dispute with one decisive blow. Troops were sent to every
tenable place which this inundation of the Saracens had not as yet
reached, particularly to Cæsarea and all the sea-coast of Syria, as Tyre
and Sidon, Accah, Joppa, Tripolis, Beyrout, and Tiberias, besides
another army to defend Jerusalem. The main body, which was designed to
give battle to the whole force of the Saracens, was commanded by one
Mahan, an Armenian, whom I take to be the very same that the Greek
historians call Manuel. To his generals the Emperor gave the best
advice, charging them to behave themselves like men, and especially to
take care to avoid all differences or dissensions. Afterward, when he
had expressed his astonishment at this extraordinary success of the
Arabs, who were inferior to the Greeks, in number, strength, arms, and
discipline, after a short silence a grave man stood up and told him that
the reason of it was that the Greeks had walked unworthily of their
Christian profession, and changed their religion from what it was when
Jesus Christ first delivered it to them, injuring and oppressing one
another, taking usury, committing fornication, and fomenting all manner
of strife and variance among themselves. The Emperor answered, that he
was "too sensible of it." He then told them that he had thoughts of
continuing no longer in Syria, but, leaving his army to their
management, he purposed to withdraw to Constantinople. In answer to
which they represented to him how much his departure would reflect upon
his honor, what a lessening it would be to him in the eyes of his own
subjects, and what occasion of triumph it would afford to his enemies
the Saracens. Upon this they took their leave and prepared for their
march. Besides a vast army of Asiatics and Europeans, Mahan was joined
by Al Jabalah Ebn Al Ayham, King of the Christian Arabs, who had under
him sixty thousand men. These Mahan commanded to march always in the
front, saying that there was nothing like diamond to cut diamond. This
great army, raised for the defence of Christian people, was little less
insupportable than the Saracens themselves, committing all manner of
disorder and outrage as they passed along; especially when they came to
any of those places which had made any agreement with the Saracens, or
surrendered to them, they swore and cursed and reviled the inhabitants
with reproachful language, and compelled them by force to bear them
company. The poor people excused their submission to the Saracens by
their inability to defend themselves, and told the soldiers that if they
did not approve of what they had done, they ought themselves to have
come sooner to their relief.
The news of this great army having reached the Saracens while they were
at Hems, filled them full of apprehensions, and put them to a very great
strait as to the best course to pursue in this critical juncture. Some
of them would very willingly have shrunk back and returned to Arabia.
This course, they urged, presented a double advantage: on the one hand
they would be sure of speedy assistance from their friends; and on the
other, in that barren country the numerous army of the enemy must needs
be reduced to great scarcity. But Abu Obeidah, fearing lest such a
retreat might by the Caliph be interpreted cowardice in him, durst not
approve of this advice. Others would rather die in the defence of those
stately buildings, fruitful fields, and pleasant meadows they had won by
the sword, than voluntarily to return to their former starving
condition. They proposed therefore to remain where they were and wait
the approach of the enemy. But Kaled disapproved of their remaining in
their present position, as it was too near Cæsarea, where Constantine,
the Emperor's son, lay with forty thousand men; and recommended that
they should march to Yermouk, where they might reckon on assistance from
the Caliph. As soon as Constantine heard of their departure, he sent a
chiding letter to Mahan, and bade him mend his pace. Mahan advanced, but
made no haste to give the Saracens battle, having received orders from
the Emperor to make overtures of peace, which were no sooner proposed
than rejected by Abu Obeidah. Several messages passed between them. The
Saracens, endeavoring to bring their countryman Jabalah Ebn Al Ayham,
with his Christian Arabs, to a neutrality, were answered that they were
obliged to serve the Emperor, and resolved to fight. Upon this Kaled,
contrary to the general advice, prepared to give him battle before Mahan
should come up, although the number of his men--who, however, were the
_élite_ of the whole army--was very inconsiderable, urging that the
Christians, being the army of the devil, had no advantage by their
numbers against the Saracens, the army of God. In choosing his men,
Kaled had called out more Ansers[66] than Mohajerins,[67] which, when it
was observed, occasioned some grumbling, as it then was doubted whether
it was because he respected them most or because he had a mind to expose
them to the greater danger, that he might favor the others. Kaled told
them that he had chosen them without any such regard, only because they
were persons he could depend upon, whose valor he had proved, and who
had the faith rooted in their hearts. One Cathib, happening to be called
after his brother Sahal, and looking upon himself to be the better man,
resented it as a high affront, and roundly abused Kaled. The latter,
however, gave him very gentle and modest answers, to the great
satisfaction of all, especially of Abu Obeidah, who, after a short
contention, made them shake hands. Kaled, indeed, was admirable in this
