THE POWER BEHIND THE ENGINE
171. Small boys soon learn the power of running water; swimming or
rowing downstream is easy, while swimming or rowing against the
current is difficult, and the swifter the water, the easier the one
and the more difficult the other; the river assists or opposes us as
we go with it or against it. The water of a quiet pool or of a gentle
stream cannot do work, but water which is plunging over a precipice or
dam, or is flowing down steep slopes, may be made to saw wood, grind
our corn, light our streets, run our electric cars, etc. A waterfall,
or a rapid stream, is a great asset to any community, and for this
reason should be carefully guarded. Water power is as great a source
of wealth as a coal bed or a gold mine.
The most tremendous waterfall in our country is Niagara Falls, which
every minute hurls millions of gallons of water down a 163-foot
precipice. The energy possessed by such an enormous quantity of water
flowing at such a tremendous speed is almost beyond everyday
comprehension, and would suffice to run the engines of many cities far
and near. Numerous attempts to buy from the United States the right to
utilize some of this apparently wasted energy have been made by
various commercial companies. It is fortunate that these negotiations
have been largely fruitless, because much deviation of the water for
commercial uses and the installation of machinery in the vicinity of
the famous falls would greatly detract from the beauty of this
world-known scene, and would rob our country of a natural beauty
unequaled elsewhere.
[Illustration: FIG. 120.--A mountain stream turns the wheels of the
mill.]
172. Water Wheels. In Figure 120 the water of a small but rapid
mountain stream is made to rotate a large wheel, which in turn
communicates its motion through belts to a distant sawmill or grinder.
In more level regions huge dams are built which hold back the water
and keep it at a higher level than the wheel; from the dam the water
is conveyed in pipes (flumes) to the paddle wheel which it turns.
Cogwheels or belts connect the paddle wheel with the factory
machinery, so that motion of the paddle wheel insures the running of
the machinery.
[Illustration: FIG. 121.--The Pelton water wheel.]
One of the most efficient forms of water wheels is that shown in
Figure 121, and called the Pelton wheel. Water issues in a narrow jet
similar to that of the ordinary garden hose and strikes with great
force against the lower part of the wheel, thereby causing rotation of
the wheel. Belts transfer this motion to the machinery of factory or
mill.
173. Turbines. The most efficient form of water motor is the
turbine, a strong metal wheel shaped somewhat like a pin wheel,
inclosed in a heavy metal case.
[Illustration: FIG. 122--A turbine at Niagara Falls.]
Water is conveyed from a reservoir or dam through a pipe (penstock) to
the turbine case, in which is placed the heavy metal turbine wheel
(Fig. 122). The force of the water causes rotation of the turbine and
of the shaft which is rigidly fastened to it. The water which flows
into the turbine case causes rotation of the wheel, escapes from the
case through openings, and flows into the tail water.
The power which a turbine can furnish depends upon the quantity of
water and the height of the fall, and also upon the turbine wheel
itself. One of the largest turbines known has a horse power of about
20,000; that is, it is equivalent, approximately, to 20,000 horses.
174. How much is a Stream Worth? The work which a stream can perform
may be easily calculated. Suppose, for example, that 50,000 pounds of
water fall over a 22-foot dam every second; the power of such a stream
would be 1,100,000 foot pounds per second or 2000 H.P. Naturally, a
part of this power would be lost to use by friction within the
machinery and by leakage, so that the power of a turbine run by a 2000
H.P. stream would be less than that value.
Of course, the horse power to be obtained from a stream determines the
size of the paddle wheel or turbine which can be run by it. It would
be possible to construct a turbine so large that the stream would not
suffice to turn the wheel; for this reason, the power of a stream is
carefully determined before machine construction is begun, and the
size of the machinery depends upon the estimates of the water power
furnished by expert engineers.
A rough estimate of the volume of a stream may be made by the method
described below:--
Suppose we allow a stream of water to flow through a rectangular
trough; the speed with which the water flows through the trough can be
determined by noting the time required for a chip to float the length
of the trough; if the trough is 10 feet long and the time required is
5 seconds, the water has a velocity of 2 feet per second.
[Illustration: FIG. 123.--Estimating the quantity of water which flows
through the trough each second.]
The quantity of water which flows through the trough each second
depends upon the dimensions of the trough and the velocity of the
water. Suppose the trough is 5 feet wide and 3 feet high, or has a
cross section of 15 square feet. If the velocity of the water were 1
foot per second, then 15 cubic feet of water would pass any given
point each second, but since the velocity of the water is 2 feet per
second, 30 cubic feet will represent the amount of water which will
flow by a given point in one second.
175. Quantity of Water Furnished by a River. Drive stakes in the
river at various places and note the time required for a chip to float
from one stake to another. If we know the distance between the stakes
and the time required for the chip to float from one stake to another,
the velocity of the water can be readily determined.
The width of the stream from bank to bank is easily measured, and the
depth is obtained in the ordinary way by sounding; it is necessary to
take a number of soundings because the bed of the river is by no means
level, and soundings taken at only one level would not give an
accurate estimate. If the soundings show the following depths: 30, 25,
20, 32, 28, the average depth could be taken as 30 + 25 + 20 + 32 + 28
÷ 5, or 27 feet. If, as a result of measuring, the river at a given
point in its course is found to be 27 feet deep and 60 feet wide, the
area of a cross section at that spot would be 1620 square feet, and if
the velocity proved to be 6 feet per second, then the quantity of
water passing in any one second would be 1620 × 6, or 9720 cubic feet.
By experiment it has been found that 1 cu. ft. of water weighs about
62.5 lb. The weight of the water passing each second would therefore
be 62.5 × 9720, or 607,500 lb. If this quantity of water plunges over
a 10-ft. dam, it does 607,500 × 10, or 6,075,000 foot pounds of work
per second, or 11,045 H.P. Such a stream would be very valuable for
the running of machinery.
176. Windmills. Those of us who have spent our vacation days in the
country know that there is no ready-made water supply there as in the
cities, but that as a rule the farmhouses obtain their drinking water
from springs and wells. In poorer houses, water is laboriously
carried in buckets from the spring or is lifted from the well by the
windlass. In more prosperous houses, pumps are installed; this is an
improvement over the original methods, but the quantity of water
consumed by the average family is so great as to make the task of
pumping an arduous one.
The average amount of water used per day by one person is 25 gallons.
This includes water for drinking, cooking, dish washing, bathing,
laundry. For a family of five, therefore, the daily consumption would
be 125 gallons; if to this be added the water for a single horse, cow,
and pig, the total amount needed will be approximately 150 gallons per
day. A strong man can pump that amount from an ordinary well in about
one hour, but if the well is deep, more time and strength are
required.
The invention of the windmill was a great boon to country folks
because it eliminated from their always busy life one task in which
labor and time were consumed.
177. The Principle of the Windmill. The toy pin wheel is a windmill
in miniature. The wind strikes the sails, and causes rotation; and the
stronger the wind blows, the faster will the wheel rotate. In
windmills, the sails are of wood or steel, instead of paper, but the
principle is identical.
[Illustration: FIG. 124.--The toy pin wheel is a miniature windmill.]
As the wheel rotates, its motion is communicated to a mechanical
device which makes use of it to raise and lower a plunger, and hence
as long as the wind turns the windmill, water is raised. The water
thus raised empties into a large tank, built either in the windmill
tower or in the garret of the house, and from the tank the water
flows through pipes to the different parts of the house. On very windy
days the wheel rotates rapidly, and the tank fills quickly; in order
to guard against an overflow from the tank a mechanical device is
installed which stops rotation of the wheel when the tank is nearly
full. The supply tank is usually large enough to hold a supply of
water sufficient for several days, and hence a continuous calm of a
day or two does not materially affect the house flow. When once built,
a windmill practically takes care of itself, except for oiling, and is
an efficient and cheap domestic possession.
[Illustration: FIG. 125.--The windmill pumps water into the tank.]