respect, that he knew no less how to govern his passions than to command
the army; though, to most great generals, the latter frequently proves
the easier task of the two. In this hazardous enterprise his success was
beyond all expectation, for he threw Jabalah's Arabs into disorder and
killed a great many, losing very few of his own men on the field,
besides five prisoners, three of whom were Yezid Ebn Abu Sofian, Rafi
Ebn Omeira, and Derar Ebn Al Alzwar, all men of great note. Abu Obeidah
sent Abdallah Ebn Kort with an express to Omar, acquainting him with
their circumstances, begging his prayers and some fresh recruits of
Unitarians, a title they glory in, as reckoning themselves the only
asserters of the unity of the Deity. Omar and the whole court were
extremely surprised, but comforted themselves with the promises made to
them in the _Koran_, which seemed now to be all they had left to trust
to. To encourage the people, he went into the pulpit and showed them the
excellency of fighting for the cause of God, and afterward returned an
answer to Abu Obeidah, full of such spiritual consolation as the _Koran_
could afford. Omar commanded Abdallah, as soon as ever he came near the
camp and before he delivered the letter, to cry out, "Good news!" in
order to comfort the Mussulmans and ease them in some measure of the
perplexing apprehensions they labored under. As soon as he received this
letter and message, together with Omar's blessing, he prepared to set
out on his return to the army; but suddenly he remembered that he had
omitted to pay his respects at Mahomet's tomb, which it was very
uncertain whether he should ever see again. Upon this he hastened to
Ayesha's house (the place where Mahomet was buried), and found her
sitting by the tomb with Ali and Abbas, and Ali's two sons, Hasan and
Hosein, one sitting upon Ali's lap, the other upon Abbas'. Ali was
reading the chapter of beasts, being the sixth of the _Koran_, and Abbas
the chapter of Hud, which is the eleventh. Abdallah, having paid his
respects to Mahomet, Ali asked him whether he did not think of going? He
answered, "Yes," but he feared he should not get to the army before the
battle, which yet he greatly wished to do, if possible. "If you desired
a speedy journey," answered Ali, "why did not you ask Omar to pray for
you? Don't you know that the prayers of Omar will not be turned back?
Because the apostle of God said of him: 'If there were a prophet to be
expected after me, it would be Omar, whose judgment agrees with the book
of God.' The prophet said of him besides, 'If an [universal] calamity
were to come from heaven upon mankind, Omar would escape from it.'
Wherefore, if Omar prayed for thee, thou shalt not stay long for an
answer from God." Abdallah told him that he had not spoken one word in
praise of Omar but what he was very sensible of before. Only he desired
to have not only his prayers but also those of all the Mussulmans, and
especially of those who were at the tomb of the prophet. At these words
all present lifted up their hands to heaven, and Ali said, "O God, I
beseech thee, for the sake of this chosen apostle, in whose name Adam
prayed, and thou answeredst his petition and forgavest his sins, that
thou wouldst grant to Abdallah Ebn Kort a safe and speedy return, and
assist the followers of thy prophet with help, O thou who alone art
great and munificent!" Abdallah set out immediately, and afterward
returned to the camp with such incredible speed that the Saracens were
surprised. But their admiration ceased when he informed them of Omar's
blessing and Ali's prayers at Mahomet's tomb.
Recruits were instantly raised in every part of Arabia to send to the
army. Said Ebn Amir commanded them, having received a flag of red silk
at the hands of Omar, who told him that he gave him that commission in
hopes of his behaving himself well in it; advising him, among other
things, not to follow his appetites, and not forgetting to put him in
hopes of further advancement if he should deserve it. Said thanked him
for his advice, adding that if he followed it he should be saved. "And
now," said Said, "as you have advised me, so let me advise you." "Speak
on," said Omar. "I bid you then [added the other] fear God more than
men, and not the contrary; and love all the Mussulmans as yourself and
your family, as well those at a distance as those near you. And command
that which is praiseworthy, and forbid that which is otherwise." Omar,
all the while he spoke, stood looking steadfastly upon the ground,
leaning his forehead upon his staff. Then he lifted up his head, and the
tears ran down his cheeks, and he said, "Who is able to do this without
the divine assistance?" Ali bade Said make good use of the Caliph's
advice and dismissed him. Said, as he marched toward the army, lost his
way, which turned out very unfortunate for the Christians, for by that
means he fell in with the prefect of Amman with five thousand men. Said
having cut all the foot to pieces, the prefect fled with the horse, but
was intercepted by a party which had been sent out under Zobeir from the
Saracen camp to forage. Said at first thought they had fallen together
by the ears, and were fighting among themselves, but when he came up and
heard the _techir_, he was well satisfied. Zobeir ran the prefect
through with a lance; of the rest not a single man escaped. The Saracens
cut off all their heads, then flayed them, and so carried them upon the
points of their lances, presenting a most horrible spectacle to all that
part of the country, till they came to the army, which received fresh
courage by the accession of this reinforcement, consisting of eight
thousand men.