178. Steam as a Working Power. If a delicate vane is held at an
opening from which steam issues, the pressure of the steam will cause
rotation of the vane (Fig. 126), and if the vane is connected with a
machine, work can be obtained from the steam.
When water is heated in an open vessel, the pressure of its steam is
too low to be of practical value, but if on the contrary water is
heated in an almost closed vessel, its steam pressure is considerable.
If steam at high pressure is directed by nozzles against the blades of
a wheel, rapid rotation of the wheel ensues just as it did in Figure
121, although in this case steam pressure replaces water pressure.
After the steam has spent itself in turning the turbine, it condenses
into water and makes its escape through openings in an inclosing case.
In Figure 127 the protecting case is removed, in order that the form
of the turbine and the positions of the nozzles may be visible.
[Illustration: FIG. 126.--Steam as a source of power.]
[Illustration: FIG. 127.--Steam turbine with many blades and 4
nozzles.]
A single large turbine wheel may have as many as 800,000 sails or
blades, and steam may pour out upon these from many nozzles.
The steam turbine is very much more efficient than its forerunner, the
steam engine. The installation of turbines on ocean liners has been
accompanied by great increase in speed, and by an almost corresponding
decrease in the cost of maintenance.
179. Steam Engines. A very simple illustration of the working of a
steam engine is given in Figure 128. Steam under pressure enters
through the opening _F_, passes through _N_, and presses upon the
piston _M_. As a result _M_ moves downward, and thereby induces
rotation in the large wheel _L_.
[Illustration: FIG. 128.--The principle of the steam engine.]
As _M_ falls it drives the air in _D_ out through _O_ and _P_ (the
opening _P_ is not visible in the diagram).
As soon as this is accomplished, a mechanical device draws up the rod
_E_, which in turn closes the opening _N_, and thus prevents the steam
from passing into the part of _D_ above _M_.
But when the rod _E_ is in such a position that _N_ is closed, _O_ on
the other hand is open, and steam rushes through it into _D_ and
forces up the piston. This up-and-down motion of the piston causes
continuous rotation of the wheel _L_. If the fire is hot, steam is
formed quickly, and the piston moves rapidly; if the fire is low,
steam is formed slowly, and the piston moves less rapidly.
The steam engine as seen on our railroad trains is very complex, and
cannot be discussed here; in principle, however, it is identical with
that just described. Figure 129 shows a steam harvester at work on a
modern farm.
[Illustration: FIG. 129.--Steam harvester at work.]
In both engine and turbine the real source of power is not the steam
but the fuel, such as coal or oil, which converts the water into
steam.
180. Gas Engines. Automobiles have been largely responsible for the
gas engine. To carry coal for fuel and water for steam would be
impracticable for most motor cars. Electricity is used in some cars,
but the batteries are heavy, expensive, and short-lived, and are not
always easily replaceable. For this reason gasoline is extensively
used, and in the average automobile the source of power is the force
generated by exploding gases.
It was discovered some years ago that if the vapor of gasoline or
naphtha was mixed with a definite quantity of air, and a light was
applied to the mixture, an explosion would result. Modern science uses
the force of such exploding gases for the accomplishment of work, such
as running of automobiles and launches.
In connection with the gasoline supply is a carburetor or sprayer,
from which the cylinder _C_ (Fig. 130) receives a fine mist of
gasoline vapor and air. This mixture is ignited by an automatic,
electric sparking device, and the explosion of the gases drives the
piston _P_ to the right. In the 4-cycle type of gas engines (Fig.
130)--the kind used in automobiles--the four strokes are as follows:
1. The mixture of gasoline and air enters the cylinder as the piston
moves to the right. 2. The valves being closed, the mixture is
compressed as the piston moves to the left. 3. The electric spark
ignites the compressed mixture and drives the piston to the right. 4.
The waste gas is expelled as the piston moves to the left. The exhaust
valve is then closed, the inlet valve opened, and another cycle of
four strokes begins.
[Illustration: FIG. 130.--The gas engine.]
The use of gasoline in launches and automobiles is familiar to many.
Not only are launches and automobiles making use of gas power, but the
gasoline engine has made it possible to propel aëroplanes through the
air.